braking distance#Total stopping distance

The theoretical braking distance can be found by determining the work required to dissipate the vehicle's kinetic energy.Traffic Accident Reconstruction Volume 2, Lynn B. Fricke

The kinetic energy {{math|E}} is given by the formula:

:$E=\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}mv^\{2\}$,

where {{math|m}} is the vehicle's mass and {{math|v}} is the speed at the start of braking.

The work {{math|W}} done by braking is given by:

:$W=\backslash mu\; mgd$,

where {{math|μ}} is the coefficient of friction between the road surface and the tires, {{math|g}} is the gravity of Earth, and {{math|d}} is the distance travelled.

The braking distance (which is commonly measured as the skid length) given an initial driving speed {{math|v}} is then found by putting {{math|1=W = E}}, from which it follows that

:$d=\backslash frac\{v^\{2\}\}\{2\backslash mu\; g\}$.

The maximum speed given an available braking distance {{math|d}} is given by:

:$v=\backslash sqrt\{2\backslash mu\; gd\}$.

From Newton's second law:

:$F=ma$

For a level surface, the frictional force resulting from coefficient of friction $\backslash mu$ is:

:$F\_\{frict\}=-\backslash mu\; mg$

Equating the two yields the deceleration:

:$a=-\backslash mu\; g$

The $d\_f(d\_i,v\_i,v\_f)$ form of the formulas for constant acceleration is:

:$d\_f=d\_i\; +\; \backslash frac\{v\_f^2-v\_i^2\}\{2a\}$

Setting $d\_i,\; v\_f\; =0$ and then substituting $a$ into the equation yields the braking distance:

:$d\_f=\backslash frac\{-v\_i^2\}\{2a\}=\backslash frac\{v\_i^2\}\{2\; \backslash mu\; g\}$

{{Image frame |caption={{center|Tables of speed and stopping distances
Permitted by good tires and clean, dry, level, pavement.}}|content=

{{Graph:Chart |xAxisTitle=Vehicle Speed [mph] |yAxisTitle=Total Stopping Distance [feet] |colors=orange,red |legend=Vehicle |y1Title=Cars |y2Title=Trucks|type=line

|x=10,15,20,25,30,35,40,45,50,55,60,65,70,75,80,85,90,95,100

|y1=27,44,63,85,109,135,164,195,229,265,303,344,387,433,481,531,584,639,696

|y2=28,47,69,95,123,155,190,228,269,313,361,411,465,522,582,646,712,782,855

}}

}}

The total stopping distance is the sum of the perception-reaction distance and the braking distance.

:$D\_\{total\}=D\_\{p-r\}+D\_\{braking\}=v\; t\_\{p-r\}+\; \backslash frac\{v^2\}\{2\; \backslash mu\; g\}$

A common baseline value of $t\_\{p-r\}=1.5\; s,\; \backslash mu=0.7$ is used in stopping distance charts. These values incorporate the ability of the vast majority of drivers under normal road conditions. However, a keen and alert driver may have perception-reaction times well below 1 second,{{cite web|url=http://biae.clemson.edu/bpc/bp/Lab/110/reaction.htm#Mean%20Times |title=A Literature Review on Reaction Time |author=Robert J. Kosinski |publisher=Clemson University |date=September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010194942/http://biae.clemson.edu/bpc/bp/Lab/110/reaction.htm |archive-date=2013-10-10 }} and a modern car with computerized anti-skid brakes may have a friction coefficient of 0.9--or even far exceed 1.0 with sticky tires.[http://www.virginiadot.org/vtrc/main/online%5Freports/pdf/01-r13.pdf An investigation of the utility and accuracy of the table of speed and stopping distances] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927004530/http://www.virginiadot.org/vtrc/main/online_reports/pdf/01-r13.pdf |date=September 27, 2012 }}[http://hpwizard.com/tire-friction-coefficient.html Tire friction and rolling resistance coefficients][http://hpwizard.com/gg-diagram.html THE GG DIAGRAM]: sticky tires exceed 1.0{{cite book |title=Theory of ground vehicles |volume=2nd ed. |author=J.Y. Wong |year=1993 |page=26 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470170380 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Blp2D1DteTYC&q=theory+of+ground+vehicles}}{{cite book |author=Robert Bosch GmbH |title=Automotive Handbook |volume=4th ed |page=335 |year=1996 |publisher=Bentley Publishers |isbn=9780837603339 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsRHPwAACAAJ&q=automotive%20handbook%20bosch}}

Experts historically used a reaction time of 0.75 seconds, but now incorporate perception resulting in an average perception-reaction time of: 1 second for population as an average; occasionally a two-second rule to simulate the elderly or neophyte;{{#tag:ref| A study conducted by the Transportation Research Board in 1998 found that most people can perceive and react to an unexpected roadway condition in 2 seconds or less. |group="Note" |name="TRB"}} or even a 2.5 second reaction time—to specifically accommodate very elderly, debilitated, intoxicated, or distracted drivers. The coefficient of friction may be 0.25 or lower on wet or frozen asphalt, and anti-skid brakes and season specific performance tires may somewhat compensate for driver error and conditions.[http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/friction-coefficients-d_778.html Frictional Coefficients for some Common Materials and Materials Combinations] and [http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/frictioncoefficients.htm Reference Tables -- Coefficient of Friction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308124246/http://engineershandbook.com/Tables/frictioncoefficients.htm |date=2009-03-08 }}{{#tag:ref| As speed increases, the braking distance is initially far less than the perception-reaction distance, but later it equals then rapidly exceeds it after 30 MPH for 1 second p-t times (46 MPH for 1.5s p-t times): $D\_\{p-r\}=D\_\{braking\}$ thus $vt\_\{p-r\}=\backslash frac\{v^2\}\{2\; \backslash mu\; g\}$. Solving for v, $v=2\; \backslash mu\; g\; t\_\{p-r\}$. This is due to the quadratic nature of the kinetic energy increase versus the linear effect of a constant p-r time.|group="Note" |name="Speed at which braking distance equals perception-reaction distance"}} In legal contexts, conservative values suggestive of greater minimum stopping distances are often used as to be sure to exceed the pertinent legal burden of proof, with care not to go as far as to condone negligence. Thus, the reaction time chosen can be related to the burden's corresponding population percentile; generally a reaction time of 1 second is as a preponderance more probable than not, 1.5 seconds is clear and convincing, and 2.5 seconds is beyond reasonable doubt. The same principle applies to the friction coefficient values.

The actual total stopping distance may differ from the baseline value when the road or tire conditions are substantially different from the baseline conditions, or when the driver's cognitive function is superior or deficient. To determine actual total stopping distance, one would typically empirically obtain the coefficient of friction between the tire material[http://www.tirerack.com/tires/tests/testSearch.jsp Tire Test Results] and the exact road spot under the same road conditions and temperature. They would also measure the person's perception and reaction times. A driver who has innate reflexes, and thus braking distances, that are far below the safety margins provided in the road design or expected by other users, may not be safe to drive.[http://www.helpguide.org/elder/senior_citizen_driving.htm Warning Signs and Knowing When to Stop Driving] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527023158/http://www.helpguide.org/elder/senior_citizen_driving.htm |date=2008-05-27 }}{{cite journal |first1=S |last1=Jevas |first2=J. H. |last2=Yan |title=The effect of aging on cognitive function: a preliminary quantitative review. |journal=Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport |volume=72 |page=A-49 |year=2001}} Simple reaction time shortens from infancy into the late 20s, then increases slowly until the 50s and 60s, and then lengthens faster as the person gets into his 70s and beyond{{cite journal |first1=G. |last1=Der |first2=I. J. |last2=Deary |year=2006 |title=Age and sex differences in reaction time in adulthood: Results from the United Kingdom health and lifestyle survey. |journal=Psychology and Aging |volume=21 | issue = 1 |pages=62–73 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.62|pmid=16594792 }} Most old roads were not engineered with the deficient driver in mind, and often used a defunct 3/4 second reaction time standard. There have been recent road standard changes to make modern roadways more accessible to an increasingly aging population of drivers.{{cite web |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/humanfac/01103/ |title=Highway Design Handbook for Older Drivers and Pedestrians |publisher=Publication Number: FHWA-RD-01-103 |date=May 2001}}

For rubber tyres on cars, the coefficient of friction ({{math|μ}}) decreases as the mass of the car increases. Additionally, {{math|μ}} depends on whether the wheels are locked or rolling during the braking, and a few more parameters such as rubber temperature (increases during the braking) and speed.{{cite web|last1=Tomita|first1=Hisao|title=Tire-pavement friction coefficients|url=https://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/705987.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614022345/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/705987.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 14, 2015|website=Defense Technical Information Center|publisher=Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory|access-date=12 June 2015}}

In a non-metric country, the stopping distance in feet given a velocity in MPH can be approximated as follows:

1. take the first digit of the velocity, and square it. Add a zero to the result, then divide by 2.
2. sum the previous result to the double of the velocity.

Example:

velocity = 50 MPH.

stopping distance = 5 squared = 25, add a zero = 250, divide by 2 = 125, sum 2*50 = 225 feet (the exact value can be calculated using the formula given below the diagram on the right).

In Germany the rule of thumb for the stopping distance in a city in good conditions is the 1-second rule, i.e. the distance covered in 1 second should at most be the distance to the vehicle ahead. At 50 km/h this corresponds to about 15 m. For higher speeds up to about 100 km/h outside built-up areas, a similarly defined 2-second rule applies, which for 100 km/h translates to about 50 m. For speeds on the order of 100 km/h there is also the more or less equivalent rule that the stopping distance be the speed divided by 2 k/h, referred to as halber tacho (half the speedometer) rule, e.g. for 100 km/h the stopping distance should be about 50 m. Additionally, German driving schools teach their pupils that the total stopping distance is typically:

$(Speed\backslash div10)\backslash times3+(Speed\backslash div10)^2$

In the UK, the typical total stopping distances (thinking distance plus braking distance) used in The Highway Code are quoted in Rule 126 as:{{Cite web |title=Typical stopping distance |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/559afb11ed915d1595000017/the-highway-code-typical-stopping-distances.pdf}}

• 20 mph: 40 feet (12 metres)
• 30 mph: 75 feet (23 metres)
• 40 mph: 118 feet (36 metres)
• 50 mph: 175 feet (53 metres)
• 60 mph: 240 feet (73 metres)
• 70 mph: 315 feet (96 metres)

• Assured clear distance ahead
• Brake
• Cadence braking
• Following distance
• Skid mark
• Stopping sight distance
• Threshold braking
• Vehicle metrics
• Vehicular accident reconstruction

{{Reflist|35em|group="Note"}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

• {{anchor|84_ALR2d_976}}{{cite book |title=American Law Reports--Annotated, 2nd Series |chapter=Judicial notice of drivers' reaction time and of stopping distance of motor vehicles traveling at various speeds |author=B. Finberg |publisher=The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company |volume=84 |page=979 |year=2010}}
• {{anchor|9_ALR3d_976}}{{cite book |title=American Law Reports--Annotated, 3rd Series |chapter=Admissibility in evidence, in automobile negligence action, of charts showing braking distance, reaction times, etc. |author=E. Campion |publisher=The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company |volume=9 |page=976 |year=2008}}
• {{anchor|78_ALR2d_218}}{{cite book |title=American Law Reports--Annotated, 2nd Series |chapter=Admissibility of experimental evidence, skidding tests, or the like, relating to speed or control of motor vehicle |author=C. C. Marvel|publisher=The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company |volume=78 |page=218 |year=2012}}
• {{anchor|29_ALR3d_248}}{{cite book |title=American Law Reports--Annotated, 3rd Series |chapter=Opinion testimony as to speed of motor vehicle based on skid marks and other facts |author=Jerre E. Box |publisher=The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company |volume=29 |page=248 |year=2009}}
• {{anchor|72_ALR2d_6}}{{cite book |title=American Law Reports--Annotated, 2nd Series |chapter=Negligence of driver of motor vehicle as respects manner of timely application of proper brakes |author=Wade R. Habeeb |publisher=The Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company; Bancroft-Whitney; West Group Annotation Company |volume=72 |page=6 |year=2008}}

• [http://www.random-science-tools.com/physics/stopping-distance.htm Car Stopping Distance Calculator]
• [http://forensicdynamics.com/stopping-braking-distance-calculator Braking Distance Calculator]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20021113014650/http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+46.2-880 Tables of speed and stopping distances]
• [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fundamentals_of_Transportation/Sight_Distance Wikibooks: Sight Distance]
• [http://www.gov.uk/highway-code The Highway Code (in English)]

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Category:Road transport

Category:Vehicle braking technologies