crowned republic

As an informal term, "crowned republic" lacks any set definition as to its meaning, and the precise difference between a constitutional monarchy and a "crowned republic" remains vague. Different individuals have described various states as crowned republics for varied reasons. For example, James Bryce wrote in 1921:

By Monarchy I understand the thing not the Name i.e. not any State the head of which is called King or Emperor, but one in which the personal will of the monarch is constantly effective, and in the last resort predominant, factor of government. Thus, while such a monarchy as that of Norway is really a Crowned Republic, and indeed a democratic republic, monarchy was in Russia before 1917, and in Turkey before 1905, and to a less degree in Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy until 1918, an appreciable force in the conduct of affairs.{{Harvnb|Bryce|1921|loc= [https://books.google.com/books?id=lwaKAqUMG10C&dq=Crowned+republic&pg=PA535 p. 535]}}

In 1763, John Adams argued that the British Empire was a form of republic:

[T]he British constitution is much more like a republic than an empire. They define a republic to be a government of laws, and not of men. If this definition be just, the British constitution is nothing more nor less than a republic, in which the king is first magistrate. This office being hereditary, and being possessed of such ample and splendid prerogatives, is no objection to the government’s being a republic, as long as it is bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. An empire is a despotism, and an emperor a despot, bound by no law or limitation but his own will; it is a stretch of tyranny beyond absolute monarchy.{{Cite web|title=John Adams argues that the British Empire is not a "true" empire but a form of a "republic" where the rule of law operates (1763)|url=https://oll.libertyfund.org/quote/john-adams-argues-that-the-british-empire-is-not-a-true-empire-but-a-form-of-a-republic-where-the-rule-of-law-operates-1763|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-10|website=Online Library of Liberty|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506230304/https://oll.libertyfund.org/quote/john-adams-argues-that-the-british-empire-is-not-a-true-empire-but-a-form-of-a-republic-where-the-rule-of-law-operates-1763 |archive-date=2021-05-06 }}

The Australian Republic Advisory Committee described the country as a "crowned republic" and stated it was "a state in which sovereignty resides in its people, and in which all public offices, except that at the very apex of the system, are filled by persons deriving their authority directly or indirectly from the people" so "it may be appropriate to regard Australia as a crowned republic".{{harvnb|Patmore|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hc4p65yM_hYC&dq=%22Crowned+republic%22&pg=PA105 105]}} Australian founding father Richard Chaffey Baker did not use the term "crowned republic" but has been identified as one of the first to articulate this view. He "proudly proclaimed his loyalty to the Queen in the same breath as he declared himself a republican", holding that republicanism did not solely revolve around absence of monarchy.{{cite journal|first=Mark|last=McKenna|date=November 1997|title=Sir Richard Chaffey Baker—the Senate's First Republican|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/binaries/senate/pubs/pops/pop30/pop30.pdf|journal=Papers on Parliament|volume=30|publisher=Department of the Senate|pages=49–62}}

H. G. Wells (1866–1946) used the term in his book A Short History of the World to describe the United Kingdom,{{sfn|Wells|1922|loc=Chapter LXIV}} as did Alfred, Lord Tennyson in 1873 in an epilogue to Idylls of the King.{{sfn|Tennyson|1873}} In referring to the UK as a crowned republic, the Australian Republic Advisory Committee stated "Britain has not been a constitutional monarchy since probably the late 18th century."

In the Kingdom of Greece, the term Βασιλευομένη Δημοκρατία (Vasilevoméni Dimokratía, literally crowned democracy or crowned republic) became popular after the 23 October 1862 Revolution, which resulted in the introduction of the 1864 constitution.{{sfn|Great Greek Encyclopedia|1934|p=239}} The Constitution of 1952 enshrined the concept into law by declaring the form of government that of a Crowned Republic.{{sfn|Constitution of Greece|1952}} This is sometimes translated as "Crowned Democracy".{{cite journal|last1=Markesinis|first1=Basil S.|title=Reflections on the Greek Constitution|journal=Parliamentary Affairs|date=1973|volume=27|issue=1973September|pages=8–27|doi=10.1093/parlij/27.1973sep.8}}

In 2021, the concept of a crowned republic was proposed in the context of the European Union as a possible means to bridge the differences between the federal and confederal aspects of the EU's framework.[https://www.ewmagazine.nl/ingezonden-opinie/achtergrond/2021/03/romeinse-oplossingen-voor-de-europese-unie-810679 Martijn Hollinger, ‘Romeinse oplossingen voor de Europese Unie’, EW Magazine, March 31, 2021] The idea was elaborated in the book The Crowned Republic: A Roman-Inspired Constitution for the European Union.[https://metadata.isbn.nl/1701314/the-crowned-republic.html Martijn Hollinger, The Crowned Republic. A Roman-Inspired Constitution for the European Union (2024).]

In 1987, Patrick Collinson argued that the government of Elizabethan England (1558–1603) can be described as a "monarchical republic", because there were serious limits on Queen Elizabeth I's independent authority, and some privy councillors sponsored a scheme to allow a brief interregnum if the queen should be killed by her Catholic enemies.[https://www.manchesterhive.com/view/journals/bjrl/69/2/article-p394.xml Patrick Collinson, ‘The Monarchical Republic of Queen Elizabeth I’, Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 69, no. 2 (1987), 394-424.] Many historians have accepted and expanded upon this theory.John F. McDiarmid, ed. The Monarchical Republic of Early Modern England: Essays in Response to Patrick Collinson (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007). However, in 2019, Jonathan McGovern suggested that this formulation is an exaggeration, and has been treated too seriously by subsequent historians.[https://academic.oup.com/histres/article/92/257/515/5603469 Jonathan McGovern, ‘Was Elizabethan England Really a Monarchical Republic?’, Historical Research 92, no. 257 (2019), 515-528.]

Many presidents in African have been characterised as "presidential monarchs", owing to their longevity. African presidents have used autocracy to perpetuate themselves in power, sometimes grooming a successor to preserve their regimes. Their leadership style was personalist and neopatrimonial, and they disregarded the separation of powers, facing little accountability. Other than Jean-Bédel Bokassa, few leaders have taken up the title of monarch despite it arguably being more fitting. By the turn of the 21st century, over 25 presidents had been in power for over 20 years, and Africa was home to 7 of the 10 longest serving presidents in the world.

While some Europeans claimed to have groomed their colonies for democracy, this was not the case, and the colonial project for Africa was clearly to “exploit the physical, human, and economic resources of Africa to benefit the colonising nation”, not to "export democracy" with liberal democratic constitutions hastily introduced in the last decade of colonialism. The colonial governor general was effectively an oppressive dictator, and this informed local nationalist leaders. Decolonisation, from around 1960 to 1980, saw colonial powers transfer authoritarian states to first-generation African leaders.

The new elite found multi-party state building challenging, and largely transitioned to one-party states. Francophone states in West Africa had already moved to one-party states prior to independence, with Ghana's Nkrumah copying this, establishing himself as president for life, later replicated by other English-speaking countries. The disenchantment of civilian politics led to various coups, an average of 25 per decade between 1960 and 2000, resulting in militaristic presidential monarchs alongside civilian ones. In the Cold War, the West propped up tyrants while the Soviet Union supported one-party Marxist-Leninist states.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 saw a wave of democratisation. The West implemented a new global neoliberal agenda tying World Bank and International Monetary Fund aid to compliance with multiparty elections and political freedoms. This achieved much popular support and various countries introduced multi-party constitutions, often crucially with two term limits despite indifference from Western countries. In light of this, some leaders attempted to circumvent them or negotiate third terms, sometimes successfully, while others abolished term limits entirely.

• Popular monarchy
• Maritime republics

{{reflist}}

• {{Cite encyclopedia |ref={{sfnRef|Great Greek Encyclopedia|1934}} |url=http://anemi.lib.uoc.gr/php/pdf_pager.php?rec=/metadata/a/f/b/metadata-01-0002588.tkl&do=279838_10.pdf&pageno=264&pagestart=1&width=662&height=963&maxpage=1104&lang=en |title=Ελλάς (Πολίτευμα) |year= 1934 |encyclopedia=The Great Greek Encyclopedia |publisher= Pyrsos Publishing |location=Athens |page=239 |language=Greek |trans-title= Greece (Form of Government) |access-date= 31 August 2018 |quote=Through the Constitution of 1864, constitutional monarchy, or, as it had been described, 'crowned democracy', or 'democratic monarchy', was consolidated as the form of government in Greece.}}
• {{cite book |last=Bryce |first=James |author-link=James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce |year=1921 |title=Modern democracies |volume=2 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=1-4179-1173-5}}
• {{cite book |last=Patmore |first=Glenn |title=Choosing the Republic |year=2009 |publisher=University of New South Wales Press |isbn=978-1-74223-015-3}}
• {{Cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Constitution of Greece|1952}} |url=https://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/syn16.pdf |title= Σύνταγμα της Ελλάδος |year= 1952 |website=hellenicparliament.gr |publisher=Hellenic Parliament |location= Athens |page= 6 |language= Greek |trans-title=Constitution of Greece |access-date=31 August 2018 |quote= Article 21: The Form of Government of Greece is that of a Crowned Republic. All powers stem from the Nation and are exercised in accordance with the Constitution.}}
• {{cite book |last=Tennyson |first=Alfred, Lord |year=1873 |chapter-url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/tennyson/alfred/idylls/chapter13.html |title=Idylls of the King |chapter=To the Queen |access-date=2008-04-02 |archive-date=2016-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306030537/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/tennyson/alfred/idylls/chapter13.html |url-status=dead }}
• {{Cite book |last=Wells |first=H.G. |year=1922 |chapter=LXIV. The British Empire in 1914 |title=A Short History of the World |chapter-url=https://www.bartleby.com/86/64.html}}

Category:Monarchy