battle of Jackson

File:Vicksburg Campaign April-July 1863.pdf

During the early days of the American Civil War, Winfield Scott, the General-in-Chief of the United States (Union) Army, proposed the Anaconda Plan for defeating the Confederacy. Part of this plan, which was informally adopted, included taking control of the Mississippi River.{{sfn|Miller|2019|pp=6–7}} While much of the river fell under Union control in 1862, the city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, remained in Confederate hands. Vicksburg, which was a naturally strong defensive position, allowed the eastern portion of the Confederacy to retain communication with the Trans-Mississippi Department to the west. The Union Navy unsuccessfully attempted to capture the city in mid-1862. An army attempt consisting of an overland expedition led by Major General Ulysses S. Grant failed in December 1862, as did a concurrent amphibious operation commanded by Major General William T. Sherman.{{sfn|Bearss|2007|pp=203–204}} In early 1863, Grant attempted to capture or bypass Vicksburg through a series of operations that involved moving troops through the many bayous in the area or by building canals.{{sfn|Smith|2024|pp=9–11}}

By late March, the various attempts to capture or bypass Vicksburg had failed, and Grant found himself considering three options. He could send his troops in a risky amphibious assault across the river against the city's defenses; he could withdraw his troops north to Memphis, Tennessee, and conduct another overland campaign against Vicksburg; or he could move his troops down the west bank of the Mississippi River and then cross to the east side of the river and then operate against Vicksburg. The first option risked heavy casualties, and a withdrawal to Memphis in preparation for an overland campaign would be viewed as a retreat by the civilian public, harming morale. While there were geographic and logistical issues with the movement down the west bank of the Mississippi and subsequent crossing, Grant chose to begin that movement.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|pp=19–22}} In April, while Grant's troops marched downriver, several Union diversionary operations, especially Grierson's Raid, distracted Confederate regional commander John C. Pemberton.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|pp=92–94}}

His troops downriver, Grant wanted to cross at Grand Gulf, Mississippi, but on April 29, Union Navy ships failed to silence the Confederate batteries there in the battle of Grand Gulf. Instead, he moved his troops further south and crossed at Bruinsburg on April 30 and May 1. Grant's beachhead was protected by a Union victory at the Battle of Port Gibson on May 1.{{sfn|Winschel|2004|pp=8–10}} To the north, the Confederates held a line running from Warrenton to the Big Black River. Rather than assault this line, Grant decided to move towards the northeast.{{sfn|Bearss|2007|p=215}} This movement would cut the rail line which supplied Vicksburg between that city and the Mississippi state capital of Jackson.{{sfn|Smith|2006|p=61}} Grant intended for his troops to strike the railroad from Bolton to Edwards Station, destroy the tracks, and then move west towards Vicksburg.{{sfn|Welcher|1993|pp=870–871}} His army consisted of the XIII Corps commanded by Major General John A. McClernand, the XV Corps commanded by Sherman, and Major General James B. McPherson's XVII Corps; during the advance, the corps were align from left to right in that order.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|pp=120–121}} McPherson's and McClernand's corps began their movement on May 7; Sherman's troops had not crossed the river as early as Grant thought they had and did not begin the movement east until the following day.{{sfn|Welcher|1993|p=871}}

General Joseph E. Johnston commanded all Confederate forces between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains. The two primary Confederate armies in Johnston's department were Pemberton's, which was known as the Army of Mississippi, and in Tennessee, the Army of Tennessee under General Braxton Bragg. Johnston thought the two armies, which were outnumbered by the forces the Union could deploy in the theater, should be consolidated, but the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis thought Pemberton and Bragg's forces should operate separately, and that Johnston should shuttle forces between the two as necessary.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=6–7}} On May 9, the Confederate government ordered Johnston to Mississippi so that he could exercise personal command of the forces there.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=16}} Johnston, who was in Tennessee, did not want to make the movement. He argued that Bragg's army needed direct supervision more than Pemberton's did, and that he was too unwell from the affects of old wounds for direct field service;{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=1–3}} there is disagreement among historians as to whether his claims about his physical health were genuine or an excuse not to make the movement.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=7–8}} Johnston left Tennessee for Jackson on May 10.{{sfn|Bearss|2007|p=216}}

While Grant moved northeast on the east side of the Big Black River, Pemberton make sure his troops kept the crossing of the Big Black covered. The Confederates moved north on the west side of the Big Black as Grant's troops also moved north.{{sfn|Smith|2006|p=66}} On May 11, Pemberton decided that Grant was only feinting towards Jackson, and to secure the railroad bridge over the Big Black River, moved three of his five available divisions to Edwards Station.{{sfn|Smith|2006|pp=67–68}} Confederate reinforcements were sent to the theater, and would gather at Jackson.{{sfn|Bearss|2007|p=216}} Some came from Tennessee following Johnston.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=17–18}} General Robert E. Lee opposed transferring any troops from his army, but troops were drawn from South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia, and sent towards Jackson.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=24–26}} In an aggressive action, Pemberton moved the brigade of Brigadier General John Gregg from Jackson to an isolated position at Raymond, where Pemberton thought it could strike Grant's flank.{{sfn|Smith|2006|pp=71–72}}

Gregg underestimated the size of the Union force opposing his brigade, and attacked McPherson's vanguard on May 12, bringing on the battle of Raymond. After a confused fight, the Confederates were driven from the field; Gregg's men returned to Jackson on May 13.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|pp=123–124}} The fight at Raymond led Grant to change his plans. He had earlier sent orders to Sherman and McPherson to turn north towards the railroad, but realizing that the Confederate forces gathering at Jackson were a greater threat than he had previously believed, ordered his army to swing towards the Mississippi capital.{{sfn|Smith|2024|pp=236–237}} McClernand's corps was to move west and guard against an attack by Pemberton, while Sherman's corps was to move to the right of McPherson's.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=43}} In order to fulfill his orders, McClernand had to disengage from Pemberton's force, which outnumbered his corps, and form a line from Bolton to Raymond. Movements to accomplish this were made on May 13.{{sfn|Winschel|2006|pp=31–32}} McPherson had orders to move to Clinton and tear up the railroad there before moving against Jackson from the northwest; this movement was accomplished on the afternoon of May 13. The path of Sherman's corps approached Jackson from the southwest.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=43–44}} There were about {{convert|14|miles|km}} between Jackson and Raymond.{{sfn|Winschel|2006|p=31}}

At Jackson, Gregg had an inaccurate perception of Union movements. He was aware that McPherson's troops were moving towards Clinton, but when intelligence placed two additional Union divisions at Raymond (Sherman's), Gregg assumed that those troops were also headed for Clinton.{{sfn|Winschel|2006|p=35}} Johnston, who had tendencies towards defeatism,{{sfn|Miller|2019|p=388}}{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|p=124}} arrived in Jackson on May 13. About 6,000 Confederate troops held the city, including Gregg's recently defeated men.{{sfn|Miller|2019|p=388}} Additional Confederate reinforcements were approaching, under the command of Brigadier Generals States Rights Gist and Samuel B. Maxey; these troops would have given Johnston around 15,000 men to hold Jackson.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=57}} Additionally, there were large stores of supplies in Jackson.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=48}}

During his journey to Jackson, Johnston received intelligence that Grant's army was striking towards Edwards Station, while Pemberton's force was holding a defensive position along the Big Black River. The Union force was between the Confederate positions.{{sfn|Miller|2019|p=388}} Johnston decided that Jackson could not be held in what the historians William L. Shea and Terrence J. Winschel described as "unseemly haste", sent a telegram to his commanding officers in Richmond, Virginia, stating "I am too late", and ordered the evacuation of the city. The governor of Mississippi relocated the state capital to Enterprise.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|p=125}} Johnston placed Gregg in command of the rear guard left in Jackson.{{sfn|Miller|2019|p=388}} By 3:30 am on May 14, the evacuation of Jackson had begun. Supplies were sent {{convert|25|miles|km}} northeast via wagon train to Canton. Maxey was ordered to withdraw to Brookhaven, which was {{convert|55|miles|km}} south of Jackson while Gist was told to assemble his men "at a point 40 or 50 miles from Jackson".{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=56–57}} While retreating, Johnston sent Pemberton a misleading message suggesting that Johnston's men would support Pemberton in an offensive movement when he had no intention of doing so. The historian Donald L. Miller believes that this was designed to present the appearance in the official records that he was not abandoning Vicksburg.{{sfn|Miller|2019|pp=388–389}} The historian Chris Mackowski believes that by waiting for the arrival of Gist and Maxey's brigades and concentrating his forces at Jackson, that Johnston could "significantly complicate matters" for Grant.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=57}} Ed Bearss writes that the Confederates lacked time to put together an adequate defense. Bearss believes that Johnston may have been able to repulse the movement that Gregg believed was occurring{{snd}}an advance solely from the direction of Clinton{{snd}}but that the Confederates could not have fended off both McPherson and Sherman's advances.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|pp=529–530}}

File:Jackson_Battlefield_Mississippi.jpg]]

Gregg sent around 900 men commanded by Colonel Peyton Colquitt in the direction of Clinton; Gregg had Colquitt form a defensive line at the O. P. Wright farm {{convert|3|miles|km}} from Jackson.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=531}} From the Wright house, open ground sloped downhill towards a timbered ravine for {{convert|0.75|miles|km}}. Two artillery batteries supported Colquitt's line,{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=58}} and Brigadier General W. H. T. Walker's brigade took up a position within supporting distance of Colquitt. Gregg's own brigade was held in reserve in Jackson; it was under the command of Colonel Robert Farquharson for the battle.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=532}} Earlier in the month, the Mississippi civil authorities had ordered the construction of fortifications surrounding Jackson. The city was located on a bend of the Pearl River and the fortification line met the river on both ends. The work was performed by impressed slaves and white volunteers.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=37–38}} These earthworks, which were incomplete at the time of the battles, contained seventeen cannons and were manned by armed civilians and Mississippi State Troops.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=532}}

The XVII Corps left Clinton at 5:00 am, led by Brigadier General Marcellus M. Crocker's division. The movement was made in a heavy rainstorm, which turned the roads to mud. After moving {{convert|2|miles|km}} from Clinton, the commander of the leading Union brigade, Colonel Samuel A. Holmes, threw forward an advanced guard from the 10th Missouri Infantry Regiment in anticipation of contact with Confederate troops.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|pp=533–534}} Sherman's corps moved out from Mississippi Springs that morning as well;{{sfn|Winschel|2006|p=37}} Sherman and McPherson sent communications during the march, intending to strike Jackson with both columns at about the same time. Grant accompanied Sherman's column, which was also slowed by the rain and mud. Grant later recounted that parts of Sherman's march were made through standing water in excess of {{convert|1|ft|m}} in depth.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=60–65}} Holmes's advance guard from the 10th Missouri skirmished with Confederate troops for several miles,{{sfn|Smith|2024|p=263}} while Sherman's march up the Mississippi Springs road was contested by skirmishers for most of the way. Sherman's advance was led by the division of Brigadier General James M. Tuttle; the expected marching order of Tuttle's division was varied so that it was led Brigadier General Joseph A. Mower's brigade instead of that of Brigadier General Ralph Buckland.{{sfn|Smith|2024|p=265}}

At around 9:00 am, McPherson's troops encountered Colquitt's main line.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=65}} Gregg advanced Farquharson's brigade into a field off to the right of Colquitt, in a position to threaten the left flank of Union troops advancing against Colquitt.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=542}} The Confederate Brookhaven Light Artillery battery opened fire on the leading Union forces with four cannons.{{sfn|Winschel|2006|p=36}} In response, Battery M, 1st Missouri Light Artillery Regiment was brought to the front. The Union battery took up a position near the W. T. Mann house and opened fire on the Confederates with four 10-pounder Parrott rifles{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=534}} at roughly 10:00 am.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=66}} McPherson deployed his troops for battle but delayed attacking due to the rain;{{sfn|Winschel|2006|p=37}} the infantry could not open their cartridge boxes in the rain without ruining their ammunition.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=535}} McPherson's men spent about an hour and a half maneuvering into position in the rain, while the artillery batteries duelled.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=67}} Holmes's brigade was positioned in the center of Crocker's line, with Colonel George B. Boomer's brigade to the left and Colonel John B. Sanborn's brigade to the right. Major General John A. Logan's division advanced along the railroad to Crocker's left, damaging it as it went; the presence of Logan's troops made it impracticable for Farquharson to attack Crocker's flank.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=66}} Bearss believes that McPherson recognized that Farquharson's position was only a feint and ignored the Confederate brigade.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=542}}

Gregg learned of Sherman's advance, and sent a collection of troops known as "Task Force Thompson" to delay Sherman's approach. This task force was commanded by Colonel A. P. Thompson of the 3rd Kentucky Mounted Infantry and consisted of Thompson's regiment, the 1st Georgia Sharpshooter Battalion, and Martin's Georgia Battery, which had four cannons. Sherman's line of approach crossed Lynch Creek {{convert|5|miles|km}} from Mississippi Springs;{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=536}} this was about {{convert|2.5|miles|km|sigfig=1}} from Jackson. The heavy rains made it impossible to ford the creek, limiting the crossing to a single bridge. Thompson and his 1,000 men held the crossing by the time Sherman's 10,000 men reached the creek.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=79–80}} After 10:00 am,{{sfn|Winschel|2006|p=38}} Sherman could hear McPherson's fight as his men approached Lynch Creek under rapid Confederate artillery fire. Tuttle deployed his division with Mower's brigade to the right, Colonel Charles Matthies's brigade to the left, and Buckland's men in reserve. Shortly after noon, Grant sent a message to McPherson, which stated in part "We must get Jackson or as near it as possible to-night".{{sfn|Smith|2024|pp=266–267}}

McPherson had begun his attack at 11:00 am, the rain having slowed.{{sfn|Smith|2024|p=268}} The advance was led by skirmishers from Holmes's and Sanborn's brigades, who drove the Confederate skirmishers back to the main line at the Wright house, but were withdrawn to rejoin their regiments after encountering heavy Confederate fire.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=68–70}} After further probing of the Confederate line, Crocker determined that he faced only a small force of Confederates and ordered a charge. After a brief pause in a ravine, Crocker's troops reached the Confederate line by the Wright house. The 10th Missouri fought the 24th South Carolina Infantry Regiment in a melee in which the South Carolinians' commander, Lieutenant Colonel Ellison Capers, was wounded.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|pp=543–544}} Two Union batteries followed the infantry advance closely.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=72}} While Logan's troops did not participate in the fighting, their presence at the field still complicated matters for Farguharson, whose brigade was separate from Colquitt by a flooded creek. Farquharson withdrew his troops from the field and joined Johnston's retreat from Jackson.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=76–77}} Boomer's troops were less heavily engaged in the charge than those of Sanborn and Holmes.{{sfn|Smith|2024|p=270}} Crocker's troops paused and reorganized rather than pursuing the defeated Confederates directly into Jackson, although the 6th Wisconsin Battery fired on the retreating Confederates from a position hear the Wright house.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=544}}

On Sherman's front, Battery E, 1st Illinois Light Artillery Regiment and the 2nd Iowa Battery were deployed to counter the Confederate artillery;{{sfn|Smith|2024|p=271}} the two batteries combined for twelve cannons. Under heavy Union artillery fire, Thompson's men withdrew from the creek after only 20 minutes; this was the only position that the outnumbered Confederates could have hoped to hold against Sherman's men.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=537}} The Confederates did not attempt to destroy the bridge across Lynch Creek;{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=84}} Bearss speculates that they may have believed that the bridge was too wet to burn.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=539}} Thompsons' men fell back to a stretch of woods in front of the line of defensive works built around Jackson; this was near the site which was later developed into Battlefield Park.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=537}} With an additional ten cannons in the defensive works, which were held by Mississippi State Troops and armed civilians, the Confederates now had an artillery advantage for the time being.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=85}}

Sherman's advance was slowed by the necessity of crossing Lynch Creek at only the single bridge.{{sfn|Smith|2024|p=272}} After Tuttle's troops crossed the creek, Mower's troops were aligned to the left and Matthies's to the right, with Buckland's brigade still in reserve. Faced by the strong Union force, Thompson withdrew his troops into the defensive works.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=539}} Tuttle brought Buckland's brigade up from reserve to the division's right, but Buckland's troops came under fire from six Confederate cannons, and Sherman's attack halted at around 1:30 pm.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|pp=539–540}} Sherman ordered Captain Julius Pitzman, an engineering officer, to take Buckland's 95th Ohio Infantry Regiment to the right and see if the Confederate line could be flanked.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|p=88}} Pitzman and the 95th Ohio advanced through wooded ground until they reached the line of the New Orleans, Jackson and Great Northern Railroad. Reaching the Confederate defensive line, the Union soldiers found it abandoned.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|pp=540–541}} An African American civilian informed them that the Confederates had withdrawn from Jackson, leaving only the artillery firing on Sherman's lines as a rearguard. The 95th Ohio then attacked the Confederate artillery position and captured the Mississippi State Troops and civilians manning the guns,{{sfn|Winschel|2006|p=40}} taking fifty-two prisoners and capturing six cannons.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=541}}

Pitzman reported to Sherman the findings of the 95th Ohio, and Sherman ordered Major General Frederick Steele's division to follow the Ohio regiment's route up the railroad. Meanwhile, with the Ohio soldiers having attacked the Confederate artillery, Tuttle's division attacked.{{sfn|Mackowski|2022|pp=90–91}} Mower's and Matthies's brigades assaulted the Confederate lines, with the 8th Iowa Infantry Regiment being the first to reach the Confederate position. Mopping-up operations resulted in the capture of four additional cannons and ninety-eight prisoners.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=541}} The bulk of the Confederate troops had already left Jackson. Gregg had been informed at around 2:00 pm that the Confederate wagon train had withdrawn from Jackson. Colquitt and Walker's troops withdrew through Jackson, and Thompson's men followed at the rear of the retreat column.{{sfn|Smith|2024|pp=274–275}} Thompson had been ordered to disguise his retreat. After Battery M of the 1st Missouri and the 6th Wisconsin Battery fired on the Confederate works, Holmes sent troops from his brigade forward and found the Confederates gone;{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=545}} this occurred at around 3:00 pm.{{sfn|Smith|2024|p=270}} One of Sanborn's staffers raised the national flag of the 59th Indiana Infantry Regiment over the Mississippi State Capitol.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|p=546}} One of Logan's brigades was sent to attempt to cut Gregg's retreat but was not successful; the Confederates camped {{convert|7|miles|km}} north at Tougaloo.{{sfn|Bearss|1991|pp=545–546}}

File:A Sherman Necktie, Ft. McAllister. GA. US.jpg

After taking the town, the Union soldiers, primarily Sherman's men, demolished infrastructure in the city. Factories, warehouses, and other military and economic sites were destroyed.{{sfn|Miller|2019|pp=392–393}} Grant and Sherman personally visited a textiles plant before Sherman ordered its destruction.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|p=126}} Iron rails of the Southern Railroad of Mississippi were damaged by bending them into circular shapes known as Sherman's neckties. Despite official orders from Sherman prohibiting such behavior, civilian homes were also plundered and burned. Between fires that had been set by retreating Confederates destroying supplies and those set by Union troops during the occupation, Jackson suffered significant fire damage.{{sfn|Miller|2019|pp=392–393}} For a time, Grant had his headquarters in the same building that Johnston had stayed in while he was in the town.{{sfn|Bearss|2007|p=221}}

Estimates of casualties suffered in the battle vary. The historian Shelby Foote stated that the Confederates lost a little over 200 men, while Grant lost 332: 48 killed, 273 wounded, and 11 missing.{{sfn|Foote|1995|p=183}} Historians William L. Shea and Terrence J. Winschel place Union losses at 300 (42 killed, 251 wounded, and 7 missing), while putting Confederate losses at about 845 men; the National Park Service agrees with both figures.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|p=126}}{{cite web |title=Battle of Jackson (May 14) |url=https://www.nps.gov/vick/learn/historyculture/jackson.htm |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=February 22, 2021 |date=February 15, 2018 |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414202421/https://www.nps.gov/vick/learn/historyculture/jackson.htm |url-status=live }} The Civil War Battlefield Guide, edited by Frances Kennedy, gives Union losses as 286 men and Confederate losses as 850.{{sfn|Kennedy|1998|p=167}} Almost all of the Union losses were suffered by McPherson's corps.{{sfn|Foote|1995|p=183}}{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|p=126}}

After Jackson was captured, the forces of Johnston and Pemberton were cut off from each other.{{sfn|Kennedy|1998|p=167}} On May 16, Grant's men defeated Pemberton decisively at the Battle of Champion Hill.{{sfn|Bearss|1998b|pp=167–170}} By May 18, the Union soldiers had reached Vicksburg and placed the city under siege. The siege of Vicksburg continued until July 4, when Pemberton surrendered.{{sfn|Bearss|1998c|pp=171–173}} During the siege, reinforcements from across the Confederacy continued to be diverted to Johnston, who eventually amassed 32,000 men. Named the Army of Relief, Johnston's force did not move against Grant until July 1, and then upon reaching the Union lines at the Big Black River two days later, decided that the defenses could not be taken and did not bring on a battle.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|pp=167–169}} Johnston ordered a retreat on July 5, and on July 7, Johnston's retreating troops reoccupied Jackson. Grant responded by sending Sherman with 46,000 men to follow Johnston. This movement, known as the Jackson Expedition, reached the city of July 10.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|pp=180–181}} The city was soon placed under siege; a limited Union attack that mistakenly occurred was repulsed on July 12. Johnston again abandoned Jackson on the night of July 16/17.{{sfn|Shea|Winschel|2003|pp=182–184}}

The City of Jackson preserves {{convert|2|acres|ha}} of the battlefield: one in a public park and another on the campus of the University of Mississippi Medical Center.{{sfn|National Park Service|2010|p=5}}

{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}

• {{cite book |last=Bearss |first=Edwin C. |title=The Campaign for Vicksburg |volume=II: Grant Strikes a Fatal Blow |publisher=Morningside Bookshop |location=Dayton, Ohio |date=1991 |orig-year=1986 |author-link=Ed Bearss |isbn=0-89029-313-9 }}
• {{cite book |last=Bearss |first=Edwin C. |editor-last=Kennedy |chapter=Champion Hill, Mississippi |editor-first=Frances H. |title=The Civil War Battlefield Guide |date=1998 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston/New York |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-395-74012-5 |pages=171–173 |ref=CITEREFBearss1998b}}
• {{cite book |last=Bearss |first=Edwin C. |editor-last=Kennedy |chapter=Battle and Siege of Vicksburg, Mississippi |editor-first=Frances H. |title=The Civil War Battlefield Guide |date=1998 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston/New York |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-395-74012-5 |pages=164–167 |ref=CITEREFBearss1998c}}
• {{cite book |last=Bearss |first=Edwin C. |title=Fields of Honor |publisher=National Geographic |location=Washington, D.C. |date=2007 |orig-year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4262-0093-9}}

{{Cite Kennedy 1998}}

• {{cite book |last=Foote |first=Shelby |title=The Beleaguered City: The Vicksburg Campaign |publisher=The Modern Library |location=New York |date=1995 |orig-year=1963 |edition=Modern Library |isbn=0-679-60170-8 |author-link=Shelby Foote}}
• {{cite book |last=Mackowski |first=Chris |title=The Battle of Jackson, Mississippi May 14, 1863 |publisher=Savas Beatie |location=El Dorado Hills, California |date=2022 |isbn=978-1-61121-655-4}}
• {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Donald L. |date=2019 |title=Vicksburg: Grant's Campaign that Broke the Confederacy |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4516-4139-4 |author-link=Donald L. Miller}}
• {{cite book |last1=Shea |first1=William L. |last2=Winschel |first2=Terrence J. |title=Vicksburg Is the Key: The Struggle for the Mississippi River |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |location=Lincoln, Nebraska |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-8032-9344-1}}
• {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Timothy B. |date=2006 |orig-year=2004 |title=Champion Hill: Decisive Battle for Vicksburg |publisher=Savas Beatie |location=El Dorado Hills, California |isbn=1-932714-19-7 }}
• {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Timothy B. |date=2024 |title=The Inland Campaign for Vicksburg: Five Battles in Seventeen Days, May 1–17, 1863 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-3655-6 }}
• {{cite book |publisher=National Park Service |date=2010 |location=Washington, D. C. |title=Update to the Civil War Sites Advisory Commission Report on the Nation's Civil War Battlefields: State of Mississippi |url=http://npshistory.com/publications/battlefield/cwsac/updates/ms.pdf |access-date=January 31, 2021 |ref=CITEREFNational_Park_Service2010}}
• {{cite book |last=Welcher |first=Frank J. |title=The Union Army 1861–1865: Organization and Operations |volume=II: The Western Theater |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana |date=1993 |isbn=0-253-36454-X}}
• {{cite book |last=Winschel |first=Terrence J. |title=Triumph and Defeat: The Vicksburg Campaign |date=2004 |orig-year=1999 |volume=1 |publisher=Savas Beatie |location=New York City |isbn=1-932714-04-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Winschel |first=Terrence J. |title=Triumph and Defeat: The Vicksburg Campaign |date=2006 |volume=2 |publisher=Savas Beatie |location=New York City |isbn=1-932714-21-9}}

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