deportation

Definitions of deportation vary: some include "transfer beyond State borders" (distinguishing it from forcible transfer), others consider it "the actual implementation of [an expulsion] order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily". Others differentiate removal of legal immigrants (expulsion) from illegal immigrants (deportation).{{cite web|title=Disguised Extradition, i.e., Surrender by Other Means |url=https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=090000168007495d|work=Council of Europe}}

Deportation in the most general sense, in accordance with International Organization for Migration,{{cite journal|title=International Migration Law No. 34 – Glossary on Migration |url=https://publications.iom.int/books/international-migration-law-ndeg34-glossary-migration|journal=IOM|date=19 June 2019 }} treats expulsion and deportation as synonyms in the context of migration, adding:

"The terminology used at the domestic or international level on expulsion and deportation is not uniform but there is a clear tendency to use the term expulsion to refer to the legal order to leave the territory of a State, and removal or deportation to refer to the actual implementation of such order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily."W. Kälin, "Aliens, Expulsion and Deportation" in R. Wolfrum (ed) Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (2014).{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=September 2024}}

According to the European Court of Human Rights, collective expulsion is any measure compelling non-nationals, as a group, to leave a country, except where such a measure is taken on the basis of a reasonable and objective examination of the particular case of each individual non-national of the group. Mass expulsion may also occur when members of an ethnic group are sent out of a state regardless of nationality. Collective expulsion, or expulsion en masse, is prohibited by several instruments of international law.{{sfn|IOM|2011|p=35}}

Expulsions occurred in ancient history. They were well-recorded particularly in ancient Mesopotamia. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah faced several forced expulsions, including deportations by the Neo-Assyrian Empire following the fall of Israel and during Sennacherib's campaign in the 8th century BC. Later, the Neo-Babylonian Empire deported much of the Judean population upon conquering Judah in 597 BC and 587 BC.{{Cite book |last=Lemche |first=Niels Peter |title=Historical dictionary of ancient Israel |date=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-4848-1 |series=Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras |location=Lanham, Md. |pages=106 |quote=}}

Deportation was practiced as a policy toward rebellious people in Achaemenid Empire. The precise legal status of the deportees is unclear; but ill-treatment is not recorded. Instances include:A. Shapur Shahbazi, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at {{cite web| url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/deportations| title = 'Deportations' – Encyclopaedia Iranica}} (accessed on 30 December 2012).

Unlike in the Achaemenid and Sassanian periods, records of deportation are rare during the Arsacid Parthian period. One notable example was the deportation of the Mards in Charax, near Rhages (Ray) by Phraates I. The 10,000 Roman prisoners of war after the Battle of Carrhae appear to have been deported to Alexandria Margiana (Merv) near the eastern border in 53 BC, who are said to married to local people. It is hypothesized that some of them founded the Chinese city of Li-Jien after becoming soldiers for the Hsiung-nu, but this is doubted.

Hyrcanus II, the Jewish king of Judea (Jerusalem), was settled among the Jews of Babylon in Parthia after being taken as captive by the Parthian-Jewish forces in 40 BC.{{cite book |last1=Kooten |first1=George H. van |last2=Barthel |first2=Peter |title=The Star of Bethlehem and the Magi: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from Experts on the Ancient Near East, the Greco-Roman World, and Modern Astronomy |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |page=540 |isbn=9789004308473 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnbsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA540 |language=en}}

Roman POWs in the Antony's Parthian War may have suffered deportation.

Deportation was widely used by the Sasanians, especially during the wars with the Romans.

During Shapur I's reign, the Romans (including Valerian) who were defeated at the Battle of Edessa were deported to Persis. Other destinations were Parthia, Khuzestan, and Asorestan. There were cities which were founded and were populated by Romans prisoners of war, including Shadh-Shapur (Dayr Mikhraq) in Meshan, Bishapur in Persis, Wuzurg-Shapur (Ukbara; Marw-Ḥābūr), and Gundeshapur. Agricultural land were also given to the deportees. These deportations initiated the spread Christianity in the Sassanian empire. In Rēw-Ardashīr (Rishahr; Yarānshahr), Persis, there was a church for the Romans and another one for Carmanians. Their hypothesized decisive role in the spread of Christianity in Persia and their major contribution to Persian economy has been recently criticized by Mosig-Walburg (2010).{{cite journal |last1=Mosig-Walburg |first1=Karin |title=Deportationen römischer Christen in das Sasanidenreich durch Shapur I. und ihre Folgen: eine Neubewertung |journal=Klio |date=2010 |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=117–156 |doi=10.1524/klio.2010.0008 |s2cid=191495778 |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3629684 |issn=0075-6334}} In the mid-3rd century, Greek-speaking deportees from north-western Syria were settled in Kashkar, Mesopotamia.

After the Arab incursion into Persia during Shapur II's reign, he scattered the defeated Arab tribes by deporting them to other regions. Some were deported to Bahrain and Kirman, possibly to both populate these unattractive regions (due to their climate) and bringing the tribes under control.

In 395 AD 18,000 Roman populations of Sophene, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Cappadocia were captured and deported by the "Huns". the prisoners were freed by the Persians as they reached Persia, and were settled in Slōk (Wēh Ardashīr) and Kōkbā (Kōkhē). The author of the text Liber Calipharum has praised the king Yazdegerd I (399–420) for his treatment of the deportees, who also allowed some to return.

Major deportations occurred during the Anastasian War, including Kavad I's deportation of the populations of Theodosiopolis and Amida to Arrajan (Weh-az-Amid Kavad).

Major deportations occurred during the campaigns of Khosrau I from the Roman cities of Sura, Beroea, Antioch, Apamea, Callinicum, and Batnai in Osrhoene, to Wēh-Antiyōk-Khosrow (also known as Rūmagān; in Arabic: al-Rūmiyya). The city was founded near Ctesiphon especially for them, and Khosrow reportedly "did everything in his power to make the residents want to stay". The number of the deportees is recorded to be 292,000 in another source.Christensen, The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500, 1993. {{page needed|date=August 2016}}

{{Expand section|date=January 2024}}

{{See also|Medieval antisemitism|Expulsion of the Moriscos}}

The Medieval European age was marked with several large religious deportations, including that of Christians, Jews and Muslims. For instance, the Almoravid deported Christians from Spain to Morocco, with mass deportations taking place in 1109, 1126, 1130 and 1138.{{cite journal |title=The Papacy and Christian Mercenaries of Thirteenth-Century North Africa |first=Michael |last=Lower |journal=Speculum |volume=89| issue = 3 July |year=2014 |pages=601–631 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |doi=10.1017/S0038713414000761 |s2cid=154773840 }}

With the beginning of the Age of Discovery, deporting individuals to an overseas colony also became common practice. As early as the 16th century, degredados formed a substantial portion of early colonists in Portuguese empire.Russell-Wood (1998: p. 106–107) From 1717 onward Britain deported around 40,000{{cite book |last= Hill |first= David |title= 1788 the brutal truth of the first fleet |publisher= Random House Australia |isbn= 978-1741668001 |date= 2010}}{{rp|5}} British religious objectors and "criminals" to America before the practice ceased in 1776.Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life, 2002 Jailers sold the "criminals" to shipping contractors, who then sold them to plantation owners. The "criminals" worked for the plantation owner for the duration of their sentence.{{rp|5}} After Britain lost control of the area which became the United States, Australia became the destination for "criminals" deported to British colonies. Britain transported more than 160,000{{rp|1}} British "criminals" to the Australian colonies between 1787 and 1855.McCaffray and Melancon, p. 171.

Meanwhile, in Japan during Sakoku, all Portuguese and Spanish people were expelled from the country.

In the 18th century the Tipu Sultan, of Mysore, deported tens of thousands of civilians, from lands he had annexed, to serve as slave labour in other parts of his empire, for example the: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam.{{Cite book|last=Farias|first=Kranti K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNHYAAAAMAAJ|title=The Christian Impact in South Kanara|date=1999|publisher=Church History Association of India|isbn=978-81-7525-126-7|pages=68|language=en}}

In the late 19th century the United States of America began designating "desired" and "undesired" immigrants, leading to the birth of illegal immigration and subsequent deportation of immigrants when found in irregular situations.{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/the-birth-of-illegal-immigration|title=The Birth of 'Illegal' Immigration|website=www.history.com|date=2017-09-17}} Starting with the Chinese Exclusion Act, the US government has since deported more than 55 million immigrants, the majority of whom came from Latin-American countries.{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-647?d=%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199329175.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199329175-e-647&p=emailAcvE3rPVoe6SI|chapter=The History of Immigrant Deportations|date=2020-06-30|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.647 |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |last1=Hester |first1=Torrie |isbn=978-0-19-932917-5 }}

At the beginning of the 20th century the control of immigration began becoming common practice, with the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 in Australia,{{cite web |title=Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (Cth) |url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-16.html |access-date=7 November 2016 |work=Documenting a Democracy |publisher=Museum of Australian Democracy}} the Aliens Act 1905 in the United KingdomDavid Rosenberg, '[https://web.archive.org/web/20071214001623/http://www.channel4.com/culture/microsites/O/origination/immigration_winners.html Immigration]' on the Channel 4 website and the Continuous journey regulation of 1908 in Canada,{{cite book |last1=Johnston |first1=Hugh |title=The Voyage of the Komagata Maru: The Sikh's challenge to Canada's colour bar |date=1995 |publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |page=138 |url=http://komagatamarujourney.ca/node/5102 |access-date=13 March 2022 |chapter=Exclusion |quote="The Canadian government tried to stop the Indian influx with a continuous passage order-in-council issued 8 Jan. 1908, but it was loosely drafted and successfully challenged in court"}} elevating the deportation of "illegal" immigrants to a global scale.

In the meantime, deportation of "regular residents" also increased.

{{main|Deportation and removal from the United States}}

In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, more stringent enforcement of immigration laws were ordered by the executive branch of the U.S. government, which led to increased deportation and repatriation to Mexico. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, between 355,000 and 2 million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were deported or repatriated to Mexico, an estimated 40 to 60% of whom were U.S. citizens – overwhelmingly children. At least 82,000 Mexicans were formally deported between 1929 and 1935 by the government. Voluntary repatriations were more common than deportations.{{cite news|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/102163/imre12054.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|title=Immigration, Repatriation, and Deportation: The Mexican-Origin Population in the United States, 1920–1950|last1=Gratton|first1=Brian|last2=Merchant |first2=Emily|date=December 2013|pages=944–975|publisher=The International migration review|issue=4|volume=47}}McKay, "The Federal Deportation Campaign in Texas: Mexican Deportation from the Lower Rio Grande Valley During the Great Depression", Borderlands Journal, Fall 1981; Balderrama and Rodriguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s, 1995; Valenciana, "Unconstitutional Deportation of Mexican Americans During the 1930s: A Family History and Oral History", Multicultural Education, Spring 2006. In 1954, the executive branch of the U.S. government implemented Operation Wetback, a program created in response to public hysteria about immigration and immigrants from Mexico.See Albert G. Mata, "Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 by Juan Ramon García", Contemporary Sociology, 1:5 (September 1983), p. 574 ("the widespread concern and hysteria about 'wetback inundation'..."); Bill Ong Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy, Temple University Press, 2004, p. 130. {{ISBN|1-59213-233-2}} ("While Operation Wetback temporarily relieved national hysteria, criticism of the Bracero program mounted."); David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity, University of California Press, 1995, p. 168. {{ISBN|0-520-20219-8}} ("The situation was further complicated by the government's active collusion in perpetuating the political powerlessness of ethnic Mexicans by condoning the use of Mexican labor while simultaneously whipping up anti-Mexican hysteria against wetbacks."); Ian F. Haney López, Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice, new ed., Belknap Press, 2004, p. 83. {{ISBN|0-674-01629-7}} ("... Operation Wetback revived Depression-era mass deportations. Responding to public hysteria about the 'invasion' of the United States by 'illegal aliens', this campaign targeted large Mexican communities such as East Los Angeles."); Jaime R. Aguila, "Book Reviews: Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. By Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez", Journal of San Diego History, 52:3–4 (Summer–Fall 2006), p. 197. ("Anti-immigrant hysteria contributed to the implementation of Operation Wetback in the mid 1950s....") Operation Wetback led to the deportation of nearly 1.3 million Mexicans from the United States.García, Juan Ramon. Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1980. {{ISBN|0-313-21353-4}}Hing, Bill Ong. Defining America Through Immigration Policy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|1-59213-232-4}}

{{main|The Holocaust}}

File:Stroop Report - Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 09.jpg]]

Nazi policies deported homosexuals, Jews,[https://www.yadvashem.org/holocaust/about/final-solution/deportation.html Deportation to the Death Camps], Yad Vashem[http://db.yadvashem.org/deportation/search.html?language=en Database of deportations] during the Holocaust – The International Institute for Holocaust Research, Yad Vashem Poles, and Romani from their established places of residence to Nazi concentration camps or extermination camps set up at a considerable distance from their original residences. During the Holocaust, the Nazis made heavy use of euphemisms, where "deportation" frequently meant the victims were subsequently killed, as opposed to simply being relocated.{{cite web |title=Holocaust Glossary |publisher=Scholastic |url=http://teacher.scholastic.com/frank/gloss.htm }}

{{main|Population transfer in the Soviet Union}}

The Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin carried out forced mass transfers of some 6 million people during the 1930s and 1940s, resulting in millions of deaths. As many as 110 separate deportations have been catalogued, included the targeting of at least 13 distinct ethnicities and 8 entire nations. Many historians have described Soviet deportations as ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity, and/or genocide.{{Cite journal |last=Pohl |first=J. Otto |title=Stalin's genocide against the 'Repressed Peoples' |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/713677598 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2000 |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=267–293 |doi=10.1080/713677598 |issn=1462-3528}}{{Cite web |title=UNHCR publication for CIS Conference (Displacement in the CIS) – Punished peoples: the mass deportations of the 1940s |author= |work=UNHCR US |date=1996-05-01 |access-date=18 July 2024 |url= https://www.unhcr.org/us/publications/unhcr-publication-cis-conference-displacement-cis-punished-peoples-mass-deportations}}{{Cite web |title=A century of deportations. How Russia has been destroying nations |work=Ukraїner |date= 18 June 2023|access-date=18 July 2024 |url= https://www.ukrainer.net/en-mass-deportations-by-russia/}}{{cite book |last1=Polian |first1=Polian |title=Against Their Will |date=2004 |publisher=Central European Press |location=Hungary |isbn=9639241687}}{{cite book |last=Werth |first=Nicholas |chapter=The Crimes of the Stalin Regime: Outline for an Inventory and Classification|editor-last=Stone|editor-first=Dan |edition=repeated |lccn=2007048561 |title=The Historiography of Genocide |url=https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston|url-access=limited |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=9780230297784 |location=Basingstoke}}

{{main|The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia|World War II persecution of Serbs}}

An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the Independent State of Croatia to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.{{cite book|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina P.|title=The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2006|location=New York|isbn=0-253-34656-8|page=114}}

All countries reserve the right to deport persons without right of abode, even those who are longtime residents or possess permanent residency. In general, foreigners who have committed serious crimes, entered the country illegally, overstayed or broken the conditions of their visa, or otherwise lost their legal status to remain in the country may be administratively removed or deported.Henckaerts, Mass Expulsion in Modern International Law and Practice, 1995, p. 5; Forsythe and Lawson, Encyclopedia of Human Rights, 1996, pp. 53–54.

Since the 1980s, the world also saw the development of practices of externalization/"offshoring immigrants", currently being used by Australia, Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom,{{cite news |last1=Raphael |first1=Therese |date=20 April 2022 |title=Boris Johnson Won't Find Refuge in Rwanda |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2022-04-20/boris-johnson-won-t-find-refuge-from-his-troubles-in-rwanda |access-date=12 May 2022 |work=Bloomberg UK}} and the European Union.{{cite book |last1=FitzGerald |first1=David Scott|authorlink=David Scott FitzGerald |title=Refuge beyond Reach: How Rich Democracies Repel Asylum Seekers |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-087417-9 |language=en}} Some of the countries in the Persian Gulf have even used this to deport their own citizens, paying the Comoros to give them passports and accept them.{{Cite news |last=Mahdavi |first=Pardis |date=2016-06-30 |title=Stateless and for Sale in the Gulf |language=en-US |work=Foreign Affairs |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/comoros/2016-06-30/stateless-and-sale-gulf |access-date=2024-01-03 |issn=0015-7120}}{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21710679-many-are-left-stateless-result-silence-dissidents-gulf-states-are|title=To silence dissidents, Gulf states are revoking their citizenship|newspaper=The Economist|date=26 November 2016}}

The period after the fall of the Iron Curtain showed increased deportation and readmission agreements in parts of Europe.[https://www.temaasyl.se/Documents/Artiklar/hors259.pdf Zetter, Roger, et al. "An assessment of the impact of asylum policies in Europe, 1990–2000." Home Office Online Report 17.03 (2003).]

During its invasion of Ukraine, the Russian Federation has perpetrated mass deportations of Ukrainian citizens to Russia and occupied territories. While independent numbers are difficult to come by, and depending on the degree of Russian coercion or force required to meet the definition of "deported", reported numbers range from tens of thousands to 4.5 million deportees.{{Cite web |title= Update on the human rights situation in Ukraine | work=United Nations Human Rights |date=2022 |access-date=18 July 2024 |url= https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-03/HRMMU_Update_2022-03-26_EN.pdf}}{{Cite web |title=Deportation of Ukrainian citizens from the territory of active military operations or from the temporarily occupied territory of Ukraine to the territory of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus |work=5:00 AM Coalition |access-date=18 July 2024 |url= https://zmina.ua/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/01/deportation_eng.pdf}}{{Cite web |title="We Had No Choice" "Filtration" and the Crime of Forcibly Transferring Ukrainian Civilians to Russia |work=Human Rights Watch |date=2022-09-01 |access-date=18 July 2024 |url= https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2022/09/ukraine0922_web.pdf }}

Dominican Republic deported more than 250,000 Haitians and Dominicans of Haitian descent to Haiti in 2023.{{cite web | title=Dominican Republic must end de facto racist migration policies | website=Amnesty International | date=2 April 2024 | url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/04/dominican-republic-must-stop-racist-immigration-policies/ | access-date=14 September 2024}}

{{See also|List of denaturalized former citizens of the United States}}

Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, C.L.R. James, Claudia Jones, Fritz Julius Kuhn, Lucky Luciano, and Anna Sage were all deported from the United States by being arrested and brought to the federal immigration control station on Ellis Island in New York Harbor and, from there, forcibly removed from the United States on ships.

File:Anarchist anti deporation protest.jpg

Many criticize deportations as inhumane, as well as questioning their effectiveness. Some are completely opposed towards any deportations, while others state it is inhumane to take somebody to a foreign land without their consent.{{cite news| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made-by-history/wp/2017/07/18/mass-deportation-isnt-just-inhumane-its-ineffective/| title = Mass deportation isn't just inhumane. It's ineffective| newspaper = The Washington Post}}{{Cite web|url=https://irr.org.uk/article/analysis-deaths-during-forced-deportation/|title=Analysis: Deaths during forced deportation|date=11 January 2013 }}{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9780822391340-007 |chapter=4. From Exception to Excess: Detention and Deportations across the Mediterranean Space |title=The Deportation Regime |year=2020 |pages=147–165 |publisher=University of Leicester |hdl=2381/9344 |isbn=978-0-8223-9134-0 |s2cid=159652908 |chapter-url=https://figshare.com/articles/chapter/From_Exception_to_Excess_Detention_and_Deportations_across_the_Mediterranean_Space/10100693 }}

In literature, deportation appears as an overriding theme in the 1935 novel, Strange Passage by Theodore D. Irwin.

Films depicting or dealing with fictional cases of deportation are many and varied. Among them are Ellis Island (1936), Exile Express (1939), Five Came Back (1939), Deported (1950), and Gambling House (1951). More recently, Shottas (2002) treated the issue of U.S. deportation to the Caribbean post-1997.

{{div col|colwidth=28em}}

• Ethnic cleansing
• Forced migration
• Acadian deportation
• Diaspora
• Denaturalization
• Depopulation of Diego Garcia
• Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)
• Impediment to expulsion
• Indian Removal Act
• Israelite deportation
• June deportation
• Operation Priboi
• Penal transportation
• Population transfer
• Population transfer in the Soviet Union
• Prussian deportations of 1885–1890
• Remigration
• Removal proceedings
• Right of return
• Seminole Wars
• Soviet deportations from Estonia
• Exile

{{div col end}}

Notes

{{Reflist}}

Bibliography

{{refbegin|45em}}

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• Garrity, Meghan (2022). "Introducing the Government-Sponsored Mass Expulsion Dataset". Journal of Peace Research.

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Category:Punishments

Category:Extradition