dzongkha

Dzongkha is considered a South Tibetic language. It is closely related to and partially intelligible with Sikkimese, and to some other Bhutanese languages such as Chocha Ngacha, Brokpa, Brokkat and Lakha.

Dzongkha bears a close linguistic relationship to J'umowa, which is spoken in the Chumbi Valley of Southern Tibet.{{Cite book |last=van Driem |first=George |author-link=George van Driem |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00mose |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7007-1197-0 |editor-last=Moseley |editor-first=Christopher |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00mose/page/n312 294] |contribution=Endangered Languages of Bhutan and Sikkim: South Bodish Languages |url-access=limited}} It has a much more distant relationship to Standard Tibetan. Spoken Dzongkha and Tibetan are around 50% to 80% mutually intelligible, with the literary forms of both highly influenced by the liturgical (clerical) Classical Tibetan language, known in Bhutan as Chöke, which has been used for centuries by Buddhist monks. Chöke was used as the language of education in Bhutan until the early 1960s when it was replaced by Dzongkha in public schools.{{cite book |last1=van Driem |first1=George |author1-link=George van Driem |title=Dzongkha |last2=Tshering of Gaselô |first2=Karma |publisher=Research CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies, Leiden University |year=1998 |isbn=90-5789-002-X |series=Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region |volume=I |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |pages=7–8}}

Although descended from Classical Tibetan, Dzongkha shows a great many irregularities in sound changes that make the official spelling and standard pronunciation more distant from each other than is the case with Standard Tibetan. "Traditional orthography and modern phonology are two distinct systems operating by a distinct set of rules."{{cite book |last1=van Driem |first1=George |title=Dzongkha = Rdoṅ-kha |date=1998 |publisher=Research School, CNWS |isbn=90-5789-002-X |location=Leiden |page=110 |quote=Traditional orthography and modern phonology are two distinct systems operating by a distinct set of rules.}}

Dzongkha and its dialects are the native tongue of eight western districts of Bhutan (viz. Wangdue Phodrang, {{Lang|dz-latn|Punakha|italic=no}}, Thimphu, Gasa, Paro, Ha, Dagana and Chukha).{{cite book

|title=Dzongkha

|first1= George

|last1= van Driem

|author1-link= George van Driem

|first2= Karma

|last2= Tshering of Gaselô

|series = Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region

|volume= I

|year= 1998

| publisher = Research CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies, Leiden University

|location= Leiden, The Netherlands

|page = 3

|isbn= 90-5789-002-X

}} There are also some native speakers near the Indian town of Kalimpong, once part of Bhutan but now in North Bengal, and in Sikkim.

Dzongkha was declared the national language of Bhutan in 1971.{{harvp|van Driem|1991}} Dzongkha study is mandatory in all schools, and the language is the lingua franca in the districts to the south and east where it is not the mother tongue. The Bhutanese films Travellers and Magicians (2003) and Lunana: A Yak in the Classroom (2019) are in Dzongkha.

Dzongkha is a tonal language and has two register tones: high and low.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}} The tone of a syllable determines the allophone of the onset and the phonation type of the nuclear vowel.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}}

All consonants may begin a syllable. In the onsets of low-tone syllables, consonants are voiced.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} Aspirated consonants (indicated by the superscript h), {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, and {{IPA|/h/}} are not found in low-tone syllables.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} The rhotic {{IPA|/r/}} is usually a trill {{IPAblink|r}} or a fricative trill {{IPAblink|r̝}},{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}} and is voiceless in the onsets of high-tone syllables.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}}

{{IPA|/t, tʰ, ts, tsʰ, s/}} are dental.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}} Descriptions of the palatal affricates and fricatives vary from alveolo-palatal to plain palatal.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}{{sfnp|Michailovsky|Mazaudon|1989}}{{sfnp|Downs|2011}}

Only a few consonants are found in syllable-final positions. Most common among them are {{IPA|/m, n, p/}}.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} Syllable-final {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is often elided and results in the preceding vowel nasalized and prolonged, especially word-finally.{{sfnp|van Driem|1994}}{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} Syllable-final {{IPA|/k/}} is most often omitted when word-final as well, unless in formal speech.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} In literary pronunciation, liquids {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/l/}} may also end a syllable.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}} Though rare, {{IPA|/ɕ/}} is also found in syllable-final positions.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} No other consonants are found in syllable-final positions.

• When in low tone, vowels are produced with breathy voice.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}{{sfnp|van Driem|1994}}
• In closed syllables, {{IPA|/i/}} varies between {{IPAblink|i}} and {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, the latter being more common.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}{{sfnp|Downs|2011}}
• {{IPA|/yː/}} varies between {{IPAblink|yː}} and {{IPAblink|ʏː}}.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}
• {{IPA|/e/}} varies between close-mid {{IPAblink|e}} and open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, the latter being common in closed syllables. {{IPA|/eː/}} is close-mid {{IPAblink|eː}}. {{IPA|/eː/}} may not be longer than {{IPA|/e/}} at all, and differs from {{IPA|/e/}} more often in quality than in length.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}
• Descriptions of {{IPA|/øː/}} vary between close-mid {{IPAblink|øː}} and open-mid {{IPAblink|œː}}.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}{{sfnp|Downs|2011}}
• {{IPA|/o/}} is close-mid {{IPAblink|o}}, but may approach open-mid {{IPAblink|ɔ}} especially in closed syllables. {{IPA|/oː/}} is close-mid {{IPAblink|oː}}.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}
• {{IPA|/ɛː/}} is slightly lower than open-mid, i.e. {{IPAblink|ɛ|ɛ̞ː}}.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}
• {{IPA|/ɑ/}} may approach {{IPAblink|ɐ}}, especially in closed syllables.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}{{sfnp|Downs|2011}}
• When nasalized or followed by {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, vowels are always long.{{sfnp|van Driem|1994}}{{sfnp|Downs|2011}}

Many words in Dzongkha are monosyllabic.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} Syllables usually take the form of CVC, CV, or VC.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} Syllables with complex onsets are also found, but such an onset must be a combination of an unaspirated bilabial stop and a palatal affricate.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}} The bilabial stops in complex onsets are often omitted in colloquial speech.{{sfnp|Downs|2011}}

{{Main|Tibetan script|Roman Dzongkha|Dzongkha numerals|Dzongkha Braille}}

File:Dzongkha_-_in_Bhutanese_script.svg, a Bhutanese form of the Uchen script]]

The Tibetan script used to write Dzongkha has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants. Dzongkha is usually written in Bhutanese forms of the Uchen script, forms of the Tibetan script known as Jôyi "cursive longhand" and Jôtshum "formal longhand". The print form is known simply as Tshûm.{{cite book |last1=van Driem |first1=George |title=Dzongkha = Rdoṅ-kha |date=1998 |publisher=Research School, CNWS |isbn=90-5789-002-X |location=Leiden |page=47}}

There are various systems of romanization and transliteration for Dzongkha, but none accurately represents its phonetic sound.See for instance [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom1_bo.pdf Report on the current status of the United Nations romanization systems for geographical names: Tibetan] [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_dz.pdf Report on the current status of the United Nations romanization systems for geographical names: Dzongkha] The Bhutanese government adopted a transcription system known as Roman Dzongkha, devised by the linguist George van Driem, as its standard in 1991.

Dzongkha nouns distinguish between singular (unmarked) and plural, with the plural either unmarked or suffixed with {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ཚུ་}} {{transliteration|dz|-tshu}}. The use of the plural suffix is not obligatory and is used mainly for emphasis.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992|p=106}}{{sfnp|Watters|2018|p=163}}

Dzongkha nouns are marked for 5 cases: genitive, locative, ablative, dative and ergative.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992|p=107-109}}

• genitive case: marks possession and is often translated as "of". There are 4 genitive suffixes in written Dzongkha:
• {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|གྱི་}} {{transliteration|dz|-g°i}} - after words ending in {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|མ་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ན་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ར་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ལ་}}.
• {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|གི་}} {{transliteration|dz|-g°i}} - after words ending in {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ག་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ང་}} and certain words ending in a vowel.
• {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ཀྱི་}} {{transliteration|dz|-g°i}} - after words ending in {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|བ་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ད་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ས་}}.
• {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|འི་}} {{transliteration|dz|-i}} after certain words ending in a vowel.
• locative case - marks location or destination and is often translated as "in", "at" or "on". It's indicated by the suffix {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ནང་}} {{transliteration|dz|-na}}.
• ablative case - marks direction away from the noun and is often translated as "from". It's indicated by the suffix {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ལས་}} {{transliteration|dz|-lä}}.
• dative case - marks the goal or where an activity takes place and is often translated as "to", "for" or "at". It's indicated by the suffix {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ལུ་}} {{transliteration|dz|-lu}}.
• ergative case - used for ergative and instrumental functions. There are 3 ergative suffixes in written Dzongkha:
• {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|གྱིས་}} {{transliteration|dz|-g°i}} - after words ending in {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|མ་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ན་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ར་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ལ་}}.
• {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|གིས་}} {{transliteration|dz|-g°i}} - after words ending in {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ག་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ང་}} or a vowel.
• {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ཀྱིས་}} {{transliteration|dz|-g°i}} - ater words ending in {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|བ་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ད་}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ས་}}.

As in other Tibetic languages, compounding is the most common method for deriving new nouns in Dzongkha. A compound usually consists of two (or, less commonly, more) monossyllabic roots, which can be either free or bound.{{sfnp|Watters|2018|p=174-188}}

• The honorific pronoun {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ནཱ༌}} {{transliteration|dz|nâ}} and its plural form are used when one wants to show respect to the person being addressed or to a 3rd person of either gender.

{{Expand section|date=July 2024}}

Dzongkha verbs inflect for tense, aspect and mood, but unlike many languages, they do not show agreement for person and number.{{sfnp|van Driem|1992|p=165}}

In Dzongkha, there are 5 copular verbs that can be translated as "to be" in English: {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ཨིན་}} {{transliteration|dz|'ing}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ཨིན་པས་}} {{transliteration|dz|'immä}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ཡོད་}} {{transliteration|dz|yö}}, {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|འདུག་}} {{transliteration|dz|du}} and {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|སྨོ་}} {{transliteration|dz|'mo}}.

The comparative is indicated by the suffix {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|བ་}} {{transliteration|dz|-wa}} ("than") while the superlative is indicated by the suffix {{bo-textonly|lang=dz|ཤོས་}} {{transliteration|dz|-sho}} ("the most", "-est").{{sfnp|van Driem|1992|p=134-136}}

{{main|Dzongkha numerals}}

The following is a sample vocabulary:{{sfnp|van Driem|1992}}{{page needed|date=December 2024}}

The following is a sample text in Dzongkha of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

{{fs interlinear|lang=dz|indent=2|style1=font-size: 130%;

|འགྲོ་ བ་ མི་ རིགས་ ག་ ར་ དབང་ ཆ་ འདྲ་ མཏམ་ འབད་ སྒྱེཝ་ ལས་ ག་ ར་ གིས་ གཅིག་ ལུ་ སྤུན་ ཆའི་ དམ་ ཚིག་ བསྟན་ དགོ།

|’Gro- ba- mi- rigs- ga- ra- dbaṅ- cha- ’dra- mtam- ’bad- sgyew- las- ga- ra- gis- gcig- lu- spun- cha’i- dam- tshig- bstan- dgo

|All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.{{Cite web|url=https://omniglot.com/udhr/sinotibetan.htm|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1) in Sino-Tibetan languages|website=omniglot.com}}}}

{{Portal|Languages}}

• Roman Dzongkha
• Dzongkha Braille
• Dzongkha numerals
• Languages of Bhutan
• Dzongkha keyboard layout

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

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• {{cite conference

| last=van Driem| first= George | author-link=George van Driem

| title = Language policy in Bhutan

| year = 1993

| location = SOAS, London

| url = http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180911043324/http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003

| archive-date = 2018-09-11

}}

• {{Cite journal |last=van Driem |first=George |author-link=George van Driem |year=1994 |title=The Phonologies of Dzongkha and the Bhutanese Liturgical Language |url=http://www.himalayanlanguages.org/files/driem/pdfs/1994DzongkhaPhonology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228171635/http://himalayanlanguages.org/files/driem/pdfs/1994DzongkhaPhonology.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-date=February 28, 2017 |journal=Zentralasiatische Studien |issue=24 |pages=36–44}}
• {{cite book

| first =George

| last = van Driem

| author-link =George van Driem

| editor-last =Moseley

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| contribution = Endangered Languages of Bhutan and Sikkim: South Bodish Languages

| title = Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages

| year = 2007

| pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00mose/page/n312 294]–295

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| url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00mose

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• {{cite book |title=The First Linguistic Survey of Bhutan |last=van Driem |first=George |author-link=George van Driem |year=n.d. |publisher= Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) |location=Thimphu, Bhutan }}
• {{cite thesis |last=Watters |first=Stephen A. |year=1996 |title=A preliminary study of prosody in Dzongkha |location=Arlington |publisher=UT at Arlington |degree=Masters}}
• {{Cite thesis |last=Watters |first=Stephen A. |title=A grammar of Dzongkha (dzo): phonology, words, and simple clauses |date=2018 |degree=Doctor of Philosophy |publisher=Rice University |url=https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/103233 |hdl=1911/103233 |hdl-access=free }}
• {{cite book | last1=van Driem| first1= George| author-link=George van Driem |author2=Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab) | title=Dzongkha |series= Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region| publisher=Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies| location=Leiden | year=1998 | isbn=90-5789-002-X}} – A language textbook with three audio compact disks.
• {{Cite book |last1=Karma Tshering |title=The Grammar of Dzongkha |last2=van Driem |first2=George |date=2019 |publisher=Himalayan Linguistics |isbn=978-0-578-50750-7 |edition=3rd |location=Santa Barbara |doi=10.5070/H918144245 |orig-year=1992 |doi-access=free}}
• {{cite book|title=English-Dzongkha Dictionary 2023|location=Thimphu, Bhutan |publisher=Department of Culture and Dzongkha Development|year=2023|isbn=978-99936-765-8-4|url=https://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/uploads/files/publications/Eng-Dzo_Dictionary_2023_3ead53caad0798894c3908a9aedceb84.pdf}}

{{refend}}

{{InterWiki|code=dz}}

{{commons category}}

{{Wikivoyage|Dzongkha phrasebook|Dzongkha|a phrasebook}}

• [http://bhutaneseliterature.com Bhutanese literatures ]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100822182059/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/index.en.html Dzongkha Development Commission] Thimphu, Bhutan
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100822182104/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionaries/dz-en-dict/index.html Dzongkha-English Dictionary]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807154426/http://www.podcast.com/show/6924/ Dzongkha podcast]
• [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_dz.htm Dzongkha Romanization for Geographical Names]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130621032503/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/index.en.html Free textbooks and dictionaries] published by the Dzongkha Development Commission
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20150403063354/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/PDF/National%20Policy%20and%20Strategy%20of%20Dzongkha%20%28web%29.pdf Bhutan National Policy and Strategy for Development and Promotion of Dzongkha]
• [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha.html Dzongkha Unicode] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712101944/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha.html |date=2021-07-12 }} – site The National Library of Bhutan (en – [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha-DZ.html dz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201180859/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha-DZ.html |date=2019-12-01 }})

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130923022932/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionary.php Online searchable dictionary (Dz-En, En-Dz, Dz-Dz)] or [https://web.archive.org/web/20160507123629/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/English-Dzongkha_Pocket_Dictionary.pdf Online Dzongkha-English Dictionary] – site Dzongkha Development Commission ([https://web.archive.org/web/20100822182059/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/index.en.html en] – [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/ dz])
• [https://www.cle.org.pk/research/rep/DCT.pdf Dzongkha Computer Terms](pdf)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130525004143/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/English-Dzongkha_Pocket_Dictionary.pdf English-Dzongkha Pocket Dictionary](pdf)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130525005136/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Rigpai_Lodap.pdf Rigpai Lodap: An Intermediate Dzongkha-English Dictionary](pdf)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130525004121/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Dzongkha-Thesaurus.pdf Kartshok Threngwa: A Book on Dzongkha Synonyms & Antonyms](pdf)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130503124433/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Countries_and_Capitals_in_Dzongkha.pdf Names of Countries and Capitals in Dzongkha](pdf)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130503125034/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Dzongkha-Translation-Guidebook.pdf A Guide to Dzongkha-Translation](pdf)

• [https://digital.soas.ac.uk/LOAA006020/ A colloquial grammar of the Bhutanese language. by Byrne, St. Quintin. Allahabad: Pioneer Press, 1909]
• [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie.html Dzongkha transliteration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711102721/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie.html |date=2021-07-11 }} – site National Library of Bhutan (en – [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie-DZ.html dz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711012551/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie-DZ.html |date=2021-07-11 }})
• [http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/web1024X768/script.html Dzongkha, The National Language of Bhutan] – site Dzongkha Linux ([http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/web1024X768/home.html en] – [http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/dzo_web1024X768/home.html dz])
• [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_dz.htm Romanization of Dzongkha]
• [http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_dzongkha01.html Dzongkha : Origin and Description]
• [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/dzongkha.php Dzongkha language, alphabet and pronunciation]
• Dzongkha in Wikipedia: Русский, Français, 日本語, Eesti, English
• {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051548/http://www.panl10n.net/Presentations/Laos/RegionalConference/LanguageProcessingApps/Dzongkha_TTS.pdf Pioneering Dzongkha Text To Speech Synthesis]}}(pdf)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130815015339/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/index.en.html Dzongkha Grammar & other materials] – site The Dzongkha Development Commission (en – [https://web.archive.org/web/20130818023918/http://dzongkha.gov.bt/online/index.html dz])
• [http://www.iling-ran.ru/langworld/transcript/Dzongkha.shtml Коряков Ю.Б. Практическая транскрипция для языка дзонг-кэ]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130722071156/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Choke-Dzongkha_Dictionary.pdf Classical Tibetan-Dzongkha Dictionary](pdf)

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{{Languages of Bhutan}}

Category:Languages of Bhutan

Category:Languages written in Tibetan script