empathy gap

Failures in cognitive empathy (also referred to as perspective-taking) may sometimes result from a lack of ability. For example, young children often engage in failures of perspective-taking (e.g., on false belief tasks) due to underdeveloped social cognitive abilities.{{Cite book| publisher = If Press| isbn = 978-88-95565-64-4| volume = 13| editor1 = Juan José Sanguineti| editor2=Ariberto Acerbi| editor3=José Angel Lombo| last1 = McDonald| first1 = N. M.| last2 = Messinger| first2 = D. S.| title = Moral Behavior and Free Will: A Neurobiological and Philosophical Approach| chapter = The Development of Empathy: How, When, and Why| pages=333–359| series = STOQ Project research series| date = 2011| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhqRoAEACAAJ}} Neurodivergent individuals often face difficulties inferring others' emotional and cognitive states, though the double empathy problem proposes that the problem is mutual, occurring as well in non-neurodivergent individuals' struggle to understand and relate to neurodivergent people.{{Cite journal |last1=Milton |first1=D. |last2=Gurbuz |first2=E. |last3=López |first3=B. |date=November 2022 |title=The 'double empathy problem': Ten years on |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13623613221129123 |journal=Autism |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=1901–1903 |doi=10.1177/13623613221129123 |pmid=36263746 |issn=1362-3613|url-access=subscription }} Failures in cognitive empathy may also result from cognitive biases that impair one's ability to understand another's perspective (for example, see the related concept of naive realism.){{Cite book |last1=Ross |first1=L. |title=Values and Knowledge |last2=Ward |first2=A. |date=1996 |publisher=Psychology Press |pages=103, 135 |chapter=Naive Realism in Everyday Life: Implications for Social Conflict and Misunderstanding}}

One's ability to perspective-take may be limited by one's current emotional state. For example, behavioral economics research has described a number of failures in empathy that occur due to emotional influences on perspective-taking when people make social predictions. People may either fail to accurately predict one's own preferences and decisions (intrapersonal empathy gaps), or to consider how others' preferences might differ from one's own (interpersonal empathy gaps).{{Cite book |last1=Van Boven |first1=L. |title=Other minds: How humans bridge the divide between self and others |last2=Loewenstein |first2=G. |date=2005 |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |pages=284–297 |chapter=Empathy gaps in emotional perspective taking}} For example, people not owning a certain good underestimate their attachment to that good were they to own it.{{Cite journal |last1=Van Boven |first1=L. |last2=Dunning |first2=D. |last3=Loewenstein |first3=G. |date=2000 |title=Egocentric Empathy Gaps between Owners and Buyers: Misperceptions of the Endowment Effect |url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=2532589 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=66–76 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.1.66 |pmid=10909878 |via=Social Science Research Network|url-access=subscription }}

In other circumstances, failures in cognitive empathy may occur due to a lack of motivation.{{Cite journal |last=Zaki |first=J. |year=2014 |title=Empathy: A motivated account |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=140 |issue=6 |pages=1608–1647 |doi=10.1037/a0037679 |issn=0033-2909 |pmid=25347133 |s2cid=16136602}} For example, people are less likely to take the perspective of outgroup members with whom they disagree.

{{further|Hot-cold empathy gap}}

Affective (i.e. emotional) empathy gaps may describe instances in which an observer and target do not experience similar emotions,{{Cite book |last1=Eisenberg |first1=N. |title=Empathy and its development |last2=Strayer |first2=J. |date=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Eisenberg |editor-first=N. |chapter=Critical issues in the study of empathy |editor-last2=Strayer |editor-first2=J.}} or when an observer does not experience anticipated emotional responses toward a target, such as sympathy and compassion.{{Cite journal |last1=Batson |first1=C. Daniel |last2=Shaw |first2=Laura L. |date=April 1991 |title=Evidence for Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327965pli0202_1 |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=107–122 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0202_1 |issn=1047-840X|url-access=subscription }}

Certain affective empathy gaps may be driven by a limited ability to share another's emotions. For example, psychopathy is characterized by impairments in emotional empathy.{{Cite book |last1=Blair |first1=R. J. R. |title=Handbook of psychopathy |last2=Meffert |first2=H. |last3=Hwang |first3=S. |last4=White |first4=S. F. |date=2018 |publisher=The Guilford Press |editor-last=Patrick |editor-first=C. J. |pages=401–421 |chapter=Psychopathy and brain function: Insights from neuroimaging research}}

Individuals may be motivated to avoid empathizing with others' emotions due to the emotional costs of doing so. For example, according to C. D. Batson's model of empathy, empathizing with others may either result in empathic concern (i.e. feelings of warmth and concern for another) or personal distress (i.e. when another's distress causes distress for the self).{{Cite book |last=Batson |first=C. D. |url=https://academic.oup.com/mit-press-scholarship-online/book/17345/chapter/174799242 |title=The Social Neuroscience of Empathy |date=2009-03-20 |publisher=The MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01297-3 |editor-last=Decety |editor-first=J. |pages=3–16 |chapter=These Things Called Empathy: Eight Related but Distinct Phenomena |doi=10.7551/mitpress/9780262012973.003.0002 |access-date=2024-08-25 |editor2-last=Ickes |editor2-first=William}} A trait-level tendency to experience personal distress (vs. empathic concern) may motivate individuals to avoid situations which would require them to empathize with others, and indeed predicts reduced helping behavior.

Humans are less likely to help outgroup members in need, as compared to ingroup members.{{Cite journal |last1=Gaertner |first1=S. L. |last2=Dovidio |first2=J. F. |author-link2=John Dovidio |last3=Anastasio |first3=P. A. |last4=Bachman |first4=B. A. |last5=Rust |first5=M. C. |date=January 1993 |title=The Common Ingroup Identity Model: Recategorization and the Reduction of Intergroup Bias |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14792779343000004 |journal=European Review of Social Psychology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/14792779343000004 |issn=1046-3283|url-access=subscription }} People are also less likely to value outgroup members' lives as highly as those of ingroup members.{{Cite journal |last1=Pratto |first1=F. |last2=Glasford |first2=D. E. |date=2008 |title=Ethnocentrism and the value of a human life |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0012636 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=95 |issue=6 |pages=1411–1428 |doi=10.1037/a0012636 |pmid=19025292 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }} These effects are indicative of an ingroup empathy bias, in which people empathize more with ingroup (vs. outgroup) members.

Intergroup empathy gaps are often affective or cognitive in nature, but also extend to other domains such as pain. For example, a great deal of research has demonstrated that people show reduced responses (e.g. neural activity) when observing outgroup (vs. ingroup) members in pain.{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=X. |last2=Zuo |first2=X. |last3=Wang |first3=X. |last4=Han |first4=S. |date=2009-07-01 |title=Do You Feel My Pain? Racial Group Membership Modulates Empathic Neural Responses |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=26 |pages=8525–8529 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2418-09.2009 |issn=0270-6474 |pmc=6665679 |pmid=19571143}}{{Cite journal |last1=Mathur |first1=V. A. |last2=Harada |first2=T. |last3=Chiao |first3=J. Y. |date=August 2012 |title=Racial identification modulates default network activity for same and other races |journal=Human Brain Mapping |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=1883–1893 |doi=10.1002/hbm.21330 |issn=1065-9471 |pmc=6870292 |pmid=21618667}}{{Cite journal |last1=Azevedo |first1=R. T. |last2=Macaluso |first2=E. |last3=Avenanti |first3=A. |last4=Santangelo |first4=V. |last5=Cazzato |first5=V. |last6=Aglioti |first6=S. M. |date=2013 |title=Their pain is not our pain: brain and autonomic correlates of empathic resonance with the pain of same and different race individuals |journal=Human Brain Mapping |volume=34 |issue=12 |pages=3168–3181 |doi=10.1002/hbm.22133|pmid=22807311 |pmc=6870096 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Gutsell |first1=J. N. |last2=Inzlicht |first2=M. |date=2010 |title=Empathy constrained: Prejudice predicts reduced mental simulation of actions during observation of outgroups |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=841–845 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2010.03.011}} These effects may occur for real-world social groups such as members of different races. In one study utilizing a minimal groups paradigm (in which groups are randomly assigned, ostensibly based on an arbitrary distinction), individuals also judged the perceived pain of ingroup members to be more painful than that of outgroup members.{{Cite journal |last1=Montalan |first1=B. |last2=Lelard |first2=T. |last3=Godefroy |first3=O. |last4=Mouras |first4=H. |date=2012 |title=Behavioral Investigation of the Influence of Social Categorization on Empathy for Pain: A Minimal Group Paradigm Study |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=3 |page=389 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00389 |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=3474397 |pmid=23087657 |doi-access=free}}

Perhaps the most well-known "counter-empathic" emotion—i.e., an emotion that reflects an empathy gap for the target—is schadenfreude, or the experience of pleasure when observing or learning about another's suffering or misfortune.{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=R. H. |last2=Powell |first2=C. A. J. |last3=Combs |first3=D. J. Y. |last4=Schurtz |first4=D. R. |date=July 2009 |title=Exploring the When and Why of Schadenfreude |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00181.x |journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=530–546 |doi=10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00181.x |issn=1751-9004|url-access=subscription }} Schadenfreude frequently occurs in intergroup contexts.{{Cite journal |last1=Takahashi |first1=H. |last2=Kato |first2=M. |last3=Matsuura |first3=M. |last4=Mobbs |first4=D. |last5=Suhara |first5=T. |last6=Okubo |first6=Y. |date=2009-02-13 |title=When Your Gain Is My Pain and Your Pain Is My Gain: Neural Correlates of Envy and Schadenfreude |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1165604 |journal=Science |volume=323 |issue=5916 |pages=937–939 |doi=10.1126/science.1165604 |pmid=19213918 |bibcode=2009Sci...323..937T |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Leach |first1=C. W. |last2=Spears |first2=R. |last3=Branscombe |first3=N. R. |last4=Doosje |first4=B. |date=2003 |title=Malicious pleasure: Schadenfreude at the suffering of another group |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.932 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=84 |issue=5 |pages=932–943 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.932 |pmid=12757139 |issn=1939-1315|hdl=1808/248 |hdl-access=free }} In fact, the two factors that most strongly predict schadenfreude are identification with one's group and the presence of competition between groups in conflict.{{Cite journal |last1=Cikara |first1=M. |last2=Botvinick |first2=M. M. |last3=Fiske |first3=S. T. |date=March 2011 |title=Us Versus Them: Social Identity Shapes Neural Responses to Intergroup Competition and Harm |journal=Psychological Science |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=306–313 |doi=10.1177/0956797610397667 |issn=0956-7976 |pmc=3833634 |pmid=21270447}}{{Cite journal |last1=Cikara |first1=M. |last2=Bruneau |first2=E. |last3=Van Bavel |first3=J. J. |last4=Saxe |first4=R. |date=November 2014 |title=Their pain gives us pleasure: How intergroup dynamics shape empathic failures and counter-empathic responses |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=55 |pages=110–125 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2014.06.007 |pmc=4112600 |pmid=25082998}} Competition may be explicit; for example, one study found that soccer fans were less likely to help an injured stranger wearing a rival team shirt than someone wearing an ingroup team shirt.{{Cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=M. |last2=Prosser |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=D. |last4=Reicher |first4=S. |date=April 2005 |title=Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167204271651 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=443–453 |doi=10.1177/0146167204271651 |pmid=15743980 |issn=0146-1672|url-access=subscription }} However, schadenfreude may also be directed toward members of groups associated with high-status, competitive stereotypes.{{Cite journal |last1=Cikara |first1=M. |last2=Fiske |first2=S. T. |date=January 2012 |title=Stereotypes and Schadenfreude: Affective and Physiological Markers of Pleasure at Outgroup Misfortunes |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=63–71 |doi=10.1177/1948550611409245 |issn=1948-5506 |pmc=3887033 |pmid=24416471}} These findings correspond with the stereotype content model, which proposes that such groups elicit envy, thereby precipitating schadenfreude.

Stress related to the experience of empathy may cause empathic distress fatigue and occupational burnout,{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=J. |date=May 2013 |title=Association of Personal Distress With Burnout, Compassion Fatigue, and Compassion Satisfaction Among Clinical Social Workers |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01488376.2013.771596 |journal=Journal of Social Service Research |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=365–379 |doi=10.1080/01488376.2013.771596 |issn=0148-8376|url-access=subscription }} particularly among those in the medical profession. Expressing empathy is an important component of patient-centered care, and can be expressed through behaviors such as concern, attentiveness, sharing emotions, vulnerability, understanding, dialogue, reflection, and authenticity.{{Cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=D. I. |chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-64804-6_5 |title=Empathy-Based Ethics |date=2020 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-3-030-64803-9 |place= |pages= 43–61|chapter=Experiencing Empathy in the Patient-Doctor Relationship |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-64804-6_5}} However, expressing empathy can be cognitively and emotionally demanding for providers.{{Cite journal |last1=Kerasidou |first1=A. |last2=Horn |first2=R. |date=December 2016 |title=Making space for empathy: supporting doctors in the emotional labour of clinical care |journal=BMC Medical Ethics |volume=17 |issue=1 |page=8 |doi=10.1186/s12910-016-0091-7 |doi-access=free |issn=1472-6939 |pmc=4728886 |pmid=26818248}} Physicians who lack proper support may experience depression and burnout, particularly in the face of the extended or frequent experiences of personal distress.

Within the domain of social psychology, "empathy gaps" typically describe breakdowns in empathy toward others (interpersonal empathy gaps). However, research in behavioral economics has also identified a number of intrapersonal empathy gaps (i.e. toward one's self). For example, "hot-cold empathy gaps" describe a breakdown in empathy for one's future self—specifically, a failure to anticipate how one's future affective states will affect one's preferences.{{Cite journal |last=Loewenstein |first=G. |date=2005 |title=Hot-cold empathy gaps and medical decision making |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0278-6133.24.4.S49 |journal=Health Psychology |volume=24 |issue=4, Suppl |pages=S49–S56 |doi=10.1037/0278-6133.24.4.S49 |pmid=16045419 |issn=1930-7810|url-access=subscription }} Such failures can negatively impact decision-making, particularly in regards to health outcomes. Hot-cold empathy gaps are related to the psychological concepts of affective forecasting and temporal discounting.

Both affective and cognitive empathy gaps can occur due to a breakdown in the process of mentalizing others' states. For example, breakdowns in mentalizing may include but are not limited to:

• Mind attribution: People may fail to take another's perspective due to a failure to attribute a mind or agency to that person. Behavioral research has found that individuals are less likely to assign mental states to outgroup compared to ingroup members.{{Cite journal |last1=Cikara |first1=M. |last2=Van Bavel |first2=J. J. |date=May 2014 |title=The neuroscience of intergroup relations: An integrative review |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=245–274 |doi=10.1177/1745691614527464|pmid=26173262 |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/1/34565389/2/Neuroscience%20of%20intergroup%20relations.pdf }}
• Episodic simulation: People may find it difficult to empathize with others if they struggle (due to a lack of ability or motivation) to episodically simulate others' mental states—i.e. to imagine events from others' lives which occur at a specific time and place. The ability to engage in episodic simulation is predictive of greater affective empathy and prosocial behavior towards others.{{Cite journal |last1=Vollberg |first1=M. C. |last2=Gaesser |first2=B. |last3=Cikara |first3=M. |date=April 2021 |title=Activating episodic simulation increases affective empathy |url=https://psyarxiv.com/r6wmx/ |journal=Cognition |volume=209 |pages=104558 |doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104558|pmid=33385949 }}

Neural evidence also supports the key role of mentalizing in supporting empathic responses, particularly in an intergroup context. For example, a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of intergroup social cognition found that thinking about ingroup members (in comparison to outgroup members) was more frequently related to brain regions known to underlie mentalizing.{{Cite journal |last1=Merritt |first1=C. C. |last2=MacCormack |first2=J. K. |last3=Stein |first3=A. G. |last4=Lindquist |first4=K. A. |last5=Muscatell |first5=K. A. |date=October 2021 |title=The neural underpinnings of intergroup social cognition: an fMRI meta-analysis |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=903–914 |doi=10.1093/scan/nsab034 |issn=1749-5016 |pmc=8421705 |pmid=33760100}}

{{Further information|Gender empathy gap}}

Gender differences in the experience of empathy have been a subject of debate. In particular, scientists have sought to determine whether observed gender differences in empathy are due to variance in ability, motivation, or both between men and women. Research to date raises the possibility that gender norms regarding the experience and expression of empathy may decrease men's willingness to empathize with others, and therefore their tendency to engage in empathy.

A number of studies, primarily utilizing self-report, have found gender differences in men's and women's empathy. A 1977 review of nine studies found women to be more empathic than men on average.{{Cite journal |last=Hoffman |first=M. L. |date=1977 |title=Sex differences in empathy and related behaviors |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/bul/84/4/712 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=84 |issue=4 |pages=712–722 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.84.4.712 |pmid=897032 |issn=0033-2909|url-access=subscription }} A 1983 review found a similar result, although differences in scores were stronger for self-report, as compared to observational, measures.{{Cite journal |last1=Eisenberg |first1=N. |last2=Lennon |first2=R. |date=1983 |title=Sex differences in empathy and related capacities |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/bul/94/1/100 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=100 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.94.1.100 |issn=0033-2909|url-access=subscription }} In recent decades, a number of studies utilizing self-reported empathy have shown gender differences in empathy.{{Cite journal |last1=Baron-Cohen |first1=S. |last2=Wheelwright |first2=S. |date=April 2004 |title=The Empathy Quotient: An Investigation of Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High Functioning Autism, and Normal Sex Differences |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00 |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=163–175 |doi=10.1023/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00 |pmid=15162935 |issn=0162-3257|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=E. J. |last2=Shaw |first2=P. |last3=Baker |first3=D. |last4=Baron-Cohen |first4=S. |last5=David |first5=A. S. |date=July 2004 |title=Measuring empathy: reliability and validity of the Empathy Quotient |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033291703001624/type/journal_article |journal=Psychological Medicine |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=911–920 |doi=10.1017/S0033291703001624 |pmid=15500311 |issn=0033-2917|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Schieman |first1=S. |last2=Van Gundy |first2=K. |date=June 2000 |title=The Personal and Social Links between Age and Self-Reported Empathy |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2695889 |journal=Social Psychology Quarterly |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=152–174 |doi=10.2307/2695889|jstor=2695889 |url-access=subscription }} According to the results of a nationally representative survey, men reported less willingness to give money or volunteer time to a poverty relief organization as compared to women, a finding mediated by men's lower self-reported feelings of empathic concern toward others.{{Cite journal |last1=Willer |first1=R. |last2=Wimer |first2=C. |last3=Owens |first3=L. A. |date=July 2015 |title=What drives the gender gap in charitable giving? Lower empathy leads men to give less to poverty relief |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0049089X15000058 |journal=Social Science Research |volume=52 |pages=83–98 |doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.12.014|pmid=26004450 |url-access=subscription }}

However, more recent work has found little evidence that gender differences in self-reported empathy are related to neurophysiological measures (hemodynamic responses and pupil dilation).{{Cite journal |last1=Michalska |first1=K. J. |last2=Kinzler |first2=K. D. |last3=Decety |first3=J. |date=January 2013 |title=Age-related sex differences in explicit measures of empathy do not predict brain responses across childhood and adolescence |journal=Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=3 |pages=22–32 |doi=10.1016/j.dcn.2012.08.001 |pmc=6987715 |pmid=23245217}} This finding raises the possibility that self-reported empathy may not be driven by biological differences in responses, but rather gender differences in willingness to report empathy. Specifically, women may be more likely to report experiencing empathy because it is more gender-normative for women than men.{{Cite journal |last1=Karniol |first1=R. |last2=Gabay |first2=R. |last3=Ochion |first3=Y. |last4=Harari |first4=Y. |date=July 1998 |title=Is gender or gender-role orientation a better predictor of empathy in adolescence? |journal=Sex Roles |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=45–59 |doi=10.1023/A:1018825732154 |issn=0360-0025}} In support of this idea, a study found that manipulating the perceived gender normativity of empathy eliminated gender differences in men and women's self-reported empathy. Specifically, assigning male and female participants to read a narrative describing fictitious neurological research evidence which claimed that males score higher on measures of empathy eliminated the gender gap in self-reported empathy.{{Cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=M. J. |last2=Marks |first2=A. D.G. |last3=Lykins |first3=A. D. |date=2016-09-02 |title=Bridging the gap: the effect of gender normativity on differences in empathy and emotional intelligence |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09589236.2015.1049246 |journal=Journal of Gender Studies |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=522–539 |doi=10.1080/09589236.2015.1049246 |issn=0958-9236|url-access=subscription }}

Psychological research has identified a number of trait differences associated with reduced empathic responses, including but not limited to:

• Social dominance orientation: Individuals high in social dominance orientation (SDO; i.e., those who endorse inequality and hierarchy between groups), are more likely to be high in prejudice and have less empathic concern for outgroup members.{{Cite journal |last1=Sidanius |first1=J. |last2=Kteily |first2=N. |last3=Sheehy-Skeffington |first3=J. |last4=Ho |first4=A. K. |last5=Sibley |first5=C. |last6=Duriez |first6=B. |date=June 2013 |title=You're Inferior and Not Worth Our Concern: The Interface Between Empathy and Social Dominance Orientation |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jopy.12008 |journal=Journal of Personality |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=313–323 |doi=10.1111/jopy.12008 |pmid=23072294 |issn=0022-3506|url-access=subscription }} In addition to predicting greater intergroup empathy bias, high SDO scores correlated with greater counter-empathy (i.e. schadenfreude) toward outgroup targets, including Asian and Black targets (compared to ingroup White targets) when group boundaries were previously made salient, as well as toward competitive outgroup members (compared to ingroup members) in a novel group setting.{{Cite journal |last1=Hudson |first1=S. T. J. |last2=Cikara |first2=M. |last3=Sidanius |first3=J. |date=November 2019 |title=Preference for hierarchy is associated with reduced empathy and increased counter-empathy towards others, especially out-group targets |url=https://psyarxiv.com/4kc3y/download |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=85 |pages=103871 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103871}}
• Reduced importance of social ideals and relationships: Reduced familial and religious importance also appear to be predictive of reduced empathic responses. In a sample of adults aged 18 to 35 (N = 722), family importance was positively associated with affective empathy and perspective taking, particularly among non-Hispanic whites.{{Cite journal |last1=Versey |first1=H. S. |last2=Kakar |first2=S. A. |last3=John-Vanderpool |first3=S. D. |last4=Sanni |first4=M. O. |last5=Willems |first5=P. S. |date=2020 |title=Correlates of affective empathy, perspective taking, and generativity among a sample of adults |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcop.22433 |journal=Journal of Community Psychology |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=2474–2490 |doi=10.1002/jcop.22433 |pmid=32906202 |issn=0090-4392|url-access=subscription }} Religious importance was significantly related to affective empathy, especially among Black, Indigenous, and/or People of Color.
• Conservative political orientation: In an analysis of data from the 2004 American General Social Survey, researchers found conservatives to have lower levels of empathy as compared to liberals, but only among individuals with low (vs. high) levels of religiosity.{{Cite journal |last1=Schieman |first1=S. |last2=Bierman |first2=A. |last3=Upenieks |first3=L. |date=June 2019 |title=Beyond 'Heartless Conservative' and 'Bleeding Heart Liberal' Caricatures: How Religiosity Shapes the Relationship Between Political Orientation and Empathy |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jssr.12595 |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=360–377 |doi=10.1111/jssr.12595 |issn=0021-8294|url-access=subscription }}
• Higher social class: Some studies have found that people from upper-class backgrounds are less likely to experience feelings of compassion or to engage in empathetic behaviors, such as helping others.{{Cite book |last1=Piff |first1=P. K. |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27953/chapter/211537835 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Compassion Science |last2=Moskowitz |first2=J. P. |date=2017-10-05 |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Seppälä |editor-first=E. M. |volume=1 |chapter=The Class–Compassion Gap: How Socioeconomic Factors Influence Compassion |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190464684.013.24 |editor-last2=Simon-Thomas |editor-first2=E. |editor-last3=Brown |editor-first3=S. L. |editor-last4=Worline |editor-first4=M. C. |editor-last5=Cameron |editor-first5=C. D. |editor-last6=Doty |editor-first6=J. R.}} Education may play a role in this, wealthy and low-income students often attend different schools and do not get a chance to interact with one another.{{Cite web |last=Collias |first=K. |date=2015-04-18 |title=The Empathy Gap |url=https://knowwithoutborders.org/the-empathy-gap/ |access-date=2024-03-07 |website=Knowledge Without Borders |language=en-US}} There is growing evidence to suggest that greater economic inequality is linked with lower empathy among the wealthy.

{{More medical citations needed|section=yes|date=January 2022}}

According to the perception–action-model of empathy,{{Cite journal |last1=Preston |first1=S. D. |last2=de Waal |first2=F. B. M. |date=February 2002 |title=Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0140525X02000018/type/journal_article |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X02000018 |pmid=12625087 |issn=0140-525X}} perception–action-coupling (i.e., the vicarious activation of the neural system for action during the perception of action) allows humans to understand others' actions, intentions, and emotions. According to this theory, when a "subject" individual observes an "object" individual, the object's physical movements and facial expressions activate corresponding neural mechanisms in the subject.{{Cite journal |last1=Dimberg |first1=U. |last2=Thunberg |first2=M. |last3=Elmehed |first3=K. |date=January 2000 |title=Unconscious Facial Reactions to Emotional Facial Expressions |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9280.00221 |journal=Psychological Science |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=86–89 |doi=10.1111/1467-9280.00221 |pmid=11228851 |issn=0956-7976}} That is, by neurally simulating the object's observed states, the subject also experiences these states, the basis of empathy.

The mirror neuron system{{Cite journal |last1=Rizzolatti |first1=G. |last2=Craighero |first2=L. |date=2004-07-21 |title=The mirror-neuron system |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230 |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=169–192 |doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230 |pmid=15217330 |issn=0147-006X|url-access=subscription }} has been proposed as a neural mechanism supporting perception-action coupling and empathy, although such claims remain a subject of scientific debate. Although the exact (if any) role of mirror neurons in supporting empathy is unclear, evidence suggests that neural simulation (i.e., recreating neural states associated with a process observed in another) may generally support a variety of psychological processes in humans, including disgust,{{Cite journal |last1=Wicker |first1=B. |last2=Keysers |first2=C. |last3=Plailly |first3=J. |last4=Royet |first4=J. P. |last5=Gallese |first5=V. |last6=Rizzolatti |first6=G. |date=October 2003 |title=Both of Us Disgusted in My Insula |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0896627303006792 |journal=Neuron |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=655–664 |doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00679-2|pmid=14642287 }} pain,{{Cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=T. |last2=Seymour |first2=B. |last3=O'Doherty |first3=J. |last4=Kaube |first4=H. |last5=Dolan |first5=R. J. |last6=Frith |first6=C. D. |date=2004-02-20 |title=Empathy for Pain Involves the Affective but not Sensory Components of Pain |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1093535 |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5661 |pages=1157–1162 |doi=10.1126/science.1093535 |pmid=14976305 |bibcode=2004Sci...303.1157S |issn=0036-8075|hdl=21.11116/0000-0001-A020-5 |hdl-access=free }} touch,{{Cite journal |last1=Keysers |first1=Christian |last2=Wicker |first2=Bruno |last3=Gazzola |first3=Valeria |last4=Anton |first4=Jean-Luc |last5=Fogassi |first5=Leonardo |last6=Gallese |first6=Vittorio |date=April 2004 |title=A Touching Sight |journal=Neuron |language=en |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=335–346 |doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00156-4 |pmid=15091347 |doi-access=free}} and facial expressions.{{Cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=L. |last2=Iacoboni |first2=M. |last3=Dubeau |first3=M. C. |last4=Mazziotta |first4=J. C. |last5=Lenzi |first5=G. L. |date=2003-04-29 |title=Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: A relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=100 |issue=9 |pages=5497–5502 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0935845100 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=154373 |pmid=12682281|bibcode=2003PNAS..100.5497C }}

Reduced neural simulation of responses to suffering may account in part for observed empathy gaps, particularly in an intergroup context. This possibility is supported by research demonstrating that people show reduced neural activity when they witness ethnic outgroup (vs. ingroup) members in physical or emotional pain. In one study, Chinese and Causian participants viewed videos of Chinese and Causasian targets, who displayed neutral facial expressions as they received either painful or non-painful stimulation to their cheeks. Witnessing racial ingroup faces receive painful stimulation increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula (two regions which generally activate during the experience of pain.) However, these responses were diminished toward outgroup members in pain. These results replicated among White-Italian and Black-African participants. Additionally, EEG work has shown reduced neural simulation of movement (in primary motor cortex) for outgroup members, compared to in-group members. This effect was magnified by prejudice and toward disliked groups (i.e. South-Asians, Blacks, and East Asians).

A great deal of social neuroscience research has been conducted to investigate the social functions of the hormone oxytocin,{{Cite journal |last1=De Dreu |first1=C. K. W. |last2=Kret |first2=M. E. |date=February 2016 |title=Oxytocin Conditions Intergroup Relations Through Upregulated In-Group Empathy, Cooperation, Conformity, and Defense |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322315002590 |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=165–173 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.03.020 |pmid=25908497|url-access=subscription |hdl=1885/114506 |hdl-access=free }} including its role in empathy. Generally speaking, oxytocin is associated with cooperation between individuals (in both humans and non-human animals). However, these effects interact with group membership in intergroup settings: oxytocin is associated with increased bonding with ingroup, but not outgroup, members, and may thereby contribute to ingroup favoritism and intergroup empathy bias.{{Cite journal |last1=De Dreu |first1=C. K. W. |last2=Shalvi |first2=S. |last3=Greer |first3=L. L. |last4=Van Kleef |first4=G. A. |last5=Handgraaf |first5=M. J. J. |date=2012-11-07 |editor-last=Denson |editor-first=T. |title=Oxytocin Motivates Non-Cooperation in Intergroup Conflict to Protect Vulnerable In-Group Members |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=e46751 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0046751 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3492361 |pmid=23144787 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2012PLoSO...746751D }} However, in one study of Israelis and Palestinians, intranasal oxytocin administration improved opposing partisans' empathy for outgroup members by increasing the salience of their pain.{{Cite journal |last1=Shamay-Tsoory |first1=S. G. |last2=Abu-Akel |first2=A. |last3=Palgi |first3=S. |last4=Sulieman |first4=R. |last5=Fischer-Shofty |first5=M. |last6=Levkovitz |first6=Y. |last7=Decety |first7=J. |date=December 2013 |title=Giving peace a chance: Oxytocin increases empathy to pain in the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S030645301300334X |journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=3139–3144 |doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.09.015 |pmid=24099859|url-access=subscription }}

In addition to temporary changes in oxytocin levels, the influence of oxytocin on empathic responses may also be influenced by an oxytocin receptor gene polymorphism,{{Cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=S. |last2=Li |first2=B. |last3=Ma |first3=Y. |last4=Zhang |first4=W. |last5=Rao |first5=Y. |last6=Han |first6=S. |date=April 2015 |title=Oxytocin receptor gene and racial ingroup bias in empathy-related brain activity |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053811915000592 |journal=NeuroImage |volume=110 |pages=22–31 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.01.042 |pmid=25637390|url-access=subscription }} such that certain individuals may differ in the extent to which oxytocin promotes ingroup favoritism.

A number of studies have been conducted to identify the neural regions implicated in intergroup empathy biases.{{Cite journal |last1=Bernhardt |first1=B. C. |last2=Singer |first2=T. |date=2012-07-21 |title=The Neural Basis of Empathy |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150536 |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150536 |issn=0147-006X |pmid=22715878|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Amodio |first1=D. M. |last2=Cikara |first2=M. |date=2021-01-04 |title=The Social Neuroscience of Prejudice |url=https://osf.io/2sdzb/download |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=439–469 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050928 |issn=0066-4308 |pmid=32946320}} This work has highlighted candidate regions supporting psychological processes such as mentalizing for ingroup members, deindividuation of outgroup members, and the pleasure associated with the experience of schadenfreude.

A meta-analysis of 50 fMRI studies of intergroup social cognition found more consistent activation in dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) during ingroup (vs. outgroup) social cognition. dmPFC has previously been linked to the ability to infer others' mental states,{{Cite journal |last1=Amodio |first1=D. M. |last2=Frith |first2=C. D. |date=April 2006 |title=Meeting of minds: the medial frontal cortex and social cognition |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn1884 |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=268–277 |doi=10.1038/nrn1884 |issn=1471-003X |pmid=16552413|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Saxe |first=R. |date=April 2006 |title=Uniquely human social cognition |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959438806000262 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=235–239 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2006.03.001 |pmid=16546372|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Frith |first1=C. D. |last2=Frith |first2=U. |date=May 2006 |title=The Neural Basis of Mentalizing |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0896627306003448 |journal=Neuron |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=531–534 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2006.05.001 |pmid=16701204}} which suggests that individuals may be more likely to engage in mentalizing for ingroup (as compared to outgroup) members. dmPFC activity has also been linked to prosocial behavior;{{Cite journal |last1=Telzer |first1=E. H. |last2=Masten |first2=C. L. |last3=Berkman |first3=E. T. |last4=Lieberman |first4=M. D. |last5=Fuligni |first5=A. J. |date=September 2011 |title=Neural regions associated with self control and mentalizing are recruited during prosocial behaviors towards the family |journal=NeuroImage |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=242–249 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.013 |pmc=3276247 |pmid=21703352}}{{Cite journal |last1=Waytz |first1=A. |last2=Zaki |first2=J. |last3=Mitchell |first3=J. P. |date=2012-05-30 |title=Response of Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex Predicts Altruistic Behavior |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=32 |issue=22 |pages=7646–7650 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6193-11.2012 |issn=0270-6474 |pmc=3387686 |pmid=22649243 |doi-access=free}} thus, dmPFC's association with cognition about ingroup members suggests a potential neurocognitive mechanism underlying ingroup favoritism.

Activation patterns in the anterior insula (AI) have been observed when thinking about both ingroup and outgroup members. For example, greater activity in the anterior insula has been observed when participants view ingroup members on a sports team receiving pain, compared to outgroup members receiving pain.Hein, G., Silani, G., Preuschoff, K., Batson, C. D., & Singer, T. (2010). Neural responses to ingroup and outgroup members' suffering predict individual differences in costly helping. Neuron, 68(1), 149-160.{{Cite journal |last1=Hein |first1=G. |last2=Silani |first2=G. |last3=Preuschoff |first3=K. |last4=Batson |first4=C. D. |last5=Singer |first5=T. |date=October 2010 |title=Neural Responses to Ingroup and Outgroup Members' Suffering Predict Individual Differences in Costly Helping |journal=Neuron |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=149–160 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2010.09.003 |pmid=20920798 |doi-access=free|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/39673/21/Hein_Neuron_2010V.pdf }} In contrast, the meta-analysis referenced previously found that anterior insula activation was more reliably related to social cognition about outgroup members.

These seemingly divergent results may be due in part to functional differences between anatomic subregions of the anterior insula. Meta-analyses have identified two distinct subregions of the anterior insula: ventral AI, which is linked to emotional and visceral experiences (e.g. subjective arousal); and dorsal AI, which has been associated with exogenous attention processes such as attention orientation, salience detection, and task performance monitoring.{{Cite journal |last=Vanman |first=E. J. |date=2016 |title=The role of empathy in intergroup relations |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=11 |pages=59–63 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.007 |issn=2352-250X}}{{Cite journal |last1=Menon |first1=V. |last2=Uddin |first2=L. Q. |date=June 2010 |title=Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of insula function |journal=Brain Structure and Function |volume=214 |issue=5–6 |pages=655–667 |doi=10.1007/s00429-010-0262-0 |issn=1863-2653 |pmc=2899886 |pmid=20512370 |doi-access=}}{{Cite journal |last1=Touroutoglou |first1=A. |last2=Hollenbeck |first2=M. |last3=Dickerson |first3=B. C. |last4=Feldman Barrett |first4=L. |date=May 2012 |title=Dissociable large-scale networks anchored in the right anterior insula subserve affective experience and attention |journal=NeuroImage |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=1947–1958 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.02.012 |pmc=3345941 |pmid=22361166}} Therefore, anterior insula activation may occur more often when thinking about outgroup members because doing is more attentionally demanding than thinking about ingroup members.

Lateralization of function within the anterior insula may also help account for divergent results, due to differences in connectivity between left and right AI. The right anterior insula has greater connectivity with regions supporting attentional orientation and arousal (e.g. postcentral gyrus and supramarginal gyrus), compared to the left anterior insula, which has greater connectivity with regions involved in perspective-taking and cognitive motor control (e.g. dmPFC and superior frontal gyrus).{{Cite journal |last1=Kann |first1=S. |last2=Zhang |first2=S. |last3=Manza |first3=P. |last4=Leung |first4=H. C. |last5=Li |first5=C. S. R. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Hemispheric Lateralization of Resting-State Functional Connectivity of the Anterior Insula: Association with Age, Gender, and a Novelty-Seeking Trait |journal=Brain Connectivity |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=724–734 |doi=10.1089/brain.2016.0443 |doi-access=free|pmid=27604154 |pmc=5105339 }} The previously referenced meta-analysis found right lateralization of anterior insula for outgroup compared to ingroup processing. These findings raise the possibility that when thinking about outgroup members, individuals may use their attention to focus on targets' salient outgroup status, as opposed to thinking about the outgroup member as an individual. In contrast, the meta-analysis found left lateralization of anterior insula activity for thinking about ingroup compared to outgroup members. This finding suggests that left anterior insula may help support perspective-taking and mentalizing about ingroup members, and thinking about them in an individuated way. However, these possibilities are speculative and lateralization may vary due to characteristics such as age, gender, and other individual differences, which should be accounted for in future research.{{Cite journal |last1=Duerden |first1=E. G. |last2=Arsalidou |first2=M. |last3=Lee |first3=M. |last4=Taylor |first4=M. J. |date=September 2013 |title=Lateralization of affective processing in the insula |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053811913003418 |journal=NeuroImage |volume=78 |pages=159–175 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.04.014 |pmid=23587690|url-access=subscription }}

A number of fMRI studies have attempted to identify the neural activation patterns underlying the experience of intergroup schadenfreude, particularly toward outgroup members in pain. These studies have found increased activation in the ventral striatum, a region related to reward processing and pleasure.{{Cite journal |last=Cikara |first=M. |date=June 2015 |title=Intergroup Schadenfreude: motivating participation in collective violence |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352154614000382 |journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences |volume=3 |pages=12–17 |doi=10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.12.007|url-access=subscription }}

Breakdowns in empathy may reduce helping behavior,{{Cite book |last1=Batson |first1=C. D. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Hypo-egoic Phenomena |last2=Ahmad |first2=N. |last3=Lishner |first3=D. A. |last4=Tsang |first4=J. |last5=Snyder |first5=C. R. |last6=Lopez |first6=S. J. |date=2002 |pages=161–174 |chapter=Empathy and altruism}}{{Cite journal |last1=Stürmer |first1=S. |last2=Snyder |first2=M. |last3=Kropp |first3=A. |last4=Siem |first4=B. |date=July 2006 |title=Empathy-Motivated Helping: The Moderating Role of Group Membership |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167206287363 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=943–956 |doi=10.1177/0146167206287363 |issn=0146-1672 |pmid=16738027|url-access=subscription }} a phenomenon illustrated by the identifiable victim effect. Specifically, humans are less likely to assist others who are not identifiable on an individual level.{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=S. |last2=Feeley |first2=T. H. |date=2016-07-02 |title=The identifiable victim effect: a meta-analytic review |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15534510.2016.1216891 |journal=Social Influence |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=199–215 |doi=10.1080/15534510.2016.1216891 |issn=1553-4510|url-access=subscription }} A related concept is psychological distance—that is, we are less likely to help those who feel more psychologically distant from us.{{Cite book |last1=Liberman |first1=N. |title=Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles |last2=Trope |first2=Y. |last3=Stephan |first3=E. |date=2007 |volume=2 |pages=353–383 |chapter=Psychological distance}}

Reduced empathy for outgroup members is associated with a reduction in willingness to entertain another's points of view, the likelihood of ignoring a customer's complaints, the likelihood of helping others during a natural disaster, and the chance that one opposes social programs designed to benefit disadvantaged individuals.{{Cite journal |last1=Cuddy |first1=A. J. C. |last2=Rock |first2=M. S. |last3=Norton |first3=M. I. |date=January 2007 |title=Aid in the Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina: Inferences of Secondary Emotions and Intergroup Helping |url=https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/22817/ssoar-gpir-2007-1-cuddy_et_al-aid_in_the_aftermath_of.pdf |journal=Group Processes & Intergroup Relations |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=107–118 |doi=10.1177/1368430207071344 |issn=1368-4302}}

Empathy gaps may contribute to prejudicial attitudes and behavior. However, training people in perspective-taking, for example by providing instructions about how to take an outgroup member's perspective, has been shown to increase intergroup helping and the recognition of group disparities.{{Cite journal |last1=Todd |first1=A. R. |last2=Galinsky |first2=A. D. |date=2014-07-02 |title=Perspective-taking as a strategy for improving intergroup relations: Evidence, mechanisms, and qualifications |journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=374–387 |doi=10.1111/spc3.12116}} Perspective-taking interventions are more likely to be effective when a multicultural approach is used (i.e., an approach that appreciates intergroup differences), as opposed to a "colorblind" approach (e.g. an approach that attempts to emphasize a shared group identity).{{Cite journal |last1=Vorauer |first1=J. D. |last2=Sasaki |first2=S. J. |date=2009 |title=Helpful only in the abstract? Ironic effects of empathy in intergroup interaction |journal=Psychological Science |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=191–197 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02265|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Leeuwen |first1=E. V. |last2=Mashuri |first2=A. |date=2012 |title=When common identities reduce between-group helping |url=https://eacvanleeuwen.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/339663_1_en_7_chapter_onlinepdf.pdf |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=259–265 |doi=10.1177/1948550611417315}}{{Biases|state=collapsed}}

• Attention inequality
• Barriers to pro-environmental behaviour
• Compassion fatigue
• In-group and out-group
• Self-categorization theory
• The Fox and the Stork

{{reflist}}

Category:Social psychology

Category:Empathy