angioplasty

{{Further|Percutaneous coronary intervention}}

File:Ha1.jpg (an X-ray with radio-opaque contrast in the coronary arteries) that shows the left coronary circulation. The distal left main coronary artery (LMCA) is in the left upper quadrant of the image. Its main branches (also visible) are the left circumflex artery (LCX), which courses top-to-bottom initially and then toward the centre-bottom, and the left anterior descending (LAD) artery, which courses from left-to-right on the image and then courses down the middle of the image to project underneath the distal LCX. The LAD, as is usual, has two large diagonal branches, which arise at the centre-top of the image and course toward the centre-right of the image.]]

A coronary angioplasty is a therapeutic procedure to treat the stenotic (narrowed) coronary arteries of the heart found in coronary heart disease. These stenotic segments of the coronary arteries arise due to the buildup of cholesterol-laden plaques that form in a condition known as atherosclerosis.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/atherosclerosis|title=Atheroscleoris|website=NHLBI|access-date=January 22, 2020|archive-date=October 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005113430/https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/atherosclerosis/atrisk|url-status=live}} A percutaneous coronary intervention, or coronary angioplasty with stenting, is a non-surgical procedure used to improve the blood flow to the heart.

Coronary angioplasty is indicated for coronary artery diseases such as unstable angina, NSTEMI, STEMI and spontaneous coronary artery perforation.{{cite book | vauthors = Chhabra L, Zain MA, Siddiqui WJ | chapter = Angioplasty|date=2019| chapter-url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499894/| title =StatPearls|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=29763069|access-date=2020-01-20 |archive-date=October 24, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024092217/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499894/|url-status=live}} Percutaneous coronary intervention for stable coronary disease has been shown to significantly relieve symptoms such as angina, or chest pain, thereby improving functional limitations and quality of life.{{cite journal | vauthors = Arnold SV | title = Current Indications for Stenting: Symptoms or Survival ^CME | journal = Methodist DeBakey Cardiovascular Journal | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–13 | date = 2018 | pmid = 29623167 | pmc = 5880567 | doi = 10.14797/mdcj-14-1-7 }}

Peripheral angioplasty refers to the use of a balloon to open a blood vessel outside the coronary arteries. It is most commonly done to treat atherosclerotic narrowings of the abdomen, leg and renal arteries caused by peripheral artery disease. Often, peripheral angioplasty is used in conjunction with guide wire, peripheral stenting and an atherectomy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Abdullah O, Omran J, Enezate T, Mahmud E, Shammas N, Mustapha J, Saab F, Abu-Fadel M, Ghadban R, Alpert M, Al-Dadah A | title = Percutaneous angioplasty versus atherectomy for treatment of symptomatic infra-popliteal arterial disease | journal = Cardiovascular Revascularization Medicine | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 423–428 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29269152 | doi = 10.1016/j.carrev.2017.09.014 | s2cid = 36093380 }}

Angioplasty can be used to treat advanced peripheral artery disease to relieve the claudication, or leg pain, that is classically associated with the condition.{{Citation| vauthors = Topfer LA, Spry C |title=New Technologies for the Treatment of Peripheral Artery Disease|date=2016|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519606/|work=CADTH Issues in Emerging Health Technologies|publisher=Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health|pmid=30148583|access-date=2020-01-30|archive-date=June 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618161812/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519606/|url-status=live}}

The bypass versus angioplasty in a study of severe ischemia of the leg investigated infrainguinal bypass surgery first compared to angioplasty first in select patients with severe lower limb ischemia who were candidates for either procedure. In this study, angioplasty was associated with less short term morbidity compared with bypass surgery; however, long term outcomes favor bypass surgery.{{cite journal | vauthors = Adam DJ, Beard JD, Cleveland T, Bell J, Bradbury AW, Forbes JF, Fowkes FG, Gillepsie I, Ruckley CV, Raab G, Storkey H | title = Bypass versus angioplasty in severe ischaemia of the leg (BASIL): multicentre, randomised controlled trial | journal = Lancet | volume = 366 | issue = 9501 | pages = 1925–1934 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16325694 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67704-5 | s2cid = 54229954 }}

Based on this study, the ACCF/AHA{{clarify|Alphabet soup|date=January 2025}} guidelines recommend balloon angioplasty only for patients with a life expectancy of 2 years or less or those who do not have an autogenous vein available. For patients with a life expectancy greater than 2 of years life, or who have an autogenous vein, a bypass surgery could be performed first.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rooke TW, Hirsch AT, Misra S, Sidawy AN, Beckman JA, Findeiss LK, Golzarian J, Gornik HL, Halperin JL, Jaff MR, Moneta GL, Olin JW, Stanley JC, White CJ, White JV, Zierler RE | title = 2011 ACCF/AHA Focused Update of the Guideline for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Artery Disease (updating the 2005 guideline) | collaboration = A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines | journal = Journal of the American College of Cardiology | volume = 58 | issue = 19 | pages = 2020–2045 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 21963765 | pmc = 4714326 | doi = 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.08.023 }}

Renal artery stenosis is associated with hypertension and loss of renal function.{{cite journal | vauthors = Raman G, Adam GP, Halladay CW, Langberg VN, Azodo IA, Balk EM | title = Comparative Effectiveness of Management Strategies for Renal Artery Stenosis: An Updated Systematic Review | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 165 | issue = 9 | pages = 635–649 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27536808 | doi = 10.7326/M16-1053 | doi-access = free }} Atherosclerotic obstruction of the renal artery can be treated with angioplasty with or without stenting of the renal artery. There is a weak recommendation for renal artery angioplasty in patients with renal artery stenosis and flash edema or congestive heart failure.{{cite journal | vauthors = van den Berg DT, Deinum J, Postma CT, van der Wilt GJ, Riksen NP | title = The efficacy of renal angioplasty in patients with renal artery stenosis and flash oedema or congestive heart failure: a systematic review | journal = European Journal of Heart Failure | volume = 14 | issue = 7 | pages = 773–781 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22455866 | doi = 10.1093/eurjhf/hfs037 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Carotid artery stenting}}

Carotid artery stenosis can be treated with angioplasty and carotid stenting for patients at high risk for undergoing carotid endarterectomy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahn SH, Prince EA, Dubel GJ | title = Carotid artery stenting: review of technique and update of recent literature | journal = Seminars in Interventional Radiology | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 288–296 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24436551 | pmc = 3773038 | doi = 10.1055/s-0033-1353482 }} Although carotid endarterectomy is typically preferred over carotid artery stenting, stenting is indicated in select patients with radiation-induced stenosis or a carotid lesion not suitable for surgery.{{cite journal | vauthors = Giannopoulos S, Texakalidis P, Jonnalagadda AK, Karasavvidis T, Giannopoulos S, Kokkinidis DG | title = Revascularization of radiation-induced carotid artery stenosis with carotid endarterectomy vs. carotid artery stenting: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Cardiovascular Revascularization Medicine | volume = 19 | issue = 5 Pt B | pages = 638–644 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 29422277 | doi = 10.1016/j.carrev.2018.01.014 | s2cid = 46801250 }}

Angioplasty is used to treat venous stenosis affecting dialysis access, with drug-coated balloon angioplasty proving to have better 6 month and 12 month patency than conventional balloon angioplasty.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yan Wee IJ, Yap HY, Hsien Ts'ung LT, Lee Qingwei S, Tan CS, Tang TY, Chong TT | title = A systematic review and meta-analysis of drug-coated balloon versus conventional balloon angioplasty for dialysis access stenosis | journal = Journal of Vascular Surgery | volume = 70 | issue = 3 | pages = 970–979.e3 | date = September 2019 | pmid = 31445651 | doi = 10.1016/j.jvs.2019.01.082 | doi-access = free }} Angioplasty is occasionally used to treat residual subclavian vein stenosis following decompression surgery for thoracic outlet syndrome.{{cite journal | vauthors = Schneider DB, Dimuzio PJ, Martin ND, Gordon RL, Wilson MW, Laberge JM, Kerlan RK, Eichler CM, Messina LM | title = Combination treatment of venous thoracic outlet syndrome: open surgical decompression and intraoperative angioplasty | journal = Journal of Vascular Surgery | volume = 40 | issue = 4 | pages = 599–603 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15472583 | doi = 10.1016/j.jvs.2004.07.028 | doi-access = free }} There is a weak recommendation for deep venous stenting to treat obstructive chronic venous disease.{{cite journal | vauthors = Seager MJ, Busuttil A, Dharmarajah B, Davies AH | title = Editor's Choice-- A Systematic Review of Endovenous Stenting in Chronic Venous Disease Secondary to Iliac Vein Obstruction | journal = European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery | volume = 51 | issue = 1 | pages = 100–120 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26464055 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejvs.2015.09.002 | doi-access = free }}

Angioplasty requires an access vessel, typically the femoral or radial artery or femoral vein, to permit access to the vascular system for the wires and catheters used. If no access vessel of sufficient size and quality is available, angioplasty is contraindicated. A small vessel diameter, the presence of posterior calcification, occlusion, hematoma, or an earlier placement of a bypass origin, may make access to the vascular system too difficult.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty is contraindicated in patients with left main coronary artery disease, due to the risk of spasm of the left main coronary artery during the procedure.{{cite book | vauthors = Malik TF, Tivakaran VS | chapter = Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty (PTCA)|date=2019| chapter-url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535417/| title = StatPearls|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=30571038|access-date=2020-01-23 |archive-date=July 7, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707005115/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535417/|url-status=live}} It is also not recommended if there is less than 70% stenosis of the coronary arteries, as stenosis is not hemodynamically significant below this level.

File:Balloon-Tipped Catheter.png

File:Angioplasty - Balloon Inflated with Stent.png

File:Balloon-catherter.png

Access to the vascular system is typically gained percutaneously (through the skin, without a large surgical incision). An introducer sheath is inserted into the blood vessel via the Seldinger technique.{{cite journal | vauthors = Thaut L, Weymouth W, Hunsaker B, Reschke D | title = Evaluation of Central Venous Access with Accelerated Seldinger Technique Versus Modified Seldinger Technique | journal = The Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–28 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30503723 | doi = 10.1016/j.jemermed.2018.10.021 | s2cid = 54484203 }} Fluoroscopic guidance uses magnetic resonance or X-ray fluoroscopy and radiopaque contrast dye to guide angled wires and catheters to the region of the body to be treated in real time.{{cite journal | vauthors = Saeed M, Hetts SW, English J, Wilson M | title = MR fluoroscopy in vascular and cardiac interventions (review) | journal = The International Journal of Cardiovascular Imaging | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 117–137 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 21359519 | pmc = 3275732 | doi = 10.1007/s10554-010-9774-1 }} Tapered guidewire is chosen for small occlusion, followed by intermediate type guidewires for tortuous arteries and difficulty passing through extremely narrow channels, and stiff wires for hard, dense, and blunt occlusions.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dash D | title = Guidewire crossing techniques in coronary chronic total occlusion intervention: A to Z | journal = Indian Heart Journal | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 410–420 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27316507 | pmc = 4912030 | doi = 10.1016/j.ihj.2016.02.019 }}

To treat a narrowing in a blood vessel, a wire is passed through the stenosis in the vessel and a balloon on a catheter is passed over the wire (= OTW) and into the desired position.{{Cite journal| vauthors = Ali R, Greenbaum AB, Kugelmass AD |date=2012-01-14|title=A Review of Available Angioplasty Guiding Catheters, Wires and Balloons - Making the Right Choice|url=https://www.icrjournal.com/articles/angioplasty-guiding-catheters|journal=Journal - A Review of Available Angioplasty Guiding Catheters, Wires and Balloons - Making the Right Choice|language=en-gb|access-date=January 22, 2020|archive-date=January 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125171042/https://www.icrjournal.com/articles/angioplasty-guiding-catheters|url-status=live}} The positioning is verified by fluoroscopy and the balloon is inflated using water mixed with contrast dye to 75 to 500 times normal blood pressure (6 to 20 atmospheres), with most coronary angioplasties requiring less than 10 atmospheres.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kahn JK, Rutherford BD, McConahay DR, Hartzler GO | title = Inflation pressure requirements during coronary angioplasty | journal = Catheterization and Cardiovascular Diagnosis | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 144–147 | date = November 1990 | pmid = 2225048 | doi = 10.1002/ccd.1810210304 }} A stent may or may not also be placed.

At the conclusion of the procedure, the balloons, wires and catheters are removed and the vessel puncture site is treated either with direct pressure or a vascular closure device.{{cite journal | vauthors = McTaggart RA, Raghavan D, Haas RA, Jayaraman MV | title = StarClose vascular closure device: safety and efficacy of deployment and reaccess in a neurointerventional radiology service | journal = AJNR. American Journal of Neuroradiology | volume = 31 | issue = 6 | pages = 1148–1150 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20093310 | pmc = 7963929 | doi = 10.3174/ajnr.A2001 | doi-access = free }}

Transradial artery access and transfemoral artery access are two techniques for percutaneous coronary intervention.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mason PJ, Shah B, Tamis-Holland JE, Bittl JA, Cohen MG, Safirstein J, Drachman DE, Valle JA, Rhodes D, Gilchrist IC | title = An Update on Radial Artery Access and Best Practices for Transradial Coronary Angiography and Intervention in Acute Coronary Syndrome: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association | journal = Circulation. Cardiovascular Interventions | volume = 11 | issue = 9 | pages = e000035 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30354598 | doi = 10.1161/HCV.0000000000000035 | s2cid = 53031413 | doi-access = free }} Transradial artery access is the technique of choice for management of acute coronary syndrome as it has significantly lower incidence of bleeding and vascular complications compared with the transfemoral artery approach. It also has a mortality benefit for high risk patients with acute coronary syndrome and who are at high risk of bleeding. Transradial artery access was also found to yield improved quality of life, as well as decreased healthcare costs and resources.

Relative to surgery, angioplasty is a lower-risk option for the treatment of the conditions for which it is used, but there are unique and potentially dangerous risks and complications associated with angioplasty:

• Embolization, or the launching of debris into the bloodstream
• Bleeding from over-inflation of a balloon catheter or the use of an inappropriately large or stiff balloon, or the presence of a calcified target vessel.
• Hematoma or pseudoaneurysm formation at the access site{{cite journal | vauthors = Jongkind V, Akkersdijk GJ, Yeung KK, Wisselink W | title = A systematic review of endovascular treatment of extensive aortoiliac occlusive disease | journal = Journal of Vascular Surgery | volume = 52 | issue = 5 | pages = 1376–1383 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 20598474 | doi = 10.1016/j.jvs.2010.04.080 | doi-access = free }}
• Radiation-induced injuries (burns) from the X-rays used{{cite web | vauthors = Calma D |title=Cardiologists are briefed about radiation risks |url=https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/experts-brief-doctors-radiation-safety-heart-patients |website=IAEA |access-date=September 15, 2015 |date=2004-05-06 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303022031/https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/experts-brief-doctors-radiation-safety-heart-patients |url-status=live }}
• Contrast-induced renal injury
• Cerebral Hyperperfusion Syndrome leading to stroke is a serious complication of carotid artery angioplasty with stenting.{{cite journal | vauthors = Huibers AE, Westerink J, de Vries EE, Hoskam A, den Ruijter HM, Moll FL, de Borst GJ | title = Editor's Choice - Cerebral Hyperperfusion Syndrome After Carotid Artery Stenting: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 322–333 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30196814 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejvs.2018.05.012 | doi-access = free }}

Angioplasty may also provide a less durable treatment for atherosclerosis and be more prone to restenosis relative to vascular bypass or coronary artery bypass grafting.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kayssi A, Al-Jundi W, Papia G, Kucey DS, Forbes T, Rajan DK, Neville R, Dueck AD | title = Drug-eluting balloon angioplasty versus uncoated balloon angioplasty for the treatment of in-stent restenosis of the femoropopliteal arteries | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = CD012510 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30684445 | pmc = 6353053 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD012510.pub2 }} Drug-eluting balloon angioplasty has significantly less restenosis, late lumen loss and target lesion revascularization at both short term and midterm follow-up compared to uncoated balloon angioplasty for femoropopliteal arterial occlusive disease.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jongsma H, Bekken JA, de Vries JP, Verhagen HJ, Fioole B | title = Drug-eluting balloon angioplasty versus uncoated balloon angioplasty in patients with femoropopliteal arterial occlusive disease | journal = Journal of Vascular Surgery | volume = 64 | issue = 5 | pages = 1503–1514 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27478005 | doi = 10.1016/j.jvs.2016.05.084 | doi-access = free }} Although angioplasty of the femoropopliteal artery with paclitaxel-coated stents and balloons significantly reduces rates of vessel restenosis and target lesion revascularization, it was also found to have increased risk of death.{{cite journal | vauthors = Katsanos K, Spiliopoulos S, Kitrou P, Krokidis M, Karnabatidis D | title = Risk of Death Following Application of Paclitaxel-Coated Balloons and Stents in the Femoropopliteal Artery of the Leg: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | journal = Journal of the American Heart Association | volume = 7 | issue = 24 | pages = e011245 | date = December 2018 | pmid = 30561254 | pmc = 6405619 | doi = 10.1161/JAHA.118.011245 }}

Rotational Atherectomy, or "rotablation", is a technique used to treat heavily calcified coronary artery lesions by ablating plaque with a diamond-encrusted burr rotating at high speeds. It improve vessel lumens for balloon dilation and stent implantation. While effective for complex cases like calcification of nodules and tortuous vessels, its use is limited by procedural complexity, lack of training, and a need for specialized equipment. High procedural success rates are reported, especially with skilled operators, but careful patient selection is crucial to minimize complications. Studies show RA's efficacy in comparison to alternative techniques, particularly for challenging lesions.

Atherectomy is an adjunctive therapy used for lesion preparation of calcified plaque before percutaneous coronary intervention. The goal of lesion preparation with atherectomy is to modify calcified plaque, which changes the lesion compliance and allows for adequate balloon and stent expansion in segments with heavily calcified lesions.{{cite journal | vauthors = Khattak S, Sharma H, Khan SQ | title = Atherectomy Techniques: Rotablation, Orbital and Laser | journal = Interventional Cardiology | volume = 19 | pages = e21 | date = 2024-10-31 | pmid = 39569386 | pmc = 11577869 | doi = 10.15420/icr.2024.16 }}

Rotational atherectomy modifies plaque through rotational ablation using a diamond-tipped burr that spins concentrically on the wire. This technique is particularly useful for heavily calcified lesions that are resistant to balloon angioplasty.

Orbital atherectomy employs an eccentrically mounted diamond-coated crown that orbits within the vessel, sanding down calcified deposits. This method has a reduced risk of burr entrapment compared to rotational atherectomy.

Excimer laser coronary angioplasty uses pulsatile ultraviolet laser energy to precisely ablate plaque tissue. It is effective in modifying undilatable and uncrossable lesions, facilitating subsequent balloon angioplasty and stent deployment.

Atherectomy is a valuable adjunctive therapy for patients with coronary artery disease, particularly those with severely calcified lesions where traditional balloon angioplasty and stenting may be insufficient. Its success depends on the selection of appropriate devices and the operator’s expertise in managing the technical nuances to minimize complications. Studies have demonstrated that atherectomy can enhance procedural success rates and long-term outcomes in complex cases. However, further research and standardized protocols are needed to address challenges and expand its clinical applications effectively.

{{Main|Atherectomy}}

After angioplasty, most patients are monitored overnight in the hospital, but if there are no complications, patients are sent home the following day.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Spies JA, Bakal CW, Burke DR, Husted JW, McClean GK, Palestrant AM, Pentecost MJ, Schwarten DE, Spencer MC, Tate CP, van Breda A, Weyman PJ |date=1990-11-01|title=Guidelines for Percutaneous Transluminal Angioplasty|url=https://www.jvir.org/article/S1051-0443(90)72494-3/abstract|journal=Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=5–15|doi=10.1016/S1051-0443(90)72494-3|issn=1051-0443|access-date=January 23, 2020|archive-date=October 24, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024092223/https://www.jvir.org/article/S1051-0443%2890%2972494-3/fulltext|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}

The catheter site is checked for bleeding and swelling and the heart rate and blood pressure are monitored to detect late rupture and hemorrhage. Post-procedure protocol also involves monitoring urinary output, cardiac symptoms, pain and other signs of systemic problems. Usually, patients receive medication that will relax them to protect the arteries against spasms. Patients are typically able to walk within two to six hours following the procedure and return to their normal routine by the following week.{{cite web|url=http://professionalradiology.com/angioplasty.php|title=What should I expect after my procedure?|access-date=April 6, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409141248/http://professionalradiology.com/angioplasty.php|archive-date=April 9, 2010|url-status=dead}}

Angioplasty recovery consists of avoiding physical activity for several days after the procedure. Patients are advised to avoid heavy lifting and strenuous activities for a week.{{cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronary-angioplasty/recovery/|title=Recovery - Coronary angioplasty and stent insertion|access-date=2019-03-18|website=National Health Service, UK|date=2018-06-11|archive-date=December 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224154919/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronary-angioplasty/recovery/|url-status=live}} Page last reviewed: 28/08/2018{{cite web|title=Coronary angioplasty and stents|publisher=Mayo Clinic|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/coronary-angioplasty/about/pac-20384761|access-date=November 1, 2020|archive-date=September 1, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901042801/https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/coronary-angioplasty/about/pac-20384761|url-status=live}} Patients will need to avoid physical stress or prolonged sport activities for a maximum of two weeks after a delicate balloon angioplasty.{{cite web |url=http://www.angioplastysurgery.net/recovery.php |title=Angioplasty Recovery |access-date=April 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409105655/http://www.angioplastysurgery.net/recovery.php |archive-date=April 9, 2010 |url-status=dead }}

After the initial two week recovery phase, most angioplasty patients can begin to safely return to low-level exercise. A graduated exercise program is recommended whereby patients initially perform several short bouts of exercise each day, progressively increasing to one or two longer bouts of exercise.{{cite web |url=http://www.drbillsukala.com.au/exercise/exercise-after-angioplasty-stent/ |title=Exercise Guidelines After Angioplasty |access-date=November 4, 2015 |archive-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029202014/http://www.drbillsukala.com.au/exercise/exercise-after-angioplasty-stent/ |url-status=live }} As a precaution, all structured exercise should be cleared by a cardiologist before commencing. Exercise-based rehabilitation following percutaneous coronary intervention has shown improvement in recurrent angina, total exercise time, ST-segment decline, and maximum exercise tolerance.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yang X, Li Y, Ren X, Xiong X, Wu L, Li J, Wang J, Gao Y, Shang H, Xing Y | title = Effects of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation in patients after percutaneous coronary intervention: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | pages = 44789 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28303967 | pmc = 5356037 | doi = 10.1038/srep44789 | bibcode = 2017NatSR...744789Y }}

Patients who experience swelling, bleeding or pain at the insertion site, develop fever, feel faint or weak, notice a change in temperature or color in the arm or leg that was used or have shortness of breath or chest pain should immediately seek medical advice.

Patients with stents are usually prescribed dual antiplatelet therapy which consists of a P2Y12 inhibitor, such as clopidogrel, which is taken at the same time as acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin).{{cite journal | vauthors = Levine GN, Bates ER, Bittl JA, Brindis RG, Fihn SD, Fleisher LA, Granger CB, Lange RA, Mack MJ, Mauri L, Mehran R, Mukherjee D, Newby LK, O'Gara PT, Sabatine MS, Smith PK, Smith SC | title = 2016 ACC/AHA Guideline Focused Update on Duration of Dual Antiplatelet Therapy in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease | collaboration = A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines | journal = Journal of the American College of Cardiology | volume = 68 | issue = 10 | pages = 1082–1115 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27036918 | doi = 10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.513 | url = http://www.onlinejacc.org/content/68/10/1082 | access-date = 2020-01-23 | url-status = live | doi-access = | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201023082230/https://www.onlinejacc.org/content/68/10/1082 | archive-date = October 23, 2020 | url-access = subscription }} Dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) is recommended for 1 month following bare metal stent placement, for 3 months following a second generation drug-eluting stent placement, and for 6–12 months following a first generation drug-eluting stent placement. Dual antiplatelet therapy's properties are intended to prevent blood clots; however, they increase the risk of bleeding, so it is important to consider each patient's preferences, cardiac conditions, and bleeding risk when determining the duration of its treatment. Another important consideration is that concomitant use of clopidogrel and proton-pump inhibitors following coronary angiography is associated with significantly higher adverse cardiovascular complications such as major adverse cardiovascular events, stent thrombosis and myocardial infarction.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bundhun PK, Teeluck AR, Bhurtu A, Huang WQ | title = Is the concomitant use of clopidogrel and Proton Pump Inhibitors still associated with increased adverse cardiovascular outcomes following coronary angioplasty?: a systematic review and meta-analysis of recently published studies (2012 - 2016) | journal = BMC Cardiovascular Disorders | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 3 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28056809 | pmc = 5221663 | doi = 10.1186/s12872-016-0453-6 | doi-access = free }}

Angioplasty was first described by the US interventional radiologist Charles Dotter in 1964.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dotter CT, Judkins MP | title = Transluminal treatment of arteriosclerotic obstruction | journal = Circulation | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 654–670 | date = November 1964 | pmid = 14226164 | doi = 10.1161/01.CIR.30.5.654 | doi-access = free }} Dotter pioneered modern medicine with the invention of angioplasty and the catheter-delivered stent, which were first used to treat peripheral arterial disease. On January 16, 1964, Dotter percutaneously dilated a tight, localized stenosis of the subsartorial artery in an 82-year-old woman with painful leg ischemia and gangrene who refused leg amputation. After successful dilation of the stenosis with a guide wire and coaxial Teflon catheters, the circulation returned to her leg. The dilated artery stayed open until her death from pneumonia two and a half years later.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rösch J, Keller FS, Kaufman JA | title = The birth, early years, and future of interventional radiology | journal = Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology | volume = 14 | issue = 7 | pages = 841–853 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12847192 | doi = 10.1097/01.RVI.0000083840.97061.5b | s2cid = 14197760 }} Charles Dotter is commonly known as the "Father of Interventional Radiology" and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1978.

The first percutaneous coronary angioplasty on an awake patient was performed in Zurich by the German cardiologist Andreas Gruentzig on September 16, 1977.{{cite web|url=http://www.ptca.org/archive/bios/gruentzig.html|title=Andreas R. Gruentzig – Biographical Sketch|work=ptca.org|access-date=February 22, 2016|archive-date=December 15, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215190827/http://www.ptca.org/archive/bios/gruentzig.html|url-status=live}}

The first percutaneous coronary angioplasties in the United States were performed on the same day (March 1, 1978) by Simon H. Stertzer at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York and Richard K. Myler at St. Mary's Hospital in San Francisco. During the previous year, also at St. Mary's Hospital in San Francisco, Myler and Gruentzig had performed dilatations in the setting of bypass surgery to test the catheter concept before Gruentzig performed the first percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in his catheterization lab in Zurich.

The initial form of angioplasty was 'plain old balloon angioplasty' without stenting, until the invention of bare metal stents in the mid-1980s to prevent the abrupt closure that sometimes occurred plain old balloon angioplasty.

Bare metal stents were found to cause in-stent restenosis as a result of neointimal hyperplasia and stent thrombosis, which led to the invention of drug-eluting stents with anti-proliferative drugs to combat in-stent restenosis.

The first coronary angioplasty with a drug delivery stent system was performed by Stertzer and Luis de la Fuente, at the Instituto Argentino de Diagnóstico y Tratamiento (English: Argentina Institute of Diagnosis and Treatment{{cite web |url= https://www.natureindex.com/institution-outputs/argentina/argentina-institute-of-diagnosis-and-treatment-iadt/5139070034d6b65e6a001a47 |title= Argentina Institute of Diagnosis and Treatment (IADT), Argentina / Institution outputs / Nature Index |website= NatureIndex.com |access-date= 28 March 2018 |archive-date= October 24, 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221024123953/https://www.nature.com/nature-index/institution-outputs/argentina/argentina-institute-of-diagnosis-and-treatment-iadt/5139070034d6b65e6a001a47 |url-status= live }}) in Buenos Aires, in 1999.

Ingemar Henry Lundquist invented the over-the-wire balloon catheter that is now used in the majority of angioplasty procedures in the world.{{cite web

|url = http://patents.com/us-4332254.html

|title = System for filling and inflating and deflating a vascular dilating cathether assembly

|work = patents.com

|access-date = July 8, 2013

|archive-date = March 13, 2016

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160313104829/http://patents.com/us-4332254.html

|url-status = live

}}

A subset of angioplasty, known as excimer laser coronary angioplasty, uses excimer lasers to remove small amounts of tissue, including undilatable and uncrossable lesions, in the artery in order to allow the balloon to more effectively compress plaque into the artery walls.{{cite journal | vauthors = Linsker R, Srinivasan R, Wynne JJ, Alonso DR | title = Far-ultraviolet laser ablation of atherosclerotic lesions | journal = Lasers in Surgery and Medicine | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 201–206 | year = 1984 | pmid = 6472033 | doi = 10.1002/lsm.1900040212 | s2cid = 12827770 }} Such work was first developed in 1984 following earlier work in 1980–1983, when Rangaswamy Srinivasan, Samuel Blum and James J. Wynne at IBM's T. J. Watson Research Center observed the effect of the ultraviolet excimer laser on biological materials. Intrigued, they investigated further, finding that the laser made clean, precise cuts that would be ideal for delicate surgeries. This resulted in a fundamental patent{{Ref patent|country=US|number=4784135|title=Far ultraviolet surgical and dental procedures|gdate=1988-10-15}} and Srinivasan, Blum and Wynne were elected to the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2002. In 2012, the team members were honored with National Medal of Technology and Innovation by the President Barack Obama for their work related to the excimer laser.{{cite web |date=2012-12-21 |title=IBM News Release |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/39829.wss |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231063032/http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/39829.wss |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 31, 2012 |access-date=21 December 2012 |publisher=IBM}} Robert Ginsburg deployed the first used of excimer laser coronary angioplasty in 1984 on a patient with severe stenosis of the deep femoral artery and a threatened limb.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ginsburg R, Kim DS, Guthaner D, Toth J, Mitchell RS | title = Salvage of an ischemic limb by laser angioplasty: description of a new technique | journal = Clinical Cardiology | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–58 | date = January 1984 | pmid = 6705289 | doi = 10.1002/clc.4960070112 | doi-access = free }}

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{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Commons category|Angioplasty}}

{{Wiktionary|angioplasty}}

• [http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Angioplasty/Angioplasty_WhatIs.html National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, Diseases and Conditions Index]
• http://www.angioplasty.org

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Category:Interventional radiology

Category:Vascular procedures