destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
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File:Jerusalem Holy Sepulchre BW 22.JPG
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, other churches, synagogues, Torah scrolls and other non-Muslim religious artifacts and buildings in and around Jerusalem, were destroyed starting on 28 September 1009 on the orders of the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, known by his critics as "the mad Caliph"{{cite book|author=Jerome Murphy-O'Connor|title=Keys to Jerusalem: Collected Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOdpBdorm8wC&pg=PA245|date=23 February 2012|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-964202-1|pages=245–}} or "Nero of Egypt".{{Cite book |last=Ahmed (Sheikh.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPNPAAAAMAAJ |title=Muslim Architecture: From the Advent of Islam in Arabia to the Rise of the Great Ummayad Khilafat in Spain |date=1974 |publisher=Pakistan Institute of Arts and Design of Book-Production |pages=51 |language=en}} His son, the Fatimid Caliph Al-Zahir, allowed the Byzantines to rebuild the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1027–28. The construction of a much diminished ensemble was wrapped up by 1048.{{Cite book|last=Lev|first=Yaacov|title=State and Society in Fatimid Egypt|publisher=E.J. Brill|year=1991|isbn=978-90-04-09344-7|location=New York|pages=40}} This was the second of the two times the church was seriously damaged, the first being in 614 during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628.
File:Golgotha cross-section.svg and the Tomb of Jesus]]
Prelude to the desecration
At Easter in 1008, Al-Hakim started tightening controls on religious freedoms in Jerusalem, forbidding Christians from making their annual Palm Sunday procession from Bethany.{{cite book|author=Denys Pringle|title=The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: Volume 3, The City of Jerusalem: A Corpus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0jH6VPi4-gC&pg=PA11|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-39038-5|pages=11–}} A strict and pious Muslim, Al-Hakim had a demonstrated distaste at the religious practice of both Christians and Jews in the city of Jerusalem.{{Cite book |last=Rubinstein |first=Jay |title=Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse |publisher=Basic Books |year=2011 |isbn=0465027482 |location=New York City |language=en}}
Holy Sepulchre destruction
On 29 September 1009, Al-Hakim ordered a governor of Ramla called Yarukh to demolish the area around Constantine's original Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Yarukh, along with his son Yusuf, Al-Husayn ibn Zahir al-Wazzan and Abu'l-Farawis Al-Dayf, were among those who started destroying various buildings. Some Christians believe the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is built on the site of Calvary or Golgotha, where Jesus was crucified, near a rock-cut room that Helena and Macarius identified as the location of the resurrection. The destruction was chronicled by Yahya ibn Sa'id of Antioch who noted it "cast down as far as the foundations" and the rock cut tomb was demolished in the attempt to "cause all trace of it to disappear". All sacred remains and holy relics were "completely annihilated". Iron hammers were ineffectual against the bedrock foundations of the tomb, so they resorted to burning it with fire.
Wider desecration
The desecration was not only carried out on Christian sites in and around Jerusalem. In campaigns of 1011 and 1013–14, Al-Hakim continued his campaign of destruction against Jewish synagogues and Torah scrolls along with churches all over Syria. Unlike other Fatimids, Al-Hakim launched persecutions against dhimmis that lasted throughout his reign.{{cite book|author=Michael Frassetto|title=Christian Attitudes Toward the Jews in the Middle Ages: A Casebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OiIpCRWAEwgC&pg=PA26|year=2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-97827-9|pages=26–}} Christians were made to wear crosses and Jews forced to wear wooden blocks around their necks.{{cite book|author=Marina Rustow|author-link=Marina Rustow|title=Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219|date=3 October 2014|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5529-2|pages=219–}} He only stopped for fear of retaliatory attacks on mosques in Christian lands.
European reaction
When the news reached Europe, Christians were horrified; Pope Sergius IV sent a circular letter to all churches, calling for a holy fight in the Middle East, and expulsion of Muslims from the Holy Land.{{cite book|author=Irven M. Resnick|title=Marks of Distinctions: Christian Perceptions of Jews in the High Middle Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LarC4PG9osUC&pg=PA135|date=1 June 2012|publisher=CUA Press|isbn=978-0-8132-1969-1|pages=135–}} The events would later be recalled by Pope Urban II, in his preaching for the Crusade at Clermont.{{cite book|author=Michael Brett|title=The Rise of the Fatimids: The World of the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the Fourth Century of the Hijra, Tenth Century Ce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqCdfhW3nVwC&pg=PA1|year=2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11741-5|page=1}} Although the crusades happened almost a century after the desecration (and were motivated by various other complex political intrigues), with the church rebuilt and pilgrimages from Europe resuming during that period, it was still very much in the public mind as a cause.{{cite book|author=Helen J. Nicholson|title=The Crusades|url=https://archive.org/details/crusades00nich|url-access=registration|date=1 January 2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32685-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crusades00nich/page/5 5]–}} It was considered so by William of Tyre.William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. p. 65, Columbia University Press, 1943.
Adémar de Chabannes wrote about the events, drawing associations between Al-Hakim (who is considered important to the Druze faith and self-proclaimed himself to be the representative of the Mahdi{{cite book|author=Clinton Bennett|title=Understanding Christian-Muslim Relations: Past and Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=THTUAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104|date=10 June 2008|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-8264-8782-7|pages=104–}}) and the Antichrist, blaming the Jews for inspiring his desecration of the Holy Sepulchre.{{cite book|author1=Karolyn Kinane|author2=Michael A. Ryan|title=End of Days: Essays on the Apocalypse from Antiquity to Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UoNsXawpSIC&pg=PA61|date=9 April 2009|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5359-7|pages=61–}} Rodulfus Glaber also wrote, circa 1040, a history of the events blaming French Jews from Orléans, claiming that they had sent a message to the caliph via a pilgrim disguised as a Jew. The message was said to have been hidden inside a hollow staff, and urged the caliph to destroy the sepulchre lest Christians take over his empire otherwise. Rodulfus portrayed Al-Hakim as gullible, and firmly cast blame on the Jews. This led to outbreaks of antisemitism and violence against Jews across Europe; King Robert II of France ordered forced conversions, and the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II expelled Jews from Mainz, condemning Judaism as heresy.{{cite book|author=James Palmer|title=The Apocalypse in the Early Middle Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MVveBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|date=20 November 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-08544-2|pages=219–}}
Arabic chroniclers
Al-Qalanisi and Al-Djawizi suggested that Al-Hakim was angered by the supposed miracle of the Holy Fire, which had been reported as early as the 9th century. Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Maqrizi suggested that it was a fradulent miracle caused by the use of black elder and quicksilver.{{cite book|author=Niall Christie|title=Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity's Wars in the Middle East, 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd_pAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125|date=27 June 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-68279-0|pages=125–}} Bar Hebraeus and Severus ibn al-Muqaffa report accounts of a Christian monk named John who had become disenchanted with the patriarch of Jerusalem informed the caliph of the fraud to disparage him. Severas notes the patriarch was arrested at the time of the sepulchre's destruction and Adémar confirms he was killed. The patriarch of Jerusalem who was secretly put to death over the matter was Arsenius, also a patriarch of Alexandria and apparently an uncle of Al-Hakim.[http://www.patriarchateofalexandria.com/index.php?module=content&cid=001003&id=140&lang=en |title=Arsenios (1000–1010) |publisher=Official web site of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa |accessdate=2011-02-07]
Motivations
Al-Hakim's motivations for the desecration are unclear and have been variously attested. John J. Saunders states that his anti-Christian policies were intended to mitigate the discontent aroused by his father's liberal attitude towards non-Muslims.{{cite book|author=John Joseph Saunders|title=A History of Medieval Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_d2KAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109|date=11 March 2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-93005-0|pages=109–}} There were also suspicions of Christians colluding with Bedouin tribes to undermine Fatimid power.{{cite book|author=Juan Eduardo Campo|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA394|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-2696-8|pages=394–}} It was possibly in retaliation for Byzantine attacks.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523174?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Restorations of Jerusalem and the Dome of the Rock and Their Political Significance, 1537-1928, Beatrice St. Laurent and András Riedlmayer, Muqarnas, Vol. 10, Essays in Honor of Oleg Grabar (1993), pp. 76–84, BRILL] In Master of the Age, historian Paul. E Walker writes that in the popular imagination of the era, Al-Hakim's actions were interpreted by some Muslims as "doing what a Muslim leader should do" by destroying the pre-Islamic cultural heritage as part of a policy seen to be "commanding the good and forbidding the bad".{{cite book|author=Paul E. Walker|title=Master of the Age: لمصابیح في إثبات الإمامة|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NzwXbcrvFwAC&pg=PA7|date=15 December 2007|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-604-0|pages=7–}} William of Tyre's account claimed that Al-Hakim had been born to a Christian mother, and that he desecrated Jerusalem in order to dispel suspicions of Christian allegiance.{{cite book|author1=Delia Cortese|author2=Simonetta Calderini|title=Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HFDHoHDtNgC&pg=PA52|year=2006|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-1733-3|pages=52–}} Some note Al-Hakim's shifting religious allegiances finally starting a new Abrahamic religion (Druze).{{cite book|author=Marshall Cavendish Reference|title=Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Zp_5IydPGgC&pg=PA101|year=2011|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7929-1|pages=101–}} Other sources simply posit that he was mentally disturbed.{{cite book|author=Caroline Williams|title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cmc4HSC5XWgC&pg=PA3|date=1 January 2008|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-416-205-3|pages=3–}}