campylobacter

Campylobacter spp. generally appear as curved or comma-shaped rods, and are able to move via unipolar or bipolar flagella. They grow best between 37–42 °C in a microaerophilic environment.{{Cite web |date=2019-12-23 |title=Information for Health Professionals {{!}} Campylobacter |url=https://www.cdc.gov/campylobacter/technical.html |access-date=2020-11-02 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}} When exposed to atmospheric oxygen, C. jejuni is able to change into a coccus form.{{Cite journal |last=Crushell |first=Ellen |last2=Harty |first2=Sinead |last3=Sharif |first3=Farhana |last4=Bourke |first4=Billy |date=January 2004 |title=Enteric Campylobacter: Purging Its Secrets? |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/pr20042 |journal=Pediatric Research |language=en |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1203/01.PDR.0000099794.06260.71 |issn=1530-0447 |pmid=14605259|doi-access=free }} Most species of Campylobacter are positive by the oxidase test and catalase test and are able to reduce nitrate. The number of known quinolone-resistant Campylobacter strains is growing. It is suggested that this is caused by the overuse of quinolone antibiotics in animal agriculture.

Theodor Escherich was the first to describe in 1886 what are known today as Campylobacters in the stool samples of infants, who perished from a disease he named "cholera infantum".{{Cite journal |last=Samie |first=A. |last2=Obi |first2=C.L. |last3=Barrett |first3=L.J. |last4=Powell |first4=S.M. |last5=Guerrant |first5=R.L. |date=June 2007 |title=Prevalence of Campylobacter species, Helicobacter pylori and Arcobacter species in stool samples from the Venda region, Limpopo, South Africa: Studies using molecular diagnostic methods |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2006.10.047 |journal=Journal of Infection |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=558–566 |doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2006.10.047 |issn=0163-4453 |pmid=17145081|url-access=subscription }} In the following years until the end of the century, a number of publications appeared, describing the occurrence of such "spirilla" in cases of "cholera-like" and "dysenteric" disease. These organisms were mainly found in the colon or associated with mucus in diarrhoeal stool specimens. Vibrio-like bacteria were also described by Sir John McFadyean and Stockman in 1913 in fetal tissues of aborted sheep.{{cite journal |last=Altekruse |first=SF |last2=Stern |first2=NJ |last3=Fields |first3=PI |last4=Swerdlow |first4=DL |date=1999 |title=Campylobacter jejuni--an emerging foodborne pathogen |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=28–35 |doi=10.3201/eid0501.990104 |oclc=677425436 |pmc=2627687 |pmid=10081669}} For several years Campylobacters were continuously referred to as ‘‘Vibrio-like organisms’’, until 1963 when Sebald and Veron gave the name "Campylobacter" to the genus based on their shape and microaerophilic growth requirement and after showing significant biological differences with Vibrio species.

The genomes of several Campylobacter species have been sequenced, beginning with C. jejuni in 2000.{{Cite journal |last=Fouts |first=Derrick E. |last2=Mongodin |first2=Emmanuel F. |last3=Mandrell |first3=Robert E. |last4=Miller |first4=William G. |last5=Rasko |first5=David A. |last6=Ravel |first6=Jacques |last7=Brinkac |first7=Lauren M. |last8=DeBoy |first8=Robert T. |last9=Parker |first9=Craig T. |last10=Daugherty |first10=Sean C. |last11=Dodson |first11=Robert J. |last12=Durkin |first12=A. Scott |last13=Madupu |first13=Ramana |last14=Sullivan |first14=Steven A. |last15=Shetty |first15=Jyoti U. |date=2005-01-04 |title=Major Structural Differences and Novel Potential Virulence Mechanisms from the Genomes of Multiple Campylobacter Species |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030015 |journal=PLOS Biology |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=e15 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030015 |issn=1545-7885 |pmc=539331 |pmid=15660156 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last=Parkhill |first=J. |last2=Wren |first2=B. W. |last3=Mungall |first3=K. |last4=Ketley |first4=J. M. |last5=Churcher |first5=C. |last6=Basham |first6=D. |last7=Chillingworth |first7=T. |last8=Davies |first8=R. M. |last9=Feltwell |first9=T. |last10=Holroyd |first10=S. |last11=Jagels |first11=K. |last12=Karlyshev |first12=A. V. |last13=Moule |first13=S. |last14=Pallen |first14=M. J. |last15=Penn |first15=C. W. |date=February 2000 |title=The genome sequence of the food-borne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni reveals hypervariable sequences |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/35001088 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=403 |issue=6770 |pages=665–668 |doi=10.1038/35001088 |issn=1476-4687}} These genome studies have identified molecular markers specific to members of Campylobacter.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Campylobacter ssp. genomes are rather small compared to those of other gastrointestinal pathogens, with sizes ranging between 1.60 and 1.90 Mbp. A characteristic of most Campylobacter genomes is the presence of hypervariable regions, which can differ greatly between different strains.

Studies have investigated the genes responsible for motility in Campylobacter species. Some Campylobacter species contain two flagellin genes in tandem for motility, flaA and flaB. These genes undergo intergenic recombination, further contributing to their virulence.{{cite journal |last=Grant |first=CC |last2=Konkel |first2=ME |last3=Cieplak |first3=W |last4=Tompkins |first4=LS |date=May 1993 |title=Role of flagella in adherence, internalization, and translocation of Campylobacter jejuni in nonpolarized and polarized epithelial cell cultures |journal=Infection and Immunity |volume=61 |issue=5 |pages=1764–71 |doi=10.1128/IAI.61.5.1764-1771.1993 |pmc=280763 |pmid=8478066}} A single Type VI secretion system (T6SS) cluster was also predicted in approximately one-third of Campylobacter species, grouping into three distinct organisations and harbouring up to five vgrG genes.{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=L |last2=Liaw |first2=J |last3=Omole |first3=Z |last4=Corcionivoschi |first4=N |last5=Hachani |first5=A |last6=Gundogdu |first6=O |title=In silico investigation of the genus Campylobacter type VI secretion system reveals genetic diversity in organization and putative effectors |journal=Microbial Genomics |date=October 2022 |volume=8 |issue=10 |page=000898 |doi=10.1099/mgen.0.000898 |issn=2057-5858 |pmid= 36314601 |pmc=9676060 |doi-access=free }}

The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN){{cite web| author=A.C. Parte| url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/campylobacter| title=Campylobacter| access-date=2023-09-09| publisher=List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN)| display-authors=et al.}} and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI){{cite web| author=Sayers| url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=194&lvl=3&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock| title=Campylobacter| access-date=2023-09-09| publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) taxonomy database| display-authors=et al.}}

Species incertae sedis:

• C. devanensis Miller et al. 2024
• "C. faecalis" Kachler et al. 2000
• "C. lawrenceae" Foley et al. 2004
• C. magnus Gruntar et al. 2023
• C. porcelli Miller et al. 2024
• C. vicugnae Miller et al. 2024

Campylobacter-specific bacteriophages are natural viral predators of the organism.{{Cite journal |last=Connerton |first=P.L. |last2=Timms |first2=A.R. |last3=Connerton |first3=I.F. |date=2011 |title=Campylobacter bacteriophages and bacteriophage therapy: Campylobacter bacteriophages |url=https://academic.oup.com/jambio/article/111/2/255/6715035 |journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology |language=en |volume=111 |issue=2 |pages=255–265 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.2011.05012.x |pmid=21447013 |s2cid=46270047|url-access=subscription }} Bacteriophages specific to the species now known as C. coli and C. fetus (previously Vibrio coli and V. fetus), were first isolated from cattle and pigs during the 1960s, and Campylobacter bacteriophage therapy is an ongoing area of research in the age of bacterial antibiotic resistance.{{cite journal |last=Firehammer |first=BD |last2=Border |first2=M |vauthors= |date=November 1968 |title=Isolation of temperate bacteriophages from Vibrio fetus |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=2229–35 |pmid=5693467}}{{cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=RD |vauthors= |year=1965 |title=Activity and morphology of Vibrio coli phage |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=26 |issue=111 |pages=361–4}}

{{Main|Campylobacteriosis}}

Campylobacter can cause a gastrointestinal infection, campylobacteriosis. The incubation period is 24–72 hours after infection.{{Cite journal |last=Zilbauer |first=Matthias |last2=Dorrell |first2=Nick |last3=Wren |first3=Brendan W. |last4=Bajaj-Elliott |first4=Mona |date=February 2008 |title=Campylobacter jejuni-mediated disease pathogenesis: an update |url= |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=123–129 |doi=10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.09.019 |issn=0035-9203 |pmid=18023831}} This is characterized by an inflammatory, sometimes bloody diarrhea or dysentery syndrome, mostly including cramps, fever, and pain.{{cite journal |last=Humphrey |first=Tom |last2=O'Brien |first2=Sarah |last3=Madsen |first3=Mogens |vauthors= |date=July 2007 |title=Campylobacters as zoonotic pathogens: a food production perspective |journal=International Journal of Food Microbiology |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=237–57 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.01.006 |pmid=17368847}}{{cite press release |title=Infections from some foodborne germs increased, while others remained unchanged in 2012 |publisher=CDC |date=April 18, 2013 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0418-foodborne-germs.html |access-date=October 22, 2015}} The most common routes of transmission are fecal-oral, ingestion of contaminated food or water, and the eating of raw meat. Foods implicated in campylobacteriosis include raw or under-cooked poultry, raw dairy products, and contaminated produce. Campylobacter is sensitive to the stomach's normal production of hydrochloric acid: as a result, the infectious dose is relatively high, and the bacteria rarely cause illness when a person is exposed to less than 10,000 organisms. Nevertheless, people taking antacid medication (e. g. people with gastritis or stomach ulcers) are at higher risk of contracting disease from a smaller number of organisms, since this type of medication neutralizes normal gastric acid.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

In humans, the sites of tissue injury include the jejunum, the ileum, and the colon.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Most strains of C. jejuni produce cytolethal distending toxin, which inhibits cell division and impedes activation of the immune system. This helps the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive for a limited time inside intestinal cells.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} Campylobacter has, on rare occasions, been suggested to cause hemolytic uremic syndrome{{Cite journal |last1=Keithlin |first1=Jessica |last2=Sargeant |first2=Jan |last3=Thomas |first3=M. Kate |last4=Fazil |first4=Aamir |date=2014-11-22 |title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of the proportion of Campylobacter cases that develop chronic sequelae |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=14 |pages=1203 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-1203 |issn=1471-2458 |pmc=4391665 |pmid=25416162 |doi-access=free }} and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura,{{Cite journal |last1=Morton |first1=A. R. |last2=Yu |first2=R. |last3=Waldek |first3=S. |last4=Holmes |first4=A. M. |last5=Craig |first5=A. |last6=Mundy |first6=K. |date=1985-11-16 |title=Campylobacter induced thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2865609/ |journal=Lancet |volume=2 |issue=8464 |pages=1133–1134 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(85)90729-9 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=2865609|s2cid=44823836 }} though no unequivocal case reports exist. Campylobacter infection is the most common trigger of Guillain–Barré syndrome.{{Cite journal |last=Finsterer |first=Josef |date=2022-11-17 |title=Triggers of Guillain-Barré Syndrome: Campylobacter jejuni Predominates |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume=23 |issue=22 |pages=14222 |doi=10.3390/ijms232214222 |issn=1422-0067 |pmc=9696744 |pmid=36430700 |doi-access=free }} Gastrointestinal perforation is a rare complication of ileal infection.{{cite journal |last=Jassim |first=SS |last2=Malik |first2=A |last3=Aldridge |first3=A |year=2011 |title=Small bowel perforation: an unusual cause |journal=Grand Rounds |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=17–19 |doi=10.1102/1470-5206.2011.0006}}

Campylobacter has also been associated with periodontitis.

Campylobacter testing needs to be done to manage the risk of foodborne Campylobacter and reducing the level of foodborne Campoboteriosis, to protect people and to determine if a person is infected with Campylobacter.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Usually, detection of Campylobacter in humans is done by laboratory culturing a stool sample or swab of the rectum collected by a healthcare provider. Results take about 48–72 hours for preliminary results. Confirmation test and testing to determine the species of Campylobacter or drug sensitivities of the organism require additional time.{{Cite journal |last=Buss |first=Janice E. |last2=Cresse |first2=Michelle |last3=Doyle |first3=Susan |last4=Buchan |first4=Blake W. |last5=Craft |first5=David W. |last6=Young |first6=Steve |date=2019 |title=Campylobacter culture fails to correctly detect Campylobacter in 30% of positive patient stool specimens compared to non-cultural methods |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-019-03499-x |journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases |language=en |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=1087–1093 |doi=10.1007/s10096-019-03499-x |issn=1435-4373 |pmc=6520473 |pmid=30783889}}

Usually, detection of Campylobacter in livestock is done by laboratory culturing a faecal sample. Results take about 48–72 hours.{{Cite journal |last=Hong |first=Yang |last2=Berrang |first2=Mark E. |last3=Liu |first3=Tongrui |last4=Hofacre |first4=Charles L. |last5=Sanchez |first5=Susan |last6=Wang |first6=Lihua |last7=Maurer |first7=John J. |date=2003 |title=Rapid Detection of Campylobacter coli, C. jejuni, and Salmonella enterica on Poultry Carcasses by Using PCR-Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/AEM.69.6.3492-3499.2003 |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=3492–3499 |bibcode=2003ApEnM..69.3492H |doi=10.1128/AEM.69.6.3492-3499.2003 |issn=0099-2240 |pmc=161512 |pmid=12788755}}

Usually, detection of Campylobacter in meat is done by laboratory culturing a homogenised sample. Results takes about 48–72 hours.

The infection is usually self-limiting and, in most cases, symptomatic treatment by liquid and electrolyte replacement is sufficient to treat human infections. Symptoms typically last 5–7 days. Treatment with antibiotics has only a minor effect on the typical duration of the infection in non-complex cases, and is discouraged except in high-risk patients.{{Cite journal |last=Ternhag |first=Anders |last2=Asikainen |first2=Tommi |last3=Giesecke |first3=Johan |last4=Ekdahl |first4=Karl |date=2007-03-01 |title=A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Antibiotic Treatment on Duration of Symptoms Caused by Infection with Campylobacter Species |url= |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=696–700 |doi=10.1086/509924 |issn=1058-4838 |pmid=17278062}}

Diagnosis of campylobacteriosis is made by testing a fecal specimen. Standard treatment in high-risk cases is azithromycin, a macrolide antibiotic, especially for Campylobacter infections in children,{{cite journal |last=Vukelic |first=Dalibor |last2=Trkulja |first2=Vladimir |last3=Salkovic-Petrisic |first3=Melita |date=April 2010 |title=Single oral dose of azithromycin versus 5 days of oral erythromycin or no antibiotic in treatment of Campylobacter enterocolitis in children: a prospective randomized assessor-blind study |journal=Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=404–10 |doi=10.1097/MPG.0b013e3181a87104 |pmid=19881393 |s2cid=22460970 |doi-access=free}} although other antibiotics, such as quinolones, tetracycline and other macrolides are sometimes used to treat gastrointestinal Campylobacter infections in adults.{{cite journal |last1=Gendrel |first1=D. |last2=Cohen |first2=R. |author3=European Society for Pediatric Infectious Diseases |author4=European Society for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition |title=Diarrhées bactériennes et antibiotiques : les recommandations européennes |trans-title=Bacterial diarrheas and antibiotics: European recommendations |language=fr |journal=Archives de Pédiatrie |date=October 2008 |volume=15 |pages=S93–S96 |doi=10.1016/S0929-693X(08)74223-4 |pmid=19000862 }} In case of systemic infection, other bactericidal antibiotics are used, such as ampicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, or aminoglycosides. Fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin, may no longer be effective in some cases, due to resistance.{{Cite journal |last=Lehtopolku |first=Mirva |last2=Nakari |first2=Ulla-Maija |last3=Kotilainen |first3=Pirkko |last4=Huovinen |first4=Pentti |last5=Siitonen |first5=Anja |last6=Hakanen |first6=Antti J. |date=March 2010 |title=Antimicrobial Susceptibilities of Multidrug-Resistant Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli Strains: In Vitro Activities of 20 Antimicrobial Agents |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/AAC.00898-09 |journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy |language=en |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=1232–1236 |doi=10.1128/AAC.00898-09 |issn=0066-4804 |pmc=2825995 |pmid=20038624}} In addition to antibiotics, dehydrated patients may require intravenous fluid treatment in a hospital.{{Cite journal |last=Mortensen |first=Nicolay |last2=Jonasson |first2=Solveig Aalstad |last3=Lavesson |first3=Ingrid Viola |last4=Emberland |first4=Knut Erik |last5=Litleskare |first5=Sverre |last6=Wensaas |first6=Knut-Arne |last7=Rortveit |first7=Guri |author7-link=Guri Rørtveit |last8=Langeland |first8=Nina |last9=Hanevik |first9=Kurt |date=2021-03-23 |title=Characteristics of hospitalized patients during a large waterborne outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni in Norway |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0248464 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=e0248464 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0248464 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=7987138 |pmid=33755697 |doi-access=free}}

FoodNet Canada has reported that Campylobacter was the most common pathogen found on packaged chicken breast, with nearly half of all samples testing positive. Additionally, Campylobacter and Salmonella were the most common causes of gastrointestinal illness in Canada.{{cite web|url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/foodnetcanada/report-rapport-2014-eng.php |title=FoodNet Canada 2014 Short Report |access-date=3 October 2016 |publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada, FoodNet Canada|date=2016-01-12 }}

In Italy, the annual prevalence of Campylobacter infections appears to be relatively stable based on findings from a national survey conducted on more than 5000 isolates. The survey revealed that the most common species of Campylobacter were C. jejuni, accounting for 83.7% of isolates, followed by C. coli (13.5%) and C. fetus (0.6%). The mean age of affected patients was 34.61 years, with males constituting 57.1% of cases. Outpatients represented the majority of cases, comprising 54% of the total. Campylobacter infections were predominantly isolated from feces, accounting for 97.3% of cases, while a smaller proportion (2.7%) was isolated from blood. Notably, C. fetus was primarily isolated from blood samples, constituting 88.2% of cases. Regarding antibiotic resistance patterns, the survey found that resistance to ciprofloxacin and tetracyclines was relatively high, with rates of 75.5% and 54.8%, respectively. In contrast, resistance to macrolides, including erythromycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin, was lower, with rates ranging from 2% to 4.8%. Additionally, approximately 50% of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates exhibited resistance to two or more antibiotics. There was a significant decrease in resistance to ciprofloxacin and tetracyclines over time, while resistance to macrolides remained stable.{{Cite journal |last=Zerbato |first=Verena |last2=Di Bella |first2=Stefano |last3=Pol |first3=Riccardo |last4=Luzzati |first4=Roberto |last5=Sanson |first5=Gianfranco |last6=Ambretti |first6=Simone |last7=Andreoni |first7=Stefano |last8=Aschbacher |first8=Richard |last9=Bernardo |first9=Mariano |last10=Bielli |first10=Alessandra |last11=Brigante |first11=Gioconda |last12=Busetti |first12=Marina |last13=Camarlinghi |first13=Giulio |last14=Carcione |first14=Davide |last15=Carducci |first15=Antonella |date=2024-03-12 |title=Human Campylobacter spp. infections in Italy |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10096-024-04803-0 |journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10096-024-04803-0 |issn=0934-9723|url-access=subscription }}

In August 2016, an estimated 8,000+ residents of Havelock North, a town with around 13,000 residents, had gastric illness after the water supply was thought to be contaminated by Campylobacter.{{cite news |last=Sharpe |first=Marty |date=19 August 2016 |title=Woman died in Havelock North gastro outbreak |publisher=Stuff |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/83343963/campylobacter-confirmed-in-woman-who-died-in-havelock-north-gastro-outbreak}}{{cite news |url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/311335/govt-rejects-call-for-hawke's-bay-water-emergency-declaration |title=Govt rejects call for Hawke's Bay water emergency declaration |date=19 August 2016 |publisher=Radio New Zealand}}{{Cite journal |last=Gilpin |first=Brent J. |last2=Walker |first2=Tiffany |last3=Paine |first3=Shevaun |last4=Sherwood |first4=Jill |last5=Mackereth |first5=Graham |last6=Wood |first6=Tim |last7=Hambling |first7=Tammy |last8=Hewison |first8=Chris |last9=Brounts |first9=Angela |last10=Wilson |first10=Maurice |last11=Scholes |first11=Paula |last12=Robson |first12=Beth |last13=Lin |first13=Susan |last14=Cornelius |first14=Angela |last15=Rivas |first15=Lucia |date=2020 |title=A large scale waterborne Campylobacteriosis outbreak, Havelock North, New Zealand |url= |journal=Journal of Infection |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=390–395 |doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2020.06.065 |issn=0163-4453 |pmid=32610108 |s2cid=220306856}}

In June 2019, an estimated 2,000 residents of Askøy municipality got sick due to the presence of C. jejuni in the water supply. Two deaths were connected to the outbreak, and it was the largest outbreak of Campylobacter in Norway.{{cite news |last=Olsen |first=Adrian Nyhammer |last2=Baisotti |first2=Valentina |date=11 June 2019 |title=Fant samme bakterie i drikkevannet som hos sykehuspasienter fra Askøy |language=nb |publisher=NRK |url=https://www.nrk.no/hordaland/fant-samme-bakterie-i-drikkevannet-som-hos-sykehuspasienter-fra-askoy-1.14583413}} The suspected source of the contamination was thought to be horse faeces, which leaked into a drinking water pool.{{cite journal |last=Paruch |first=Lisa |last2=Paruch |first2=Adam M. |last3=Sørheim |first3=Roald |vauthors= |date=March 2020 |title=DNA-based faecal source tracking of contaminated drinking water causing a large Campylobacter outbreak in Norway 2019 |journal=International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health |volume=224 |pages=113420 |doi=10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.113420 |pmid=31748129 |doi-access=free|hdl=11250/2731881 |hdl-access=free }} A C. jejuni water isolate thought to be the cause of the outbreak was examined with human isolates, and showed the highest pathogenic potential in vitro, transcriptomic and genomic investigations. This could suggest why the isolate was able to cause an outbreak.{{cite journal |last=Davies |first=Emma |last2=Ebbesen |first2=Marit |last3=Johansson |first3=Cecilia |last4=Kaden |first4=René |last5=Rautelin |first5=Hilpi |vauthors= |date=2020 |title=Genomic and Phenotypic Characterisation of Campylobacter jejuni Isolates From a Waterborne Outbreak |journal=Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology |volume=10 |pages=594856 |doi=10.3389/fcimb.2020.594856 |pmc=7658296 |pmid=33194843 |doi-access=free}}

During the period of August 2016 to June 2017 there was a large outbreak of C. jejuni in Sweden. It was the largest outbreak that has been reported so far. 5000 more cases than would be expected during this period were reported to the authorities. The source of the outbreak was contaminated chicken meat that came from the same producer. The reason for the increased incidence and elevated levels of Campylobacter was reported to be an improperly installed washing plant, where dirty water was accidentally used to wash transport cages.{{cite web |date=2018-05-09 |title=Utbrott av anmälningspliktiga sjukdomar i Sverige 2017 |trans-title=Outbreaks of notifiable diseases in Sweden in 2017 |url=https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/folkhalsorapportering-statistik/tolkad-rapportering/arsrapporter-anmalningspliktiga-sjukdomar/arsrapporter-2017/utbrott-anmalningspliktiga-sjukdomar-2017/#campylobacter |access-date=27 May 2020 |publisher=Folkhälsomyndigheten |language=sv}}

In January 2013, the UK's Food Standards Agency (FSA) warned that two-thirds of all raw chicken bought from UK shops was contaminated with Campylobacter, affecting an estimated half a million people annually and killing about 100 of them.{{cite news |last=Ward |first=Victoria |date=January 23, 2013 |title=FSA warns that chicken bacteria could be next meat scandal |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/9820838/FSA-warns-that-chicken-bacteria-could-be-next-meat-scandal.html}} In June 2014, the FSA started a campaign against washing raw chicken, as washing can spread germs onto clean surfaces by splashing.{{cite web |title=Food Safety Week 2014: 'Don't wash raw chicken' |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/news-updates/campaigns/campylobacter/fsw-2014/ |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108102834/http://www.food.gov.uk/news-updates/campaigns/campylobacter/fsw-2014/ |archive-date=November 8, 2014 |publisher=Food Standards Agency}} In May 2015, cumulative results for samples taken from fresh chickens between February 2014 and February 2015 were published by the FSA and showed 73% of chickens tested positive for the presence of Campylobacter.{{cite press release |title=Campylobacter survey: cumulative results from the full 12 months (Q1 – Q4) |publisher=Food Standards Agency |date=May 28, 2015 |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/news-updates/news/2015/14003/campylobacter-survey-results-12months |access-date=October 23, 2015}}

Campylobacter infections increased 14% in the United States in 2012 compared to the rate from 2006 to 2008. This represents the highest reported number of infections since calendar year 2000.

High prevalence of Campylobacter (40% or more) has been reported in raw chicken meat in regional retail stores in the US, which remained steady from 2005 through 2011.{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Aretha |last2=Oyarzabal |first2=Omar A |date=August 2012 |title=Prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in skinless, boneless retail broiler meat from 2005 through 2011 in Alabama, USA |journal=BMC Microbiology |volume=12 |pages=184 |doi=10.1186/1471-2180-12-184 |pmc=3490988 |pmid=22920043 |doi-access=free}} The last USDA quarterly progress report on Salmonella and Campylobacter testing of meat and poultry, for July–September 2014, showed a low prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in ground chicken meat, but a larger prevalence (20%) in mechanically separated chicken meat (which is sold only for further processing).{{cite web |url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/data-collection-and-reports/microbiology/quarterly-reports-salmonella/q3-cy2014/q3-cy-2014 |title=Quarterly Progress Report on Salmonella and Campylobacter|department=Testing of Selected Raw Meat and Poultry Products: Preliminary Results, July 2014 to September 2014 |date=2015-04-24|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|website=Food Safety and Inspection Service}}

• Helicobacter
• List of bacterial orders
• List of bacteria genera

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

• [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/campylobacter WHO fact sheet on Campylobacter]
• [https://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/campylobacter/ Campylobacter info from the CDC]

{{Bacteria classification|state=collapsed}}

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Category:Bacteria genera

Category:Campylobacterota

Category:Capnophiles

Category:Food microbiology

Category:Pathogenic bacteria

Category:Zoonoses