flora of Turkey
{{short description|Plants that grow in the Eurasian country}}
{{hatnote|This article is about plants and fungi. For an overview of the biodiversity see Wildlife of Turkey, and for details of animals see Fauna of Turkey.}}
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| footer = Verbascum wiedemannianum: this showy Mullein is typical of the central Anatolian steppe. Like most of the Turkish Verbascum-species it is endemic to Anatolia.
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The flora of Turkey consists of almost 10,000 species of plants, as well as a number of fungi and algae. Around 32% of Turkey's plants are found only in the country.{{Cite book |last1=Muminjanov |first1=H. |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/97877792-df93-4f18-ba51-58a82301dad3/content |title=Biodiversity of Turkey: Contribution of Genetic Resources to Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems |last2=Karagöz |first2=A. |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-5-130959-9 |location=Ankara}} One reason for the high proportion of endemics is that Anatolia is both mountainous and quite fragmented.{{Citation needed lead|date=April 2025}} The country is divided into three main floristic areas: the Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian, and Irano-Tranian area.{{cite web |title=Turkey's Flora |url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/turkfauna.htm |access-date=19 November 2015 |publisher=All about Turkey}} The flora of the European part of Turkey is similar to that of adjoining Greece. The ecoregions here include Balkan mixed forests dominated by oaks,{{cite web |title=Eastern Europe: Turkey, Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Serbia: Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0404 |access-date=20 November 2015 |publisher=World Wildlife Fund}} and Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests where some of the main species are oaks, strawberry tree, Greek strawberry tree, Spanish broom and laurel.{{cite web |title=Southeastern Europe: Along the coastline of Greece and Turkey, stretching into Macedonia: Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrubs |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1201 |access-date=20 November 2015 |publisher=World Wildlife Fund}} The country is at a meeting point of three phytogeographical regions Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian, and Irano-Turonian.{{Citation |last=Atalay |first=İbrahim |title=Vegetation |date=2018 |work=The Soils of Turkey |series=World Soils Book Series |pages=15–24 |editor-last=Kapur |editor-first=Selim |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-64392-2_2 |access-date=2025-03-11 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-64392-2_2 |isbn=978-3-319-64392-2 |editor2-last=Akça |editor2-first=Erhan |editor3-last=Günal |editor3-first=Hikmet|url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal |last1=Alper H. ?ol |first1=Alper H. Çolak |last2=Ian D. Rotherham |first2=Ian D. Rotherham |title=A Review of the Forest Vegetation of Turkey: Its Status Past and Present and its Future Conservation |journal=Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy |date=2006 |volume=106B |issue=3 |page=347 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20728606 |access-date=14 April 2025}} The region played a key role in the early cultivation of wheat, other cereals, and various horticultural crops.
The Euro-Siberian area is a mountainous part of western Turkey. Here the flora transitions from the Mediterranean vegetation type to the Anatolian plateau. The dominant vegetation cover here is forests of oak and pine, especially Anatolian black pine and Turkish pine.{{cite web |title=Southeastern Europe: Western Turkey: Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrubs |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa1202 |access-date=20 November 2015 |publisher=World Wildlife Fund}} Further east is the Anatolian plateau, a largely treeless area of plains and river basins at an average altitude of {{convert|1000|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}. This area is characterised by hot dry summers and cold winters. Salt steppes and lakes are found here, as well salt-free grassland areas, marshes and freshwater systems. Immediately around the large Lake Tuz and other saline areas, saltmarsh plants grow, and beyond this is a sharp divide, with the flora being dominated by members of the families Chenopodiaceae and Plumbaginaceae.{{cite web |title=Western Asia: Central Turkey: Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0803 |access-date=20 November 2015 |publisher=World Wildlife Fund}}
The mountainous eastern half of the country is separated floristically from the rest of the country by the Anatolian diagonal, a floral break that crosses the country from the eastern end of the Black Sea to the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea. Many species found to the east of this break are not found to the west and vice versa, and about four hundred species are only found along this divide.{{cite book |author1=Öztürk, M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1X1CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |title=Climate Change Impacts on High-Altitude Ecosystems |author2=Hakeem, K. R. |author3=Faridah-Hanum, I. |author4=Efe, R. |publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=978-3-319-12859-7 |page=100}} The natural vegetation in eastern Turkey is the Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests; in these oaks such as Brant's oak, Lebanon oak, Aleppo oak and Mount Thabor's oak predominate in open woodland with Scots pine, burnet rose, dog-rose, oriental plane, alder, sweet chestnut, maple, Caucasian honeysuckle (Lonicera caucasica) and common juniper.{{cite web |title=Turkey: Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0420 |access-date=20 November 2015 |publisher=World Wildlife Fund}}
Most European species are found in Turkey.{{cite web|title=Turkey's flora and fauna|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/turkfauna.htm|website=allaboutturkey.com|accessdate=12 June 2014}} The most important reasons for the high plant biodiversity are believed to be the relatively high proportion of endemics, together with the high variety of soils and climate of Turkey.
In Anatolia the Pleistocene glaciations only covered the highest peaks, so there are many species with small ranges. In other words: Anatolia as a whole is a big “massif de refuge”, showing all degrees of past and recent speciation.
Naturally much of the vegetation would be steppe and forest,{{Cite journal |last1=Akman |first1=Y. |last2=Ketenoǧlu |first2=O. |date=January 1986 |title=The climate and vegetation of Turkey |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-royal-society-of-edinburgh-section-b-biological-sciences/article/abs/climate-and-vegetation-of-turkey/7A23F837A2413E31F63093719A339EA4 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=89 |pages=123–134 |doi=10.1017/S0269727000008964 |issn=2053-5910|url-access=subscription }} however people have cleared much forest and their animals have changed the vegetation by grazing.{{Cite web |date=2025-03-09 |title=Turkey - The central massif {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey/The-central-massif#ref44463 |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}
Diversity and endemism
=Vascular plants=
File:Colchicum figlalii.jpg mountain near Muğla, was described as new to science in 1995.]]
A third of Turkish plant species are endemic to Turkey:{{Cite journal|last1=Schneeweiss|first1=Gerald M.|last2=Asgarpour|first2=Zahra|last3=Moser|first3=Dietmar|last4=Mahmoodi|first4=Mohammad|last5=Sherafati|first5=Mahbubeh|last6=Zare|first6=Golshan|last7=Noroozi|first7=Jalil|date=2019|title=Patterns of Endemism in Turkey, the Meeting Point of Three Global Biodiversity Hotspots, Based on Three Diverse Families of Vascular Plants|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution|language=English|volume=7|doi=10.3389/fevo.2019.00159|issn=2296-701X|doi-access=free}} one reason there are so many is because the surface of Anatolia is both mountainous and quite fragmented. In fact, the Anatolian mountains resemble archipelagos like the famous Galapagos Islands. Since Darwin we know that geographic isolation between islands or separated mountains is an important means of speciation, leading to high spatial diversity. For Anatolia this assumption is confirmed by concentrations of endemism on highly isolated and relatively old massifs such as Uludağ and Ilgaz Dağ, whereas very young volcanic cones such as Erciyes Dağ and Hassan Dağ are surprisingly poor in endemics.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}File:Gypsum hills.jpg: gypsum and serpentine areas are exceptionally rich in endemic species]]
For a visitor from Central Europe, climatic diversity within Turkey is quite astonishing. All climatic zones present in Europe can be found in Turkey on a somewhat smaller scale. The Black Sea coast is humid all year round, with the highest rainfall between Rize and Hopa. South of the Pontic Range there is much less rain so Central Anatolia is dry; also it is cold in the winter. Approaching the southern and western coasts, the climate turns more and more Mediterranean, with mild but very rainy winters and dry, hot summers. This simple scheme is complicated a lot by the mountainous surface of Anatolia. On the high mountains, harsh climatic conditions persist all the year round and, {{as of|2019|lc=y}}, there are glaciers in Turkey, for example on Mount Ararat.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}
Anatolia's diversity of soils is astonishingly high. Saline soils are quite common in the driest parts of central Anatolia; additionally, the Aras valley between Kağızman and Armenia is full of impressive salt outlets, some pouring directly out of the mountains and thus resembling snow patches from a distance. South of Sivas and around Gürün there are extensive gypsum hills with a very special flora. A further lot of endemics have been described from the extensive serpentine areas in South-West Anatolia, especially Sandras Dağ (Cicekbaba D.) near Köyceğiz.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}
The Anatolian diagonal is an ecological dividing line that runs slant-wise across central and eastern Turkey from the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea to the southeastern part of the Black Sea. Many species of plants that exist west of the diagonal are not present to the east, while others found to the east are not in the west. Of 550 species analysed, 135 were found to be "eastern" and 228 "western".{{cite journal |author1=Ekima, T. |author2=Günera, A. |year=1989 |title=The Anatolian Diagonal: fact or fiction? |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section B: Biological Sciences |volume=86 |pages=69–77 |doi=10.1017/S0269727000008915 }} Besides the Anatolian diagonal forming a barrier to floral biodiversity, about four hundred species of plant are endemic to the diagonal itself.{{cite book|author1=Münir Öztürk|author2=Khalid Rehman Hakeem|author3=I. Faridah-Hanum|author4=Recep Efe|title=Climate Change Impacts on High-Altitude Ecosystems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1X1CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA280 |year=2015|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-12859-7 |pages=280–283}}
File:Floraofsouthakdoganlake.svg, Eastern Anatolia Region. Quçan region is completely brown soil. Other places are semi-brown and consist of different types of soil.]]{{See also|:Category:Flora of European Turkey}}
File:Dornpolsterheide am Melendiz Dag.jpg
File:Species numbers of the most important plant genera in Turkey.jpg
With almost 400 species the genus Astragalus (milk-vetch, goat's-thorn; Fabaceae) has by far the most species of the Turkish flora; as historically humans have dramatically expanded its favored treeless, dry and heavily grazed habitats. But not as many as Central Asia: the former USSR has twice as many. The plasticity of this genus is astonishingly high. Depending on environmental conditions a big variety of life forms evolved, ranging from tiny annuals to small woody and thorny bushes. Speciation seems to be in plain progress in Astragalus. Nearly all of its different sections consists of clusters of closely related species whose determination is one of the hardest tasks in a closer study of the Anatolian flora. One of the most successful growth forms of Turkish Astragali is the thorn cushion, which is very characteristic of the dry mountains of inner Anatolia. Such thorn cushions were not exclusively invented by many Astragali. Really striking examples of convergent evolution are the impressive thorn cushions of Onobrychis cornuta, also belonging to the Fabaceae. But there are a lot of thorn cushions also in Acantholimon (Plumbaginaceae). Even some Asteraceae (in Turkey e.g. Centaurea urvillei, C. iberica) and Caryophyllaceae (e.g. Minuartia juniperina) evolved in that direction.
Second in importance comes Verbascum (Scrophulariaceae) and third is Centaurea (Asteraceae). For Verbascum Turkey evidently is the centre of distribution. Of approximately 360 species worldwide no less than 232 are to be found in Turkey, almost 80% of them being Anatolian endemics! Most Verbascum species are protected against water loss and hungry cattle by a dense cover of tree-shaped micro hairs. Centaurea species rarely have woolly hairs, but in defence against heavy grazing developed thorny phyllaries, or evolved to have no visible stem or a very short one.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}
=Non-vascular plants=
= Fungi =
There are over 12,000 varieties of mushroom in Turkey, {{Cite web |last=Team |first=The Guide |date=2018-09-10 |title=Fungi season: wild mushrooms in Turkey |url=https://www.theguideistanbul.com/wild-mushrooms-turkey/ |access-date=2019-06-15 |website=The Guide Istanbul |language=en-US}} some of which are edible.{{Cite web |title=Common Edible Mushrooms from Türkiye and the Mediterranean Basin |url=https://www.ogm.gov.tr/tr/e-kutuphane-sitesi/Yayinlar/Common%20Edible%20Mushrooms%20From%20T%C3%BCrkiye%20and%20the%20Mediterranean%20Basin.pdf}}
=Algae=
Vegetation types
{{Excerpt|Forests in Turkey}}
[[File:Turkey biomes.png|thumb|Biomes of Turkey{{Update inline|date=March 2025|reason=per cites}}Zagros Mountain Forests & East Anatolian Steppe Bioregion{{Cite web |date=2025-03-10 |title=Zagros Mountain Forests & East Anatolian Steppe (PA27) |url=https://www.oneearth.org/bioregions/zagros-mountain-forests-east-anatolian-steppe-pa27/ |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=One Earth |language=en}}
Black Sea, Caucasus-Anatolian Mixed Forests & Steppe Bioregion{{Cite web |date=2025-03-10 |title=Black Sea, Caucasus-Anatolian Mixed Forests & Steppe (PA17) |url=https://www.oneearth.org/bioregions/black-sea-caucasus-anatolian-mixed-forests-steppe-pa17/ |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=One Earth |language=en}}
Aegean Sea & East Mediterranean Mixed Forests Bioregion{{Cite web |date=2025-03-10 |title=Aegean Sea & East Mediterranean Mixed Forests (PA18) |url=https://www.oneearth.org/bioregions/aegean-sea-east-mediterranean-mixed-forests-pa18/ |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=One Earth |language=en}}
Balkan Mixed Forests Ecoregion{{Cite web |date=2021-12-15 |title=Balkan Mixed Forests |url=https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/balkan-mixed-forests/ |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=One Earth |language=en}}
]]
{{Excerpt|Soil in Turkey}}
Steppe grassland is mostly in Central and southeast Anatolia. Above 2000m in the Black Sea Region there is Alpine grassland.
The distribution of plants uses the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions (WGSRPD). See List of codes used in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions for its coding system. Turkey is divided into two botanical areas:
- TUE – Turkey in Europe – part of 13 Southeastern Europe – part of 1 Europe → :Category:Flora of European Turkey
- TUR – (the rest of) Turkey – part of 34 Western Asia – part of 3 Temperate-Asia → :Category:Flora of Turkey
File:Pinus nigra im Taurus-Gebirge.jpg
The Pontic mountain range along the north Anatolian coast is a more or less continuous barrier against humid air from the Black Sea, causing high precipitation on the northern slopes of the Pontus all year. Climatic conditions on the northern coast therefore resemble those in central Europe and so does the vegetation. A limited Mediterranean influence is noticeable only on a very narrow coastal strip, but almost completely missing in the northeast. In the lower forest zone often Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) prevails, frequently intermingled with Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa). Further up Oriental Beech (Fagus orientalis) and/or Nordmann Fir (Abies nordmanniana) form extensive forests. Humidity becomes extremely high in Lazistan, where the Pontic barrier culminates in the nearly 4000 m high Kaçkar Mountains. East of Trabzon therefore vegetation becomes somewhat sub-tropic, with a lot of evergreens in the forest and tea plantations everywhere on the slopes.
South of the Pontic watershed the climate immediately gets drier. In the mountains first Abies nordmanniana, but then soon Pinus becomes dominant. In the western parts of Anatolia this is often Black Pine (Pinus nigra), in the east nearly exclusively Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). Penetrating further into the central parts of inner Anatolia leads to still dryer, wintercold conditions. Today the lower parts of central Anatolia are virtually treeless. Fields on deep alluvial soils alternate with steppe on the dryer hills. But it is still an open question where and to what degree this central Anatolian steppe is due to aridity or to human deforestation.{{Cite web |last=Kahveci |first=Gülzade |title=General Characteristics and Distribution of Forest Relicts in Central Anatolia |url=https://forestist.org/Content/files/sayilar/446/192-198.pdf}} Aridity is most pronounced around Tuz Gölü south of Ankara and in the Aras-valley near the Armenian border. Between Kağizman and Tuzluca this valley is so dry, that here and there pure salt deposits glitter like white snowfields on the bare slopes.
The Taurus Mountains form the southern edge of the central Anatolian Plateau and are already very influenced by the Mediterranean, with a lot of snow in winter, but dry and warm summers. Climax forests are formed by Black Pine, Cilician Fir (Abies cilicica) and Lebanon Cedar (Cedrus libani). Unfortunately, there has been a lot of deforestation in the Taurus, most gravely affecting the stands of cedar. On the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts pronounced Mediterranean conditions prevail, with very hot and dry summers and very rainy winters. Antalya Province has considerably more total precipitation than, for example, the south of England (1071 mm versus 759 mm), but its seasonal distribution is completely different and the average temperature is of course much higher (18.3 °C versus 9.7°). But due to massive forest destruction hills and slopes in coastal West and South Anatolia are nowadays mostly covered with maquis shrubland. Where fertile alluvial soils prevail, e.g. in the Cilician Plain around Adana, there is intense agriculture.
Mediterranean vegetation is resilient to drought.{{Cite journal |last=Aktürk |first=Emre |date=2024-08-15 |title=Seasonal Vegetation Trends in Biomes of Türkiye: A Decade-Long (2014-2023) Analysis Using NDVI Time Series |journal=Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi |language=en |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=230–243 |doi=10.24011/barofd.1468085 |issn=1302-0943|doi-access=free }}
File:Kackar Gebirge oberhalb von Ayder.jpg|Picea orientalis with Abies nordmanniana and Fagus orientalis on the moist northern slopes of Kaçkar Dağ (Northeastern Pontus). Main component of the scrub between the trees is Rhododendron luteum, above Ayder, c.1700 m s.l.
File:Rotföhre am Ilgaz Dag.jpg|Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) is the dominant tree in the dry and cold areas of north-eastern Anatolia, southern slope of Kücükhacet Dağ (Ilgaz Dağ), c.1950 m s. l.
File:Anatolischer Steppenrest mit Crambe tatarica.jpg|Rest of the Anatolian steppe with Crambe tatarica (white), with fields in the background, Ahiboz, c.35 km south of Ankara, c.1000 m s.l.
File:Halbwüstenvegetation im Aras-Tal.jpg|Semidesert vegetation in the Aras-valley near the Armenian border. Sparse plant cover consists mainly of drought- and salt-tolerant members of the Goosefoot Family (Chenopodiaceae), 35 km west of Tuzluca, 1110 m s.l.
File:Rize_Tea_Plantation_2005-jk.jpg|In Turkey the cultivation of tea is confined to the almost subtropical part of the Black Sea coast around Rize, Ikizdere valley south of Rize, 200 m s.l.
File:Corylus maxima.jpg|Orchards with hazelnuts (Corylus maxima) are very typical for the mountainous parts of the Anatolian Black Sea coast. East of Trabzon they give way to tea plantations, near Tirebolu (Giresun-Province), c. 20 m s. l.
File:Corylus maxima fruit.jpg|Turkish women drying hazelnuts, Sacmalipinar Düzce Province.
File:Cotton field Turkey.jpg|Cotton grows best in hot, sunny regions but needs plenty of water, near Belek (Antalya-Province).
Origins and evolution
As local endemics take a long time to evolve, we also have to compare the history of the central and north European mountains with the Anatolian ones. During each of the glacial periods the former were covered by thick shields of permanent ice, which destroyed most pre-glacial endemism and hindered neo-endemics from forming. Only less glaciated, peripheral areas, the so-called “massifs de refuge”, offered suitable conditions for the survival of local endemics during glacial periods.
In Anatolia the Pleistocene glaciations only covered the highest peaks, so there are many species with small ranges. In other words: Anatolia as a whole is a big "massif de refuge", showing all degrees of past and recent speciation.{{Cite book |url=https://www.naturewonders.org/picture?/3012 |title=Flowers of Turkey A Photo Guide |isbn=9789997014207}}{{Page needed|date=January 2025}}
Human impact
{{See also|Climate change in Turkey#Ecosystems|Agriculture in Turkey}}
Without humans the main vegatation types would be steppe and forest. Rangeland in Central Anatolia was overgrazed, and rangeland management to limit soil erosion has been suggested.{{Cite journal |last1=Gökbulak |first1=Ferhat |last2=Erdoğan |first2=Betül Uygur |last3=Yıldırım |first3=Hasan Tezcan |last4=Özçelik |first4=Mehmet S. |date=2018-07-20 |title=Causes of land degradation and rehabilitation efforts of rangelands in Turkey |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/forestist/issue/39234/396995 |journal=Forestist |language=en |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=106–113 |issn=2602-4039}} There is a national biodiversity action plan to 2028,{{Cite web |title= NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY ACTION PLAN 2018-2028|url=https://nuhungemisi2.tarimorman.gov.tr/Content/Documents/ubep-ingilizce.pdf}} and an IUCN SSC Turkey Plant Red List Authority.{{Cite web |title=IUCN SSC Turkey Plant Red List Authority {{!}} IUCN |url=https://iucn.org/our-union/commissions/group/iucn-ssc-turkey-plant-red-list-authority |access-date=2025-01-30 |website=iucn.org |language=en}} Potentially there could be more forest in Turkey.{{Cite journal |last1=Raja |first1=Nussaïbah B. |last2=Aydin |first2=Olgu |last3=Çiçek |first3=İhsan |last4=Türkoğlu |first4=Necla |date=2019-12-01 |title=A reconstruction of Turkey's potential natural vegetation using climate indicators |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11676-018-0855-7 |journal=Journal of Forestry Research |language=en |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=2199–2211 |doi=10.1007/s11676-018-0855-7 |bibcode=2019JFoR...30.2199R |issn=1993-0607|url-access=subscription }} Technology is being used to revegetate steep slopes to try to prevent desertification.{{Citation |last1=Huebner |first1=Lorenz |title=Desertification in Algeria and Turkey: Climate Change Leading to "Natural Selection" of Restoration Concepts |date=2024 |work=Climate Change and Environmental Degradation in the MENA Region |pages=155–174 |editor-last=Al-Quraishi |editor-first=Ayad |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/698_2024_1101 |access-date=2025-03-10 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland |language=en |doi=10.1007/698_2024_1101 |isbn=978-3-031-74395-5 |last2=Fadhil Al-Quraishi |first2=Ayad M. |editor2-last=Negm |editor2-first=Abdelazim |editor3-last=Benzougagh |editor3-first=Brahim|url-access=subscription }}
Botanical resources
- "The Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands", 9 volumes, 1965-1985, ed. P H Davis, followed by two supplementary volumes 10 (1988) & 11 (2000, Güner, A. & al.). All volumes are in English, mostly text.
- "Resimli Türkiye Florası" (Illustrated Flora of Turkey), projected to be 30 volumes, ed. Adil Güner, released in PDF and print format, currently published (May 2024) vols. 1,2,3a,3b,4a,4b, primarily distributed via [https://satis.ang.org.tr ANG]. All volumes are in Turkish, with keys, descriptive text, illustrations and details and map of herbarium specimens used for each taxon.
- "Check-list of additional taxa to the supplement of flora of Turkey I... X" are 10 (as of May 2024) supplemental lists of new taxa that have been found in Turkey (released as PDFs).
- "Orchids of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, ed 3", 2006, 640 pp, by Pierre Delforge (English, includes the entirety of Turkey).
- "Endemism in Mainland Regions – Case Studies: Turkey", 2013, by Pils, p. 240-255 in: Endemism in Vascular Plants, Springer Verlag, ed. C Hobohm [https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/ecology/book/978-94-007-6912-0]
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20100311233919/http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/botany/index.php Turkish Journal Of Botany]
AVCI. M. 2005. "Çeşitlilik Ve Endemizm Açısından Türkiye’nin Bitki Örtüsü-Diversity and endemism in Turkey's Vegetation", İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Coğrafya Bölümü Coğrafya Dergisi 13:27-55.
Information for this article was taken mainly from: [http://gerhardpils.webs.com/flowers-of-turkey Flowers of Turkey - a photo guide].- 448 pp.– Eigenverlag Gerhard Pils (2006).
Notes
{{reflist|group=Note}}
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
- [https://bizimbitkiler.org.tr/yeni/demos/technical/ Plant List with Maps (bizimbitkiler.org.tr)] (to search, type a genus or species and click Ara (or hit enter), against a plant Göster provides details and map, tab "Geçerli İsimler" provides current names, "Eşisimler" obsolete names; the maps are mostly from old herbarium data and some latitude is needed)
- [http://www.tehditaltindabitkiler.org.tr/v2/index.php?sayfa=listele&sinif=tehdit# Threatened Plants List by Category (tehditaltindabitkiler.org.tr)] (click a threat category to view taxon list, as of 2024-12 these categories are from 2012)
- [https://turkiyeflorasi.org.tr/pdf-kutuphanesi.html Some new Flora PDFs and images (turkiyeflorasi.org.tr)] (images can be found using the upper right search box)
- [https://satis.ang.org.tr/?s=Resimli+T%C3%BCrkiye+Floras%C4%B1&post_type=product 30-volume Flora of Turkey on ang.org.tr] (e-kitap items are the PDFs)
- [https://turkiyebitkileri.com/en/ Primary National Plant Gallery and Breaking News (turkiyebitkileri.com)]
- [https://www.facebook.com/groups/106515485317/ Primary National Botany ID Forum (FB)]
- [https://www.facebook.com/groups/anadoluorkideleri Primary National Orchid ID Forum (FB)]
{{Asia in topic|Flora of}}
{{Europe in topic|Flora of}}