drinking

When a liquid enters a human mouth, the swallowing process is completed by peristalsis which delivers the liquid through the esophagus to the stomach; much of the activity is assisted by gravity. The liquid may be poured from the hands or drinkware may be used as vessels. Drinking can also be by sipping or sucking, typically when imbibing hot liquids or drinking from a spoon. Infants employ a method of suction wherein the lips are pressed tight around a source, as in breastfeeding: a combination of breath and tongue movement creates a vacuum which draws in liquid.Flint, pp. 137–138.

File:Cat_lapping_water_off_ground_in_slow_motion.gk.webm

File:Jack Russell Terrier takes a drink.jpg laps in water with its tongue. |upright]]

By necessity, terrestrial animals in captivity become accustomed to drinking water, but most free-roaming animals stay hydrated through the fluids and moisture in fresh food,Mayer, p. 59. and learn to actively seek foods with high fluid content.{{cite journal | vauthors = Grove JC, Gray LA, La Santa Medina N, Sivakumar N, Ahn JS, Corpuz TV, Berke JD, Kreitzer AC, Knight ZA | title = Dopamine subsystems that track internal states | journal = Nature | volume = 608| issue = 7922| pages = 374–380| date = July 2022 | pmid = 35831501 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-022-04954-0 | pmc = 9365689 | bibcode = 2022Natur.608..374G | url = | doi-access = free }} When conditions impel them to drink from bodies of water, the methods and motions differ greatly among species.Broom, p. 105.

Cats, canines, and ruminants all lower the neck and lap in water with their powerful tongues. Cats and canines lap up water with the tongue in a spoon-like shape.Smith, p. 238. Canines lap water by scooping it into their mouth with a tongue which has taken the shape of a ladle. However, with cats, only the tip of their tongue (which is smooth) touches the water, and then the cat quickly pulls its tongue back into its mouth which soon closes; this results in a column of liquid being pulled into the cat's mouth, which is then secured by its mouth closing.{{Cite web | url=https://www.science.org/content/article/cats-tongues-employ-tricky-physics |title = Cats' Tongues Employ Tricky Physics|date = 2010-11-12}} Ruminants and most other herbivores partially submerge the tip of the mouth in order to draw in water by means of a plunging action with the tongue held straight.Smith, p. 237. Cats drink at a significantly slower pace than ruminants, who face greater natural predation hazards.

Many desert animals do not drink even if water becomes available, but rely on eating succulent plants. In cold and frozen environments, some animals like hares, tree squirrels, and bighorn sheep resort to consuming snow and icicles.Mayer, p. 54. In savannas, the drinking method of giraffes has been a source of speculation for its apparent defiance of gravity; the most recent theory contemplates the animal's long neck functions like a plunger pump.{{Cite web | url=https://www.insidescience.org/news/how-do-giraffes-drink-water |title = How do Giraffes Drink Water?|date = February 2016}} Uniquely, elephants draw water into their trunks and squirt it into their mouths.

{{excerpt|Bird anatomy|Drinking behaviour}}

Most birds scoop or draw water into the buccal areas of their bills, raising and tilting their heads back to drink. An exception is the common pigeon, which can suck in water directly by inhalation.

File:Drinking Bee2.jpg

Most insects obtain adequate water from their food: When dehydrated from a lack of moist food, however, many species will drink from standing water.{{Cite book |last=Chapman |first=R. F. |author-link=Reginald Frederick Chapman |editor1=Simpson, S. J. |editor2=Douglas, A. E. |year=2012 |title=The Insects: Structure and Function |edition=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoggAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA577 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=577 |isbn=978-1107310452 }} Additionally, all terrestrial insects constantly absorb a certain amount of the air's humidity through their cuticles. Some desert insects, such as Onymacris unguicularis, have evolved to drink substantially from nighttime fog.

Amphibians and aquatic animals which live in freshwater do not need to drink: they absorb water steadily through the skin by osmosis.Curtis, p. 569. Saltwater fish, however, drink through the mouth as they swim, and purge the excess salt through the gills. Saltwater fishes do drink plenty of water and excrete a small volume of concentrated urine.

{{Main|Tissue hydration|Dehydration}}

Like nearly all other life forms, humans require water for tissue hydration. Lack of hydration causes thirst, a desire to drink which is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to subtle changes in the body's electrolyte levels and blood volume. A decline in total body water is called dehydration and will eventually lead to death by hypernatremia. Methods used in the management of dehydration include assisted drinking or oral rehydration therapy.

An overconsumption of water can lead to water intoxication, which can dangerously dilute the concentration of salts in the body. Overhydration sometimes occurs among athletes and outdoor laborers, but it can also be a sign of disease or damage to the hypothalamus. A persistent desire to drink inordinate quantities of water is a psychological condition termed polydipsia. It is often accompanied by polyuria and may itself be a symptom of diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus.Provan, p. 129.

File:ISS014-E-08330 (27 Nov. 2006) --- European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Thomas Reiter.jpg during Expedition 14 drinking water on the International Space Station|alt=refer to caption]]

A daily intake of water is required for the normal physiological functioning of the human body. The USDA recommends a daily intake of total water: not necessarily by drinking but by consumption of water contained in other beverages and foods. The recommended intake is 3.7 liters (appx. 1 gallon) per day for an adult male, and 2.7 liters (appx. 0.75 gallon) for an adult female.

{{cite book |last=Institute of Medicine |author-link=National Academy of Medicine |date=2005 |title=Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10925/chapter/6 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=The National Academies Press |page=73 |isbn=978-0-309-13335-7}}

Other sources, however, claim that a high intake of fresh drinking water, separate and distinct from other sources of moisture, is necessary for good health – eight servings per day of eight fluid ounces (1.8 liters, or 0.5 gallon) is the amount recommended by many nutritionists,{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/health/treatments/healthy_living/nutrition/healthy_water.shtml |title=Healthy living – Water |language=English |access-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408071634/http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/treatments/healthy_living/nutrition/healthy_water.shtml |archive-date=8 April 2013 |url-status=dead |author=Greenhalgh, Alison |year=2001 |publisher=BBC |work=BBC Health}} although there is no scientific evidence supporting this recommendation.{{Cite journal |title=Drink at least eight glasses of water a day: Really? Is there scientific evidence for "8 × 8"? |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology |volume=283 |issue=5 |pages=R993–R1004 |author1=Valtin, Heinz |author2=Gorman, Sheila A. |year=2012 |df=dmy-all |doi=10.1152/ajpregu.00365.2002 |pmid=12376390 }}{{Cite journal |author1=Negoianu, Dan |author2=Goldfarb, Stanley |title=Just Add Water |journal=Journal of the American Society of Nephrology |publisher=ASN |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1041–1043 |year=2008 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2008030274 |pmid=18385417 |doi-access=free }}

Evidence-based hydration experts say that the amount of drinking water needed depends on ambient temperature, activity level, body size, and sweat rate.[https://www.npr.org/2022/09/22/1124590408/how-much-water-do-you-actually-need-heres-the-science How much water do you actually need? Here's the science] Research shows drinking when thirsty will maintain hydration to within about 2% of the needed level. Drinking beyond thirst might be beneficial for people who need to perform tasks that require intense concentration, and those with kidney disease, kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and people with a weak sense of thirst (which may include more older people).

{{Main|Alcoholic beverage}}

The term "drinking" is often used metonymically for the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Most cultures throughout history have incorporated some number of the wide variety of "strong drinks" into their meals, celebrations, ceremonies, toasts and other occasions.Gately, pp. 1–14. Evidence of fermented drinks in human culture goes back as early as the Neolithic Period,Patrick, Clarence Hodges. Alcohol, Culture, and Society. AMS Press, 1952, p. 13. and the first pictorial evidence can be found in Egypt around 4,000 BC.{{cite web|last1=Hanson|first1=David|title=Ancient Period|url=http://www2.potsdam.edu/alcohol/Controversies/1114796842.html#.VICKF9xH1FI|website=History of Alcohol and Drinking around the World|publisher=State University of New York|access-date=4 December 2014|archive-date=19 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219061449/http://www2.potsdam.edu/alcohol/Controversies/1114796842.html#.VICKF9xH1FI|url-status=dead}}

Alcohol consumption has developed into a variety of well-established drinking cultures around the world. Despite its popularity, alcohol consumption poses significant health risks. Alcohol abuse and the addiction of alcoholism are common maladies in developed countries worldwide.{{cite web|title=Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health|url=https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/msbgsruprofiles.pdf|website=World Health Organization|access-date=4 December 2014}} A high rate of consumption can also lead to cirrhosis, gastritis, gout, pancreatitis, hypertension, various forms of cancer, and numerous other illnesses.Fiebach, p. 387.

{{Portal|Drink}}

• Eating
• Hydration (disambiguation)

{{Reflist}}

• {{Cite book |title=Biology of Behaviour: Mechanisms, Functions and Applications |last=Broom |first=Donald M. |author-link=Donald M. Broom |year=1981 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-29906-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kI5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA105 |access-date=31 August 2013 }}
• {{Cite book |title=Invitation to Biology |last=Curtis |first=Helena |author2=Barnes, N. Sue |year=1994 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0879016795 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uF7RZN5LjRQC |access-date=31 August 2013 }}
• {{Cite book |title=Principles of Ambulatory Medicine |editor=Fiebach, Nicholas H. |year=2007 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-7817-6227-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UGVylX6g4i8C&pg=PA387 |access-date=31 August 2013 }}
• {{Cite book |title=The Physiology of Man |last=Flint |first=Austin |author-link=Austin Flint |year=1875 |publisher=D. Appleton and Co. |location=New York |oclc=5357686 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=10YLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA137 |access-date=31 August 2013 }}
• {{Cite book |title=Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol |last=Gately |first=Iain |year=2008 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |isbn=978-1-59240-464-3 |pages=1–14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FpnqTGxykIC |access-date=31 August 2013 }}
• {{Cite book |title=Physiological Mammalogy |volume=II |last=Mayer |first=William |year=2012 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=9780323155250 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_651i7oc4gC&pg=PA59 |access-date=31 August 2013 }}
• {{Cite book |title=Oxford Handbook of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation |last=Provan |first=Drew |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-923371-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1XRXTbCihEC&pg=PA129 |access-date=31 August 2013 }}
• {{Cite book |title=The Physiology of the Domestic Animals |last=Smith |first=Robert Meade |year=1890 |publisher=F.A. Davis |location=Philadelphia, London |url=https://archive.org/details/physiologydomes00smitgoog |access-date=31 August 2013 }}

{{Commons category|Drinking}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20230208105001/https://www.europeanhydrationinstitute.org/hydration_tools "Are You Drinking Enough?"], recommendations by the European Hydration Institute (Madrid)

{{Authority control}}

Category:Body water

Category:Drinking culture

Category:Ethology

Category:Physiology

Category:Nutrition

Category:Food and drink

Category:Human activities