black-fronted tern

German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster described the black-fronted tern from a specimen collected at Queen Charlotte Sound, Marlborough in 1832, giving it the binomial name Sterna antarctica,{{cite journal | first=Johann Reinhold| last= Forster|year= 1832 | journal= Isis von Oken |volume= 11|page= 1223 | title=Sterna antarctica |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26455531}} which had already been used for the Antarctic tern by French naturalist René Lesson the previous year.{{cite book | edition=4th | title=Checklist of the Birds of New Zealand, Norfolk and Macquarie Islands, and the Ross Dependency, Antarctica | author= the Checklist Committee, Ornithological Society of New Zealand | year=2010 | publisher=Te Papa Press |location= Wellington, New Zealand | isbn=978-1-877385-59-9 | url=http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/sites/all/files/checklist/Checklist-of-Birds.pdf |pages=239–40 }}

File:Sterna albostriata.jpg

The first valid description of the species was by George Robert Gray in 1845, when it was described as Hydrochelidon albostriata.{{cite book|last =Gray |first=George Robert | title = Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Erebus and Terror, Under the Command of Sir James C. Ross, 1839-43 | publisher = Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans| year = 1845 |location = London| page=19 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AF9ZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA19}} Its specific name is derived from the Latin albus "white", and striatus "striped".{{cite book|author = Simpson DP| title = Cassell's Latin Dictionary | publisher = Cassell Ltd.| year = 1979|edition = 5th|location = London| isbn=0-304-52257-0}} Charles Lucien Bonaparte spelled the name albistriata in 1856, which was adopted by subsequent authors until it was corrected by Walter Oliver in 1955.

The taxonomic placement was unclear for many years, as the bird's plumage and inland breeding migration suggested it belonged to the marsh tern genus Chlidonias, even though it did not nest in marshes. Martin Moynihan placed the species in the genus Sterna, suspecting that the plumage similarities to C. hybrida and other species of the genus were due to similarities in their environments.{{cite journal | title=A revision of the family Laridae (Aves) | journal= American Museum Novitates | issue= 1928 | last=Moynihan| first= Martin | year=1959 | url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/handle/2246/5365//v2/dspace/ingest/pdfSource/nov/N1928.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y }} A molecular study by Bridge and colleagues in 2005 placed the species as a basal member of Chlidonias .{{cite journal|last=Bridge |first=Eli S. |author2=Jones, Andrew W. |author3=Baker, Allan J.|year=2005 |title= A phylogenetic framework for the terns (Sternini) inferred from mtDNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and plumage evolution | url = http://www.cmnh.org/site/Files/Ornithology/MPETerns.pdf| doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2004.12.010 | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume=35 |pages=459–469|pmid=15804415|issue=2}}

The species has several vernacular names. In 1845, Gray noted the Māori name tarapiroe. The name ploughboy or ploughman's friend refers to its foraging for earthworms and grubs in freshly turned soil.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/gulls-terns-and-skuas/3|title=Black-fronted terns|year=2009|encyclopedia=What's the Story? Encyclopedia of New Zealand|publisher=Ministry for Culture and Heritage / Te Manatū Taonga|accessdate=31 December 2009}}

Black-fronted terns are considered medium-small in size. Adults measure 28-30 cm in length, with a 65-72 cm wingspan and an average weight of 95 g.{{Cite book |last=Higgins |first=P. J. |title=Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds |last2=Davies |first2=S. J. J. F. |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=3 |location=Melbourne |pages=384-385, 573-576, 699-708 |chapter=Snipe to pigeons}} They have short orange bills, short orange legs, and a body that is dark grey above and light grey below with a white rump and a distinctive black cap. During the non-breeding season, the black cap recedes and becomes flecked with white.

Within New Zealand, black-fronted terns are found from the southern tip of the North Island, and along much of the eastern South Island from Marlborough to Southland, and to Stewart Island. There is an outlying population along the Buller and upper Motueka Rivers in southern Nelson.

Black-fronted terns frequent coastal areas, including estuaries, harbours, and farmland (up to 3 km or 1.86 mi inland), where they will forage for insects and small fish. They will forage up to 10 km (6.21 mi) out to sea particularly in calm weather.{{Cite web |title=Research Portal |url=https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz/esploro/outputs/graduate/Food-and-feeding-behaviour-of-the/9926479649101891/filesAndLinks?index=0 |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=ourarchive.otago.ac.nz}}

The breeding range is restricted to the eastern South Island. The breeding season for black-fronted terns falls in summer between the months of October and February. During this time, black-fronted terns will migrate inland to semi-permanent islands on braided river systems to form colonies of one to over 79 breeding pairs.Connor-McClean, B.; Lamb, S. & Bell, E. 2022. Waiau Toa/Clarence River black-fronted tern monitoring project- 2021/2022 operational report. Client report prepared for the Department of Conservation by Wildlife Management International Ltd, Blenheim

Black-fronted terns, like many other New Zealand bird species, nest on the ground. Black-fronted terns look for unvegetated, rocky, gravel, or sandy islands along braided rivers systems to build their nests. Nests are simple scrapes in the ground, sometimes lined with twigs.

Black-fronted terns are particularly vulnerable to a number of threats including predation by introduced mammals, habitat loss (land use changes and weed encroachment), resource abstraction (gravel and water), human disturbance, and climate change.

Conservation methods involve predator control, habitat enhancement (modification of river islands and weed control), and the use of chick shelters.Connor-McClean, B.; Lamb, S. & Bell, E. 2023. Waiau Toa/Clarence and Wakaputawatea/Acheron River black-fronted tern monitoring project- 2022/23 operational report. Client report prepared for the Department of Conservation by Wildlife Management International Ltd, Blenheim.

Black-fronted terns at all stages of life are vulnerable to exotic mammals that have been introduced to New Zealand. Due to the country's long isolation from other land masses, endemic New Zealand species have not evolved alongside mammalian predators and therefore have no effective defences against them. Predation is considered the leading cause of nest failure, though the predators responsible depend on the location of the colony.Connor-McClean, B., Lamb, S. & Bell, E. 2022. The shifting frontlines of tarapirohe/black-fronted tern conservation.https://braidedrivers.org/wp-content/uploads/WMIL_BRaid-presentation-2022.pdf Retrieved 20 May 2025.

The following species have been recorded predating black-fronted tern adults, chicks, and eggs:

• Mustelids (Mustela spp.), including stoats (M. erminea) and weasels (M. nivalis)
• Feral cats (Felis catus). There have been multiple known instances wherein a lone feral cat has depredated a significant number of tern nests in a single visit. For one Rangitata River colony in 2006, 76% of the nests were depredated by a single cat in one night{{Cite web |title=black fronted tern – BRaided Rivers New Zealand |url=https://braidedrivers.org/ecology/black-fronted-tern/ |access-date=2025-05-20 |language=en}}; for a Waiau Toa/Clarence River colony in 2024, 95 nests were either depredated or disturbed by a single cat, resulting in the failure of almost all the nests in the colony.{{Cite web |title=Lone feral cat destroys large tern colony on Waiau Toa/Clarence River |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2024-media-releases/lone-feral-cat-destroys-large-tern-colony-on-waiau-toaclarence-river/ |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=www.doc.govt.nz |language=en-nz}}
• Rodents, including the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) and mouse (Mus musculus)
• European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus occidentalis)
• Australian magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen)

Introduced predators are often controlled by the government, regional councils, and wildlife management groups to protect black-fronted tern colonies and other braided river birds.

Black-fronted terns are also predated by native avian predators, such as the Australasian swamp harrier (Circus approximans), Southern black-backed gull (Larus dominicanus), and South Island pied oystercatchers (Haematopus finschi).{{cite journal |last1=Steffens |first1=Kate E. |last2=Sanders |first2=Mark D. |last3=Gleenson |first3=Dianne M. |last4=Pullen, and Christopher J. |first4=Kiri M. |last5=Stowe |year=2012 |title=Identification of predators at black-fronted tern Chlidonias albostriatus nests, using mtDNA analysis and digital video recorders |url=http://newzealandecology.org/system/files/articles/NZJEcol36_1_48.pdf |journal=New Zealand Journal of Ecology |pages=48–55}} The populations of both the Australasian swamp harrier and the Southern black-backed gull have increased since human arrival to New Zealand.Schlesselmann, A.-K. V. (2018). Linking science and management for effective long-term conservation: A case study of black-fronted terns/tarapirohe (Chlidonias albostriatus) [University of Otago] Regular population control of the Southern black-backed gull is carried out to safeguard native species, such as black-fronted terns.{{Cite web |date=2025-03-12 |title=Southern black-backed gull/karoro control |url=https://www.ecan.govt.nz/your-region/your-environment/biodiversity-and-biosecurity/biodiversity/braided-rivers/braided-river-threats/southern-black-backed-gullkaroro-control/ |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=Environment Canterbury |language=en-GB}}

File:NZBirds1.JPG|A black-fronted tern nest.

File:NZBirds2.JPG|Black-fronted tern eggs.

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black-fronted tern

Category:Birds of the South Island

black-fronted tern

black-fronted tern

Category:Endemic birds of New Zealand