domestic pigeon

File:John William Waterhouse - The Favorites of the Emperor Honorius - 1883.jpg is a historically prominent individual who kept pigeons as pets.]]

Despite the long history of pigeons, little is known about the specifics of their initial domestication. Which subspecies of C. livia was the progenitor of domestics, exactly when, how many times, where and how they were domesticated, and how they spread, remains unknown. Their fragile bones and similarity to wild birds make the fossil record a poor tool for their study. Thus most of what is known comes from written accounts, which almost certainly do not cover the first stages of domestication.{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2214 |chapter=Pigeons: Domestication |title=Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology |year=2014 |last1=Gilbert |first1=M. Thomas P. |last2=Shapiro |first2=Michael D. |pages=5944–5948 |url=https://shapiro.biology.utah.edu/Shapiro_Lab/pdf_pubs/Encyclopedia%20of%20Global%20Archaeology%202013%20Gilbert.pdf|isbn=978-1-4419-0426-3 }}{{cite web |last1=Hester |first1=Jessica Leigh |title=The Case for Pigeon-Watching |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/pigeons-birdwatching-rosemary-mosco |website=atlasobscura.com |date=29 November 2021 |publisher=Atlas Obscura |access-date=30 November 2023}}

File:Dovecote at Nymans Gardens, West Sussex, England May 2006 3.JPG at Nymans Gardens, West Sussex, England]]

Pigeons were most likely domesticated in the Mediterranean at least 2000–5000 years ago, and may have been domesticated earlier as a food source.{{cite journal |last1=Stringham |first1=Sydney A. |last2=Mulroy |first2=Elisabeth E. |last3=Xing |first3=Jinchuan |last4=Record |first4=David |last5=Guernsey |first5=Michael W. |last6=Aldenhoven |first6=Jaclyn T. |last7=Osborne |first7=Edward J. |last8=Shapiro |first8=Michael D. |title=Divergence, Convergence, and the Ancestry of Feral Populations in the Domestic Rock Pigeon |journal=Current Biology |date=February 2012 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=302–308 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2011.12.045 |pmid=22264611 |pmc=3288640 |bibcode=2012CBio...22..302S }} Some research suggests that domestication occurred as early as 10,000 years ago.{{cite book| last =Blechman | first =Andrew | title =Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the world's most revered and reviled bird. | publisher =University of Queensland Press | year =2007| location =St Lucia, Queensland | url =http://andrewblechman.com/pigeons/learn_more.html| isbn =978-0-7022-3641-9 }}{{cite journal |last1=Shapiro|first1=Michael D.|last2=Domyan|first2=Eric T.|date=2013|title=Domestic pigeons|journal=Current Biology|volume=23|issue=8|pages=R302–R303|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2013.01.063|pmc=4854524|pmid=23618660|bibcode=2013CBio...23.R302S}}

The earliest recorded mention of pigeons comes from Mesopotamia some 5,000 years ago.{{cite web |title=Secret World of Pigeons Timeline |url=https://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/content/interactives/secretworldofpigeons/timeline/default.htm |website=cbc.ca |publisher=CBC |access-date=30 November 2023}} Pigeon Valley in Cappadocia has rock formations that were carved into ancient dovecotes. Ancient Egyptians kept vast quantities of them, and would sacrifice tens of thousands at a time for ritual purposes.{{cite web |last1=Parks |first1=Shoshi |title=Did Ancient Egypt Have a Pigeon Problem? |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/ancient-egypt-pigeon-problem |website=atlasobscura.com |date=25 January 2023 |publisher=Atlas Obscura |access-date=30 November 2023}} Akbar the Great traveled with a coterie of thousands of pigeons.{{cite web |first1=Ursula |last1=Sims-Williams|title=blogs.bl.uk |url=https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/2013/02/pigeon-keeping-a-popular-mughal-pastime.html |website=Pigeon keeping: a popular Mughal pastime |publisher=British Library |access-date=17 March 2025}}{{Cite web |last=Kabir |first=M. Ashraful |date=18 October 2023 |title=Social and Basic Sciences Review |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333682399 |access-date=18 October 2023 |website=Researchgate.net}}{{cite web |title=The Royal Pigeons |url=https://www.birdnote.org/listen/shows/royal-pigeons |website=birdnote.org |date=23 February 2022 |publisher=BirdNote |access-date=30 November 2023}}{{cite web |title=5 Animals the Mughal Emperor Akbar loved |url=https://www.theheritagelab.in/akbar-favourite-animals/#akbar-s-very-first-tutor-when-he-was-a-child-in-kabul-was-dismissed-on-the-charge-of-being-too-fond-of-pigeon-flying |website=theheritagelab.in |date=3 July 2020 |publisher=The Heritage Lab |access-date=30 November 2023}}

The domestic pigeon was brought to the Americas by European colonists as an easy source of food and as messengers. Some sources state the species was first introduced to North America in 1606 at Port Royal, Nova Scotia.{{cite web| last=White |first=Helen |title=Rock Pigeons |publisher=Helen White |url=http://www.diamonddove.info/bird14%20Rock%20Dove.htm |website=www.diamonddove.info |access-date=2008-02-18}}{{self published inline|date=July 2019}} Although other sources cite Plymouth and Jamestown settlements in the early 17th century as the first place for species introduction in North America.{{cite web|title=Rock Dove Facts - NatureMapping|url=http://naturemappingfoundation.org/natmap/facts/rock_dove_712.html|access-date=2021-06-30|website=naturemappingfoundation.org}} Around the 18th century, European interest in fancy pigeons began, and breeders there greatly expanded the variety of pigeons, importing birds from the Middle East and South Asia and mixing different breeds to create new ones.

Because domestic and feral pigeons have extensively interbred with wild rock doves, genetically pure wild-type pigeons may not exist anymore, or are nearly extinct. This frequent admixture further muddies the true origins of pigeons.

File:Pomeranian show crest(spread ash).jpg pigeon, showing one of the forms of feather crest that pigeons may possess]]

From a genetic perspective, there are two loose ancestral clades of pigeons, but there is striking genetic homogeneity due to frequent interbreeding and human directed cross-breeding; pigeon fanciers often do not enforce breed standards, unlike with dogs. The first ancestral clade contains pigeons with exaggerated crops, tails, and manes; the second contains tumblers (the most diverse group), homing pigeons, owl pigeons, and those with exaggerated wattles. Over the millennia of human interaction with pigeons, a multitude of pigeon breeds have been created, which differ in either plumage or body structure.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

Some varieties of domestic pigeon have modified feathers called "fat quills". These feathers contain yellow, oil-like fat that derives from the same cells as powder down. This is used while preening and helps reduce bacterial degradation of feathers by feather bacilli.{{cite journal|last1=Peters|first1=Anne|last2=Klonczinski|first2=Eva|last3=Delhey|first3=Kaspar|title=Fat quill secretion in pigeons: Could it function as a cosmetic?|journal= Animal Biology|volume=60|pages=69–78|date=March 2010|doi=10.1163/157075610X12610595764219|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233572565}}

A wild-type pigeon is closest in markings to the rock dove, which possesses a gradienting, slate-grey head and body with a green-purple iridescent neck, and ash-grey wings and tail with dark, often black, barring.{{cite journal |last1=Lowther |first1=Peter E. |last2=Johnston |first2=Richard F. |editor-first1=Shawn M. |editor-last1=Billerman |title=Rock Pigeon Columba livia |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/rocpig/cur/introduction|url-access=subscription|website=birdsoftheworld.org |date=2020 |publisher=Birds of the World, Cornell Lab |doi=10.2173/bow.rocpig.01 |access-date=11 March 2025}} Due to millennia of selective breeding, including crossing with other Columba species, domestic pigeons possess major variations in plumage; often two birds from the same clutch may be of different color. The domestic pigeon possesses 3 main colors; the wild-type blue, brown, and ash-red. This variation in color is linked to the parent's sex chromosomes; as animals with the ZW chromosome system, cockbirds possess the color genes from both parents, while hens only inherit their father's color and patterns. Additionally, there is some dominance observed; ash-red is dominant over the other two base colors, while blue is dominant over brown.{{cite web |title=Color |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/color |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu |publisher=University of Utah |access-date=16 November 2023}} Recessive red is a unique color which is inherited differently from the three base ones; it is distinct from ash-red in that the bird always is a uniform chestnut color.{{cite web |title=Recessive Red |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/recessivered |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu |publisher=University of Utah |access-date=16 November 2023}}

Another important aspect of pigeon markings is the pattern on the wing coverts, which exists in four variants; wild-type bar, check, T-check, and barless. T-check is the most dominant pattern, followed by check, barred, and the least dominant barless pattern.{{cite web |title=Pattern |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/pattern |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu |publisher=University of Utah |access-date=16 November 2023}} Additionally, the modifiers spread and dilute affects the expression of the color; the spread gene spreads the color of the bird's tail to its entire body, while dilute lightens the bird's overall color, as if were a dye being diluted to reduce its saturation.{{cite web |title=Spread |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/spread |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu |publisher=University of Utah |access-date=16 November 2023}}{{cite web |title=Dilute |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/dilute |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu |publisher=University of Utah |access-date=16 November 2023}}

There are many other markings present in pigeons; among them are milky, almond, opal, dirty, indigo, grizzle, and various "stencil" and "bronzing" factors; all of which further modify the base markings of a bird. Conversely, pigeons possess multiple genetic pathways that can produce a completely white bird.

A recessive allele in the EphB2 gene controls the crested-feather mutation in domestic pigeons.{{Cite web |title=The Secret of the Pigeon's Crest |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/secret-pigeons-crest |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=www.science.org |language=en}} Pigeons with two copies of the crest allele grow neck and head feathers that point towards the top of the head, unlike other feathers that point towards the tail.{{Cite web |title=Crest |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/crest |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu}} Additionally, bacterial growth analysis suggests that crested pigeons have reduced bacterial-killing abilities due to reduced kinase activity.{{Cite journal |last1=Vickrey |first1=Anna I. |last2=Domyan |first2=Eric T. |last3=Horvath |first3=Martin P. |last4=Shapiro |first4=Michael D. |date=October 2015 |title=Convergent Evolution of Head Crests in Two Domesticated Columbids Is Associated with Different Missense Mutations in EphB2 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=2657–2664 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msv140 |issn=1537-1719 |pmc=4683366 |pmid=26104009}} Pigeons may express the crest gene differently depending on its genetic heritage; two squabs from the same brood descending from the same pair may have one bird develop a peak crest, and the other a wild-type smooth head.{{cite web |title=Crest |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/crest |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu |publisher=University of Utah |access-date=30 November 2023}}

File:Fancy-pigeon.jpg with feathered feet]]

Pigeons with feathers growing on their feet have differently expressed genes: a hindlimb-development gene called PITX1 is less active than normal, and a forelimb-development gene called Tbx5 that normally develops the wings is also active in the feet, causing both feather growth and larger leg bones. The cause of these changes is a change in the regulatory sequences of DNA that control the expression of the Pitx1 and the Tbx5 genes, rather than mutations in the genes themselves.{{Cite web |title=Foot Feathering |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/footfeathering |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu}}{{Cite web |title=Pigeon foot feather genes identified {{!}} UNews |url=https://unews.utah.edu/pigeon-foot-feather-genes-identified/ |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=unews.utah.edu |language=en-US}} Pigeon foot feathering has been studied as a potential model for the transition from feathered to "scaled" feet in non-avian dinosaurs.{{cite web |title=Pigeon foot feather genes identified: Study hints how scaly dinosaur legs could get birdlike feathers |url=https://phys.org/news/2016-03-pigeon-foot-feather-genes-hints.html |website=phys.org |access-date=9 March 2025}} It is thought that large feathers, especially flight feathers on the feet were lost in all living birds as it was too inefficient in powered flight. Domestic pigeons quickly overheated when flying with their scaled feet covered, and it is thought that the loss of microraptorian-like hind-wings allowed for more efficient powered flight.{{cite web |title=Fancy pigeons and Unnatural Selection |url=https://chasmosaurs.com/2018/11/13/fancy-pigeons-and-unnatural-selection/ |website=chasmosaurs.com |date=13 November 2018 |publisher=Love in the Time of Chasmosaurs |access-date=9 March 2025}}

Pouter- or cropper breeds exhibity the trait of inflating their crops with air, producing their signature "globe". This trait is inheritable and partially dominant, though cockbirds tend to exhibit this trait more than females.{{cite web |title=Inherited Characteristics Gallery |url=https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/other/ |website=learn.genetics.utah.edu |publisher=University of Utah |access-date=11 March 2025}} Some cropper breeds may have issues with passing food and water through their crops, though this problem isn't universal and can be treated by owners.{{cite web |last1=van Benten |first1=Nico |title=Crop problems at our pigeons |url=http://www.aviculture-europe.nl/nummers/07E03A03.pdf |website=www.aviculture-europe.nl |publisher=Aviculture-Europe. |access-date=11 March 2025}}

There is strong evidence that some divergences in appearance between the wild-type rock dove and domestic pigeons, such as checkered wing patterns and red/brown coloration, may be due to introgression by cross-breeding with the speckled pigeon.{{cite web |title=Columbiformes |url=https://avianhybrids.wordpress.com/columbiformes/ |website=Avian Hybrids |date=12 December 2014 |first1=Jente |last1=Ottenburghs }}{{self-published inline|date=April 2023}}{{cite journal |last1=Vickrey |first1=Anna I |last2=Bruders |first2=Rebecca |last3=Kronenberg |first3=Zev |last4=Mackey |first4=Emma |last5=Bohlender |first5=Ryan J |last6=Maclary |first6=Emily T |last7=Maynez |first7=Raquel |last8=Osborne |first8=Edward J |last9=Johnson |first9=Kevin P |last10=Huff |first10=Chad D |last11=Yandell |first11=Mark |last12=Shapiro |first12=Michael D |date=Jul 17, 2018 |title=Introgression of regulatory alleles and a missense coding mutation drive plumage pattern diversity in the rock pigeon |journal=eLife |volume=7 |doi=10.7554/eLife.34803 |pmid=30014848 |pmc=6050045 |doi-access=free }}{{citation |last1=Irwin |first1=M. R.|last2=Cole |first2=L. J.|last3=Gordon |first3=C. D.|title=Immunogenetic studies of species and of species hybrids in pigeons, and the separation of species-specific characters in backcross generations |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology |year=1936 |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=285–308 |doi=10.1002/jez.1400730206 |bibcode=1936JEZ....73..285I }}{{cite journal |title=The Time of Appearance of Species-Specific Antigens of Columba guinea in the Embryos of Backcross Hybrids |journal=Journal of Physiological Zoology |year=1953 |doi=10.1086/physzool.26.2.30154509 |last1=Miller |first1=Wilmer J. |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=124–131 |s2cid=87693174 }}

Domestic pigeons may be crossed with the ringneck dove (Streptopelia risoria) to create offspring, but the offspring are not fertile.{{Cite web |title=Known Dove/Pigeon Hybrids |url=http://www.exoticdove.com/IDS/Articles/hybrids.htm |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=www.exoticdove.com}}{{Cite web |title=Convergent Evolution of Head Crests in Two Domesticated Columbids Is Associated with Different Missense Mutations in EphB2 |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/32/10/2657/1210209?login=false |access-date=2023-05-28 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution| date=2015 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msv140 | last1=Vickrey | first1=Anna I. | last2=Domyan | first2=Eric T. | last3=Horvath | first3=Martin P. | last4=Shapiro | first4=Michael D. | volume=32 | issue=10 | pages=2657–2664 | pmid=26104009 | pmc=4683366 }}

{{See also|Pigeon keeping}}

File:Pigeon kid.jpg]]

Domestic pigeons reproduce exactly as wild rock pigeons do; settling in a safe, cool nook, building a flimsy stick nest, and laying two eggs that are incubated for a little longer than two weeks, usually 17 to 19 days. A pigeon keeper may select breeding partners, but in an open loft the birds choose their own mate. Both sexes of pigeons are extremely protective of their eggs and young, and often defend them vigorously from nest predators, including their human keepers; they are defensive of their personal space, and see their nests as extensions of said space.{{cite journal |last1=Walkowiak |first1=P. |title=Lofts as Shared Spaces: Examining Socio-Spatial Interactions Among Humans, King Pigeons, and Other Species. |date=18 February 2025|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12304-025-09596-z |journal=Biosemiotics |doi=10.1007/s12304-025-09596-z|access-date=11 March 2025}}

Baby pigeons are squabs, squeakers,{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Mary Gormandy |title=Baby Animal Names: A Complete List of Common Terms |url=https://www.yourdictionary.com/articles/baby-animal-names |website=www.yourdictionary.com |publisher=LoveToKnow Media. |access-date=11 March 2025}}{{cite web |title=When does a Squeaker stop Squeaking! |url=https://www.pigeons.biz/threads/when-does-a-squeaker-stop-squeaking.48615/ |website=www.pigeons.biz |access-date=11 March 2025}} or peepers, the latter two being a reference to their cry when begging for food.{{cite book |editor=Forshaw, Joseph |author=Crome, Francis H.J. |year=1991 |title=Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds |publisher=Merehurst Press |place=London |pages=115–116 |isbn=978-1-85391-186-6}} Initially, the squabs are fed by their parents with crop milk, which contains high amounts of protein and fat, some breeds are bred into such debilitating forms that they may require human intervention to produce squabs successfully, which necessitates the owner to raise them themselves by feeding the chicks with special squab formula (similar to infant formula){{cite web |title=Squab Diet |url=https://roudybush.myshopify.com/products/squab-diet |website=roudybush.myshopify.com |publisher=roudybush |access-date=24 April 2025}}{{cite web |title=#1385 SQUAB FORMULA - 1 LB. |url=https://foyspetsupplies.com/squab-formula-1-lb/ |website=foyspetsupplies.com |publisher=Foy's Pet Supplies |access-date=24 April 2025}} or by fostering them under another pair of pigeons. This may also be necessary if the parents are unable or unwilling to raise the squab.{{cite journal |title=Comparing the Effect of Different Management and Rearing Systems on Pigeon Squab Welfare and Performance after the Loss of One or Both Parents |journal=Animals |date=April 2019 |volume=9 |issue=4 |page=165 |doi=10.3390/ani9040165 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332431053 |access-date=24 April 2025 |last1=Abdel Fattah |first1=Azhar F. |last2=Roushdy |first2=El-Shimaa M. |last3=Tukur |first3=Hammed A. |last4=Saadeldin |first4=Islam M. |last5=Kishawy |first5=Asmaa T. Y. |pmid=31013998 }} When fed by their parents, the squabs develop much faster than other species of poultry, such as quail, and fostering in human care may be more effective than using a surrogate pair of pigeons.

As the chicks grow and become more mobile and alert, their parents transition them to their adult food of seeds and grains. A pigeon hen may start a new clutch before her previous one has fledged, in which case her mate raises the previous clutch on his own. Pigeons reach their adult size around four weeks of age,{{cite journal |last=Canova |first=Jane |date=Spring 2005 |title=Monuments to the Birds: Dovecotes and Pigeon Eating in the Land of Fields |journal=Gastronomica |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=50–59 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2005.5.2.50 |jstor=10.1525/gfc.2005.5.2.50}}{{cite book |last=Schiere |first=Hans |author2=van der Hoek, Rein |title=Livestock keeping in urban areas: a review of traditional technologies based on literature and field experiences |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |year=2001 |series=FAO animal production and health paper |volume=151 |page=29 |isbn=978-92-5-104575-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mywom_Ourn8C&q=pigeon&pg=PP12}} and after fledging the chicks will follow their parents to the communal feeding ground; areas with plentiful forage that a pigeon flock uses. Here the chicks gain their independence and integrate into pigeon society.

Domestic pigeons were selected to breed faster than their wild ancestors;{{cite journal |last=Skinner |first=B.F. |date=March 1986 |title=Some Thoughts About The Future |journal=Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=229–245 |doi=10.1901/jeab.1986.45-229 |pmid=3958668 |pmc=1348231}} a lack of a breeding season, abundance of food in a domestic setting, and swift maturity (squabs fledge in about a month, and often have already bred and fledged a few clutches of their own before reaching a year in age) leads to swift population growth of pigeons in the flock. This fact, and the number of pigeons lost in races or intentionally released, leads to exponential growth in free-living, feral populations.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

File:Columba livia nest 2 eggs.jpg|alt=Nest with two eggs

File:Columba livia 1 day old.jpg|Nestlings, one day

File:Stadttaube kueken.jpeg|Nestling, five days

File:Feral Rock Dove nest with chicks.jpg|Nestlings, about 10 days

File:Rock dove 18 days old in its nest and one egg.jpg|18 days old|alt=18 days old in its nest and one egg

File:Columba livia 22 days old.jpg|Young bird, 22 days

File:Pigeons courting (71062).jpg|Feral pigeons in courtship

{{Main|Feral pigeon#Pathogens}}

Pigeon breeders sometimes suffer from an ailment known as bird fancier's lung or pigeon lung. A form of hypersensitivity pneumonitis, pigeon lung is caused by the inhalation of the avian proteins found in feathers and dung. It can sometimes be combated by wearing a filtered mask.{{cite web

| last =Boyd

| first =Gavin

|author2=Din Ismail|author3=Philip Lynch|author4=Charles McSharry

| title =Process of Pigeon Fancier's Allergic Alveolitis.Current research activity into Pigeon Lung in Scotland: Epidemiological Studies.

| publisher =British Pigeon Fanciers Medical Research

| url =http://www.pigeon-lung.co.uk/articlefiles/art_med_epidemstudy.html

| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080708202432/http://www.pigeon-lung.co.uk/articlefiles/art_med_epidemstudy.html

| url-status =dead

| archive-date =2008-07-08

| format =Web article

| access-date =2008-01-22 }}

Other pigeon related pathogens causing lung disease are Chlamydophila psittaci (which causes psittacosis), Histoplasma capsulatum (which causes histoplasmosis) and Cryptococcus neoformans, which causes cryptococcosis. Avian paramyxovirus is carried by pigeons and is a serious affliction in birds.{{cite journal|last1=Teske|first1= L.|last2= Ryll|first2= M.|last3=Rautenschlein|first3=S|date=4 November 2013|title= Epidemiological investigations on the role of clinically healthy racing pigeons as a reservoir for avian paramyxovirus-1 and avian influenza virus|journal= Avian Pathology|volume=42|issue=6|pages= 557–565 |doi=10.1080/03079457.2013.852157|pmid= 24188518}}{{Clarify|date=March 2025}}

Avian mites may infest domestic pigeons and cause gamasoidosis in humans. There are several methods to treat birds infested with mites or louse, including external insecticides and oral medicine.{{cite web |last1=Vulpe |first1=Cristina |title=Pigeon Lice: Everything You Need To Know About Them |url=https://pigeonpedia.com/pigeon-lice/ |website=pigeonpedia.com |publisher=PigeonPedia |access-date=16 February 2025}}

{{uncited section|date=March 2025}}

File:Junge_Haustauben.jpgs, a domestic pigeon hen has a maximum clutch size of two.]]

{{Main|Squab}}

Pigeons bred for meat are generally referred to as a meat or utility breed. The term "squab" can either refer to young birds or the meat harvested from them; these birds grow to a very large size in the nest before they fledge and are able to fly; during this stage of development they are often fattier and seen as being tastier than the fully-flighted adults. Squabs during this stage are valued as food; in Neolithic and early agricultural communities they were an easy and reliable source of protein, the birds requiring only reliable sources of grains and water (which they independently foraged for) to enter breeding condition, and the rock formations they nested in would have made for attractive dwellings for early humans.

Pigeon meat, both from squabs and from adult birds, are still a source of protein for people worldwide.{{Cite journal |last1=Sales |first1=J. |last2=Janssens |first2=G.P.J. |date=2003-06-01 |title=Nutrition of the domestic pigeon ( Columba livia domestica ) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1079/WPS20030014 |journal=World's Poultry Science Journal |language=en |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=221–232 |doi=10.1079/WPS20030014 |issn=0043-9339}} Breeds of pigeons harvested for their meat during adulthood are collectively known as utility pigeons. For commercial meat production a breed of large white pigeon, the King pigeon, has been developed by selective breeding.{{Cite journal |last1=Kokoszyński |first1=Dariusz |last2=Stęczny |first2=Kamil |last3=Żochowska-Kujawska |first3=Joanna |last4=Sobczak |first4=Małgorzata |last5=Kotowicz |first5=Marek |last6=Saleh |first6=Mohamed |last7=Fik |first7=Martin |last8=Arpášová |first8=Henrieta |last9=Hrnčár |first9=Cyril |last10=Włodarczyk |first10=Karol |date=2020-07-30 |title=Carcass Characteristics, Physicochemical Properties, and Texture and Microstructure of the Meat and Internal Organs of Carrier and King Pigeons |journal=Animals: An Open Access Journal from MDPI |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=1315 |doi=10.3390/ani10081315 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2615 |pmc=7459732 |pmid=32751657}}

{{Main|Homing pigeon|Pigeon racing}}

File:Feral pigeon in flight.jpg

Homing pigeons are a specialized type of pigeon bred for navigation and speed. Originally developed through selective breeding to carry messages,{{cite web |last1=Travers |first1=Scott |title=A Biologist Reveals 3 'History-Changing' Flights Of The Homing Pigeon—The World's First 'International Messenger' |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/scotttravers/2025/02/02/a-biologist-reveals-3-history-changing-flights-of-the-homing-pigeon-the-worlds-first-international-messenger/ |work=Forbes |access-date=11 March 2025}} most notably during warfare,{{cite book |last=Levi |first=Wendell |title= The Pigeon|year= 1977|publisher= Levi Publishing Co, Inc|location= Sumter, S.C.|isbn=978-0-85390-013-9 }} members of this variety of pigeon are still being used in the sport of pigeon racing and the ceremony of releasing white doves at social events.{{Cite web|url=http://www.pangroove.com/dove.html|title=Release of White Doves for your wedding from Pangroove Elegant Events In Barbados|website=www.pangroove.com|access-date=30 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816100334/http://www.pangroove.com/dove.html|archive-date=16 August 2017|url-status=dead}}

These breeds of domestic pigeons, especially when trained are able to return to the home loft if released at a location that they have never visited before and that may be up to {{convert|1000|km|abbr=on}} away. This ability of a pigeon to return home from a foreign location necessitates two sorts of information. The first, called "map sense" is their geographic location. The second, "compass sense" is the bearing they need to fly from their new location to reach their home. Both of these senses, however, respond to a number of different cues in different situations. The most popular conception of how pigeons are able to do this is that they are able to sense the Earth's magnetic field{{Efn|{{cite journal|last= Von Middendorff|first=A.|year=1859|title=Die Isepiptesen Rußlands|journal=Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg |series=Série VI |volume=8|pages=1–143}}{{cite journal|last=Viguier|first=C.|year=1882|title= Le sens de l'orientation et ses organes chez les animaux et chez l'homme|journal= Revne Philosophique de la France et de l'Étranger|volume=14|pages=1–36 |jstor=41071133}}{{cite journal | last1 = Wiltschko | first1 = W. | last2 = Wiltschko | first2 = R. | year = 1996 | title = Magnetic Orientation in Birds | journal = Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 199 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 29–38 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.199.1.29 | pmid = 9317275 | bibcode = 1996JExpB.199...29W }}{{cite journal |last1=Walcott |first1=C. |year=1996 |title=Pigeon homing: observations, experiments and confusions |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=199 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=21–27 |doi=10.1242/jeb.199.1.21 |pmid=9317262 |bibcode=1996JExpB.199...21W }}{{cite journal |last=Keeton |first=W. T. |year=1971 |title=Magnets interfere with pigeon homing |journal=PNAS |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=102–106 |pmc=391171 |doi=10.1073/pnas.68.1.102 |pmid=5276278 |bibcode=1971PNAS...68..102K |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=J. L. |year=1984 |title=Magnetic field sensitivity in animals |journal=Annual Review of Physiology |volume=46 |pages=585–598 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ph.46.030184.003101 |pmid=6370118 }}}} with tiny magnetic tissues in their head (magnetoception), though the exact location of the magnetoception organ is still being researched;{{cite journal |last1=Lauwers |first1=Mattias |last2=Pichler |first2=Paul |last3=Edelman |first3=Nathaniel Bernard |last4=Resch |first4=Guenter Paul |last5=Ushakova |first5=Lyubov |last6=Salzer |first6=Marion Claudia |last7=Heyers |first7=Dominik |last8=Saunders |first8=Martin |last9=Shaw |first9=Jeremy |display-authors=3 |date=May 2013 |title=An Iron-Rich Organelle in the Cuticular Plate of Avian Hair Cells |journal=Current Biology |volume=23 |issue=10 |pages=924–929 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.025 |pmid=23623555 |bibcode=1996CBio....6.1213A|s2cid=9052155 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Nimpf |first1=Simon |last2=Malkemper |first2=Erich Pascal |last3=Lauwers |first3=Mattias |last4=Ushakova |first4=Lyubov |last5=Nordmann |first5=Gregory |last6=Wenninger-Weinzierl |first6=Andrea |last7=Burkard |first7=Thomas R |last8=Jacob |first8=Sonja |last9=Heuser |first9=Thomas |display-authors=3 |date=15 November 2017 |title=Subcellular analysis of pigeon hair cells implicates vesicular trafficking in cuticulosome formation and maintenance |journal=eLife |volume=6 |doi=10.7554/elife.29959 |pmc=5699870 |pmid=29140244 |doi-access=free }} Areas of the pigeon brain that respond with increased activity to magnetic fields are the posterior vestibular nuclei, dorsal thalamus, hippocampus, and visual hyperpallium.{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=L.-Q. |last2=Dickman |first2=J. D. |year=2011 |title=Magnetoreception in an avian brain in part mediated by inner ear lagena |journal=Current Biology |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=418–23 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2011.01.058 |pmid=21353559 |pmc=3062271 |bibcode=2011CBio...21..418W }}{{cite journal |last1=Shao |first1=Yong |last2=Tian |first2=Hang-Yu |last3=Jing |first3=Zhang |last4=Kharrati-Koopaee |first4=Hamed |last5=Guo |first5=Xing |last6=Zhuang |first6=Xiao-Lin |last7=Li |first7=Ming-Li |last8=Nanaie |first8=Hojat Asadollahpour |last9=Tafti |first9=Elahe Dehghani |last10=Shojaei |first10=Bahador |last11=Namavar |first11=Mohammad Reza |last12=Sotoudeh |first12=Narges |last13=Ayoola |first13=Adeola Oluwakemi |last14=Li |first14=Jia-Li |last15=Liang |first15=Bin |last16=Esmailizadeh |first16=Ali |last17=Wang |first17=Shu |last18=Wu |first18=Dong-Dong |title=Genomic and Phenotypic Analyses Reveal Mechanisms Underlying Homing Ability in Pigeon |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=September 2019 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=134–148 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msz208 |pmid=31501895 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335750426 |access-date=11 March 2025}} Wherever the organ is, pigeons can detect magnetic anomalies as weak as 1.86 gauss.{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=C. V. |last2=Davison |first2=M. |last3=Wild |first3=J. M. |last4=Walker |first4=M. M. |year=2004 |title=Magnetoreception and its trigeminal mediation in the homing pigeon |journal=Nature |volume=432 |issue=7016 |pages=508–511 |doi=10.1038/nature03077 |pmid=15565156 |bibcode=2004Natur.432..508M |s2cid=2485429 }}

Another theory is that pigeons have compass sense, which uses the position of the sun, along with an internal clock, to work out direction. However, studies have shown that if magnetic disruption or clock changes disrupt these senses, the pigeon can still manage to get home. The variability in the effects of manipulations to these sense of the pigeons indicates that there is more than one cue on which navigation is based and that map sense appears to rely on a comparison of available cues.{{cite journal | last1 = Wiltschko | first1 = W. | last2 = Wiltschko | first2 = R. | year = 2003 | title = Avian navigation: from historical to modern concepts | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 65 | issue = 2| pages = 257–272 | doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2054| s2cid = 53184279 }}

Other potential cues used include

• The use of a sun compass{{cite journal | last1 = Wallraff | first1 = H.G. | year = 1999 | title = The roles of the sun and the landscape in pigeon homing | journal = Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 202 | issue = 16| pages = 2121–2126 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.202.16.2121 | pmid = 10409483 | bibcode = 1999JExpB.202.2121W }}
• Nocturnal navigation by stars{{cite journal |last1=Kramer. |first1=Gustav |title=Experiments in bird orientation |journal=Ibis |date=3 April 2008 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=265–285 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1952.tb01817.x }}
• Visual landmark mapBaker, R.R. (1984). Bird Navigation: The Solution of a Mystery? London: Hodder & Stoughton.{{cite journal | last1 = Kamil | first1 = A.C. | last2 = Cheng | first2 = K. | year = 2001 | title = Way-finding and landmarks: the multiple-bearing hypothesis | journal = Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 204 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 103–113 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.204.1.103 | pmid = 11104714 | bibcode = 2001JExpB.204..103K | url = http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=bioscibehavior }}
• Navigation by infrasound map{{cite journal |last1=Hagstrum |first1=Jonathan T. |title=Infrasound and the Avian Navigational Map |journal=Journal of Navigation |date=September 2001 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=377–391 |id={{ProQuest|229557494}} |doi=10.1017/S037346330100145X |bibcode=2001JNav...54..377H |s2cid=17357175 }}
• Polarised light compass{{cite journal | last1 = Able | first1 = K.P. | last2 = Able | first2 = M.A. | year = 1993 | title = Daytime calibration of magnetic orientation in a migratory bird requires a view of skylight polarization | journal = Nature | volume = 364 | issue = 6437| pages = 523–525 | doi=10.1038/364523a0| bibcode = 1993Natur.364..523A | s2cid = 4330244 }}
• Olfactory stimuli{{cite journal |last1=Papi |first1=Floriano |title=Pigeon Navigation: Solved Problems and Open Questions |journal=Monitore Zoologico Italiano |date=1 January 1986 |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=471–517 |id={{INIST|8067206}} |doi=10.1080/00269786.1986.10736514 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00269786.1986.10736514 }}{{cite book|last1=Benvenuti |first1=Silvano |last2=Ioalè |first2=Paolo |last3=Papi |first3=Floriano |chapter=The Olfactory Map of Homing Pigeons |title=Chemical Signals in Vertebrates |date=1992 |volume=6 |pages=429–434|doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-9655-1_66 |isbn=978-1-4757-9657-5 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-9655-1_66 |access-date=11 March 2025}} (see also olfactory navigation)

{{Main|Flying/Sporting pigeons}}

File:Domestic Pigeon Flock.jpg and dark body plumage, are flying towards the top right of the photo. Each are in a different part of their flight stroke.|Pigeons of different plumage in flight]]

Pigeons are also kept by enthusiasts for the enjoyment of Flying/Sporting competitions. Unlike racers, these birds are not released far from their home lofts; breeds such as tipplers are bred for the ability to hover above the loft for hours at a time. Their ability to hover for a long time shows the ability of the keeper to select for endurance.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

Wild pigeons naturally flip or somersault when evading aerial predators such as large-bodied falcons; they are naturally selected by the extreme speeds that some stooping falcons reach (over 320 km/h (200 mph)),{{cite web |last1=Marshall |first1=Jessica |title=A Tail of Survival |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/tail-survival |website=www.science.org |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science. |access-date=11 March 2025}} being able to dodge this attack at the last second. Tumbler and roller pigeons are bred to enhance this ability; some birds have been recorded to be able to somersault on the ground and land on its feet, and some breeds are even deliberately bred to a point where the rolling ability is debilitative, being wholly unable to fly due to it.{{cite web |title=Rolling and Tumbling in Pigeons |url=https://www.ufaw.org.uk/birds/pigeons-rolling-and-tumbling |website=www.ufaw.org.uk |publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare |access-date=17 March 2025}}

A breed called the zurito, bred for its speed, may be used in live pigeon shooting.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZuhAQAAQBAJ&q=zuritos+pigeon&pg=PA98|title=Successful Shotgun Shooting|last=Montague|first=Andrew|date=16 August 2000|publisher=Derrydale Press |isbn=9781461702702|access-date=8 October 2021|archive-date=16 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216133159/https://books.google.com/books?id=bZuhAQAAQBAJ&q=zuritos+pigeon&pg=PA98|url-status=live}}{{Cite book|title=Successful Shotgun Shooting|last=Montague|first=Andrew|publisher=The Derrydale Press|year=2000|isbn=1568331649|pages=98}}

{{uncited section|date=March 2025}}

{{Main|Fancy pigeon}}

Pigeon fanciers developed many exotic forms of pigeon through selective breeding. Perhaps the simplest form of display pigeon are those of white plumage, either truly albino or merely white-feathered; these white birds were seen as holy animals or heralds of peace and are well represented in both ancient and contemporary culture.

As pigeonkeepers accrued more experience, they started selecting for increasingly more unusual features in their birds; features such as unusual plumage patterns and colors, various crests, foot feathering, altered stance and proportion, or unusual behaviors are well represented in extant pigeon breeds. These birds are generally classed as fancy pigeons.

Pigeon shows are conventions where pigeon fanciers and breeders meet to compete and trade their fancy pigeons. The various pigeon breeds dubbed "American show" were developed specifically by pigeon show frequenters pursuing a certain show standard determined by the National Pigeon Association. Fanciers compete against each other at exhibitions or shows and the different forms or breeds are judged to a standard to decide who has the best bird.

There are many fancy or ornamental breeds of pigeons: among them are the English carrier pigeons, a variety of pigeon with prominent wattles and an almost vertical stance, the Duchess breed, which has as a prominent characteristic feet that are completely covered by a sort of fan of feathers, the fantails with a fan of tail feathers like a peacock, and the Voorburg Shield Cropper which are bred to inflate their crops in an effort to woo their handlers.

File:Gimpel (Archangel).jpg|Archangel showing its extensive iridescence

File:Capuchine(red).jpg|Old Dutch Capuchine

File:Lucerne gold collar.jpg|Lucerne Gold Collar

File:Oriental frill(Black laced blondinette).jpg|Oriental Frill

File:Old German Owl Champ.jpg|Old German Owl

File:Old dutch owl(blue chequer).jpg|Old Dutch Owl

File:English Owl.jpg|English Owl

File:Chinese owl.jpg|Chinese Owl

File:Valencian figurita(black self).jpg|Valencian Figurita, one of the smallest breeds of pigeon

File:Portuguese tumbler (blue bar).jpg|Portuguese tumbler, another small breed of pigeon

File:Old dutch tumbler(cream barred).jpg|Old Dutch Tumbler

File:Giant runt(mealie).jpg|The Giant Runt, one of the largest pigeon breeds

File:Ghent cropper(mealie).jpg|Ghent Cropper

File:Holle cropper(black).jpg|Holle Cropper

File:Silesian cropper(blue bar).jpg|Silesian Cropper

File:Voorburger Schildkröpfer gelb.jpg|Voorburg Shield Cropper

File:Norwich cropper(barless mealie).jpg|Norwich Cropper

File:Pigmy pouter(blue bar).jpg|Pygmy pouter

File:American show racer(blue chequer).jpg|American Show Racer

File:Dutch beauty homer(blue chequer).jpg|Dutch Beauty Homer

File:Campogrande Valladolid paloma lou cropped.jpg|Garden or English Fantail

File:Fantail(yellow self).jpg|American Fantail

File:Indian fantail(grizzle).jpg|Indian Fantail

File:Danzig highflier(cream).jpg|Danzig Highflyer

File:Oriental roller(grizzle).jpg|Oriental Roller

File:Birmingham roller(andalusian blue).jpg|Birmingham Roller

File:Danish tumbler(yellow self).jpg|Danish Tumbler

File:47. izložba malih životinja u Nedelišću 13.01.2024. - golub pasmine Zagrebački prevrtač.jpg|Zagreb Tumbler

{{Main |Pigeon intelligence}}

Domestic pigeons are model organisms commonly used in laboratory experiments relating to biology; often to test medicines and chemical substances, or in cognitive sciences. Research in pigeons is widespread, encompassing shape and texture perception, exemplar and prototype memory, category-based and associative concepts, and many more unlisted here (see pigeon intelligence).{{cn |date=March 2025}}

Pigeons have been trained to distinguish between cubist and impressionist paintings.{{cite journal |last1=Watanabe |first1=S. |last2=Sakamoto |first2=J. |last3=Wakita |first3=M. |title=Pigeons' discrimination of paintings by Monet and Picasso |journal=Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior |date=March 1995 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=165–174 |doi=10.1901/jeab.1995.63-165 |pmid=16812755 |pmc=1334394 }} In Project Sea Hunt, a US coast guard search and rescue project in the 1970s/1980s, pigeons were shown to be more effective than humans in spotting shipwreck victims at sea.{{cite web |title = Pigeon Search and Rescue Project (Project Sea Hunt)

|publisher = United States Coast Guard |date = 28 May 2009 |url = http://www.uscg.mil/History/articlesPigeonSARProject.asp |access-date = 12 January 2010}}

Pigeons are able to acquire orthographic processing skills,{{cite journal |author1=Damian Scarf |author2=Karoline Boy |author3=Anelisie Uber Reinert |author4=Jack Devine |author5=Onur Güntürkün |author6=Michael Colombo |title=Orthographic processing in pigeons (Columba livia) |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=113 |issue=40 |pages=11272–11276 |date=2016 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1607870113 |pmid=27638211 |pmc=5056114 |bibcode=2016PNAS..11311272S |doi-access=free}} which form part of the ability to read, and basic numerical skills equivalent to those shown in primates.{{cite journal |author1=Damian Scarf |author2=Harlene Hayne |author3=Michael Colombo |title=Pigeons on par with primates in numerical competence |journal=Science |volume=334 |issue=6063 |pages=1664 |date=2016 |doi=10.1126/science.1213357 |pmid=22194568 |s2cid=33936018}}

Pigeons have notably been "employed" as medical imaging data sorters. They have been successfully trained under research conditions to examine data on a screen for the purposes of detecting breast cancer. They appear to use their innate visual navigation skills to do so.{{Cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141357 |title=Pigeons (Columba livia) as Trainable Observers of Pathology and Radiology Breast Cancer Images |year=2015 |last1=Levenson |first1=Richard M. |last2=Krupinski |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Navarro |first3=Victor M. |last4=Wasserman |first4=Edward A. |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=e0141357 |pmid=26581091 |pmc=4651348 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1041357L |doi-access=free}}

Pigeons are sometimes kept as indoor pets, with the practice's popularity growing over recent years.{{cite web |title=Pigeons As Pets: Outside or Indoors |url=https://www.pigeonrescue.org/birds/pigeons-doves-as-pets/pigeons-as-pets-indoors-or-outside/ |website=pigeonrescue.org |publisher=Palomacy |access-date=11 March 2025}} These pet pigeons may be outfitted with "pigeon pants" (a diaper-like garment) to maintain cleanliness,{{cite web |last1=Qureshi |first1=Nabila |title=Meet the N.L. couple finding happiness in pet pigeons |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/pigeons-nl-1.7108792 |website=CBC News |access-date=29 January 2025}} and some birds may be "potty trained".{{cite web |last1=Grace |first1=Asia |title=I potty-trained my pet pigeon — now I treat her to NYC's finest restaurants, cool parties and Uber rides |url=https://nypost.com/2024/03/06/lifestyle/i-potty-trained-my-pet-pigeon-now-i-treat-her-to-nycs-finest-restaurants-cool-parties-and-uber-rides/ |website=nypost.com |date=6 March 2024 |publisher=New York Post |access-date=19 February 2025}}

Domestic pigeons, especially the leucistic and albinistic specimens commonly referred to as "white doves", have had a long history in symbolism.{{cite journal |last1=Jerolmack |first1=C. |title=Animal archeology: Domestic pigeons and the nature-culture dialectic. |journal=Qualitative Sociology Review |date=2007-04-12 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=74–95 |doi=10.18778/1733-8077.3.1.06 |url=https://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/qualit/article/view/12352/11926 |access-date=11 March 2025|doi-access=free }}

Charles Darwin was famously requested to write a book on pigeons during the process of writing his book, On the Origin of Species. He would subsequently take on pigeon fancying himself, which would ultimately lead to another book; The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication.{{cite web |title=Darwin's Other Bird—The Domestic Pigeon |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/darwins-other-bird-the-domestic-pigeon/# |website=allaboutbirds.org |publisher=The Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=16 November 2023| last1=Bodio |first1=Stephen J.|date=15 July 2009 }}

In the United States, some pigeon keepers illegally trap and kill hawks and falcons to protect their pigeons.{{cite news| last =Milstein| first =Michael | title =Fight pits pigeon, hawk lovers | publisher =The Oregonian | date =2007-06-09| url =http://www.oregonlive.com/news/oregonian/index.ssf?/base/news/1181361313226200.xml&coll=7&thispage=1| access-date =2007-06-11| archive-date =2 January 2008| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080102082012/http://www.oregonlive.com/news/oregonian/index.ssf?/base/news/1181361313226200.xml&coll=7&thispage=1| url-status =dead }} In the West Midlands region of the United Kingdom pigeon fanciers have been blamed for a trap campaign to kill peregrine falcons. Eight illegal spring-loaded traps were found close to peregrine nests and at least one of the birds died. The steel traps are thought to have been set as part of a "concerted campaign" to kill as many of the birds as possible in the West Midlands.{{cite news| last =Smith | first =Lewis | title =Pigeon fanciers blamed for trap campaign to kill peregrine falcons | publisher =Times Online | url =http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4029413.ece | format =Online news | access-date =2008-06-20 | location=London | date=2008-05-30}}{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}

File:Domestic pidgins.jpg

{{Main|Feral pigeon}}Many domestic birds have escaped or been released over the years, and have given rise to the feral pigeon. As a result of inherited genetic variation, feral pigeons demonstrate a wide variety of plumage patterns and colors, ranging from closely resembling wild rock doves, to patterns directly inherited from their domestic ancestors, though over time a population tends to homogenize and adopt a plumage that suits their environment, such as camouflaging against black asphalt, and birds that have distinct coloration from flockmates are more often targeted by predators.{{cite journal |last1= Pielowski |first1= Z |year=1961 |title= Uber den Unifikationseinfluss der selektiven Narhungswahl des Habichts, Accipiter gentilis L., auf Haustauben |journal= Ekologa Polska |volume= 9 |pages= 183–194 }}{{cite journal |last1= Rutz |first1= C |year=2012 |title= Predator fitness increases with selectivity for odd prey |journal= Current Biology |volume= 22 |issue= 9|pages= 820–824 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.028|pmid= 22503502 |doi-access= free |bibcode= 2012CBio...22..820R }} The scarcity of the pure wild species is partly due to interbreeding with feral birds. Domestic pigeons can often be distinguished from feral pigeons because they usually have a numbered metal or plastic band around one (sometimes both) legs which shows that they are registered to an owner.{{cite web | last =Porter | first =Cynthya | title =Goodview man finds racing pigeon | work =Winona Post | url =http://www.winonapost.com/stock/functions/VDG_Pub/detail.php?choice=25710&home_page=1&archives= | access-date =2008-07-15 | archive-date =18 July 2011 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110718064536/http://www.winonapost.com/stock/functions/VDG_Pub/detail.php?choice=25710&home_page=1&archives= | url-status =dead }}

Feral pigeons bear striking genetic resemblance to homing pigeons, supporting the idea that most feral pigeons trace their origins to homing pigeons who did not find their way home, or were otherwise sired by homing pigeons. The huge numbers of birds released in pigeon races and loft owners breaking down their lofts and leaving the pigeons to fend for themselves may be a significant factor in the persistence of urban pigeons. Ferals started to become maligned in the 1930s-40s, culminating when New York City parks commissioner Thomas coined the term “rats with wings” in June 1966.{{cite web |last1=Soniak |first1=Matt |title=The Origins of Our Misguided Hatred for Pigeons |url=https://www.audubon.org/news/the-origins-our-misguided-hatred-pigeons |website=www.audubon.org |date=14 November 2016 |publisher=National Audubon Society |access-date=11 March 2025}}

{{noteslist}}

{{Reflist}}

• [http://www.npausa.com/ National Pigeon Association (USA)]
• [http://www.nationalpigeonassociation.co.uk/ National Pigeon Association (Great Britain)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728154621/http://www.nationalpigeonassociation.co.uk/ |date=28 July 2013 }}
• [http://www.pigeonfanciers.ca/ The Canadian Pigeon Fanciers Association]
• [https://pigeonpedia.com/domestic-pigeons/ Domestic Pigeons Explained (Pigeonpedia)]
• [https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/pigeonetics/ Pigeonetics, a game by the University of Utah]
• [https://www.mos.org/video/pigeons-do-backflips-how-genetics-makes-them-flip Pigeons Do Backflips? How Genetics Makes Them Flip! ]

{{Pigeons}}

{{Birds in culture}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q204179}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Columba (genus)

Category:Domesticated birds

Category:Subspecies