fluoride volatility

File:Fission yield volatile 2.png, not considering later neutron capture, fraction of 100% not 200%. Beta decay Kr-85→Rb, Sr-90→Zr, Ru-106→Pd, Sb-125→Te, Cs-137→Ba, Ce-144→Nd, Sm-151→Eu, Eu-155→Gd visible.]]

Valences for the majority of elements are based on the highest known fluoride. However, elements with high valence tend to reach higher oxidation state in compounds with oxygen rather than fluorine.

Roughly, fluoride volatility can be used to remove elements with a valence of 5 or greater: uranium, neptunium, plutonium, metalloids (tellurium, antimony), nonmetals (selenium), halogens (iodine, bromine), and the middle transition metals (niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, and possibly rhodium). This fraction includes the actinides most easily reusable as nuclear fuel in a thermal reactor, and the two long-lived fission products best suited to disposal by transmutation, Tc-99 and I-129, as well as Se-79.

Noble gases (xenon, krypton) are volatile even without fluoridation, and will not condense except at much lower temperatures.

Left behind are alkali metals (caesium, rubidium), alkaline earth metals (strontium, barium), lanthanides, the remaining actinides (americium, curium), remaining transition metals (yttrium, zirconium, palladium, silver) and post-transition metals (tin, indium, cadmium). This fraction contains the fission products that are radiation hazards on a scale of decades (Cs-137, Sr-90, Sm-151), the four remaining long-lived fission products Cs-135, Zr-93, Pd-107, Sn-126 of which only the last emits strong radiation, most of the neutron poisons, and the higher actinides (americium, curium, californium) that are radiation hazards on a scale of hundreds or thousands of years and are difficult to work with because of gamma radiation but are fissionable in a fast reactor. Americium finds use in ionization smoke detectors while californium is used as a spontaneous fission based neutron source. Curium has only very limited uses outside nuclear reactors. Fissionable but non-fissile actinoids can be used or disposed of in a subcritical nuclear reactor using an external neutron source such as an Accelerator Driven System.

Uranium oxides react with fluorine to form gaseous uranium hexafluoride, most of the plutonium reacts to form gaseous plutonium hexafluoride, a majority of fission products (especially electropositive elements: lanthanides, strontium, barium, yttrium, caesium) form nonvolatile fluorides. Few metals in the fission products (the transition metals niobium, ruthenium, technetium, molybdenum, and the halogen iodine) form volatile (boiling point <200 °C) fluorides that accompany the uranium and plutonium hexafluorides, together with inert gases. Distillation is then used to separate the uranium hexafluoride from the mixture.{{cite web

| url= http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/docs/iem/mol98/session2/SIIpaper9.pdf | title= An Experience on Dry Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing in the Czech Republic | last= Uhlir | first= Jan |publisher= OECD Nuclear Energy Agency | accessdate= 2008-05-21 }}{{cite web | url= http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/docs/iem/madrid00/Proceedings/Paper13.pdf | title= R&D of Pyrochemical Partitioning in the Czech Republic

| last= Uhlir | first= Jan |publisher= OECD Nuclear Energy Agency | accessdate= 2008-05-21 }}

The nonvolatile alkaline fission products and minor actinides fraction is most suitable for further processing with 'dry' electrochemical processing (pyrochemical) non-aqueous methods. The lanthanide fluorides are difficult to dissolve in the nitric acid used for aqueous reprocessing methods, such as PUREX, DIAMEX and SANEX, which use solvent extraction. Fluoride volatility is only one of several pyrochemical processes designed to reprocess used nuclear fuel.

The [https://archive.today/20070609212936/http://www.nri.cz/eng/index.html Řež nuclear research institute] at Řež in the Czech Republic tested screw dosers that fed ground uranium oxide (simulating used fuel pellets) into a fluorinator where the particles were burned in fluorine gas to form uranium hexafluoride.{{cite web|url=http://www.fjfi.cvut.cz/Stara_verze/k417/web_ads/papers/P-g6.pdf |title=Development of Uranium Oxide Powder Dosing for Fluoride Volatility Separation Process |last=Markvart |first=Milos |accessdate=2008-05-21 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041117063325/http://www.fjfi.cvut.cz/Stara_verze/k417/web_ads/papers/P-g6.pdf |archivedate=November 17, 2004 }}

Hitachi has developed a technology, called FLUOREX, which combines fluoride volatility, to extract uranium, with more traditional solvent extraction (PUREX), to extract plutonium and other transuranics.{{Cite web|url=https://www.hitachi-hgne.co.jp/en/activities/fuelcycle/index.html|title=Fuel Cycle：Hitachi-GE Nuclear Energy, Ltd}} The FLUOREX-based fuel cycle is intended for use with the Reduced moderation water reactor.{{cite web |url=http://www.hitachi.com/rev/field/powersystems/2011342_43332.html |title=Next-generation Nuclear Reactor Systems for Future Energy : HITACHI REVIEW |website=www.hitachi.com |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219094654/http://www.hitachi.com/rev/field/powersystems/2011342_43332.html |archive-date=19 February 2013 |url-status=dead}}

Some fluorides are water soluble while others aren't (see the solubility table) and can be separated in aqueous solution. However, all aqueous processes that take place without complete removal of tritium (a common product of ternary fission)https://inldigitallibrary.inl.gov/sites/sti/sti/5581212.pdfhttps://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/htgr-kb/HTR2014/Paper%20list/Track8/HTR2014-81096.pdf prior to addition of water will contaminate the water with tritiated water which is difficult to remove from water.{{cite web | url=https://www.nuclearsolutions.veolia.com/en/our-expertise/technologies/our-modular-detritiation-system-mds-remove-tritium | title=Our Modular Detritiation System (MDS®) to Remove Tritium }}https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336994234_A_COMPACT_LOW_COST_TRITIUM_REMOVAL_PLANT_FOR_CANDU-6_REACTORS{{cite web | url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Contract-for-Cernavoda-tritium-removal-facility | title=Contract for Cernavoda tritium removal facility }} Some elements which form soluble florides form insoluble chlorides. Addition of a suitable soluble chloride (e.g. sodium chloride) will salt out those cations. One example is silver (I) fluoride (water soluble) which forms silver chloride precipitate upon addition of a soluble chloride.

:{{chem2 | AgF + NaCl -> AgCl↓ + NaF }}

Some fluorides react aggressively with water and may form highly corrosive hydrogen fluoride. This needs to be taken into account if aqueous processes involving fluorides are to be used.{{cite journal | doi=10.3390/pr11040988 | doi-access=free | title=Mechanism and Kinetics of Interaction of FLiNaK–CeF3 Melt with Water Vapors and Oxygen in the Air Atmosphere | date=2023 | last1=Zakiryanova | first1=Irina D. | last2=Mushnikov | first2=Petr N. | last3=Nikolaeva | first3=Elena V. | last4=Zaikov | first4=Yury P. | journal=Processes | volume=11 | issue=4 | page=988 }}

If desired, a series of further anion-additions similar to the :de:Kationentrennungsgang can be used to separate out different cations for disposal, further processing or use.

• FLiNaK
• Molten salt reactor

• Missing top fluorides:[http://www.sciencenet.cn/upload/blog/file/2008/12/2008121510347360620.pdf CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 88th Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704232250/http://www.sciencenet.cn/upload/blog/file/2008/12/2008121510347360620.pdf |date=2010-07-04 }}. (PDF). Retrieved on 2010-11-14.
• PrF₄ (because it decomposes at 90 °C)
• TbF₄ (because it decomposes at 300 °C)
• CeF₄ (because it decomposes at 600 °C)
• Without stable fluorides: Kr[http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5076839.html Precious metal refining with fluorine gas – Patent 5076839]. Freepatentsonline.com. Retrieved on 2010-11-14.

{{reflist}}

• [http://www.nea.fr/html/pt/docs/iem/lasvegas04/07_Session_II/S2_03.pdf Study of Electrochemical Processes for Separation of the Actinides and Lanthanides in Molten Fluoride Media] (PDF)
• {{cite web |url=http://www.fjfi.cvut.cz/con_adtt99/papers/P-g5.pdf |title=Separation and purification of UF₆ from volatile fluorides by rectification |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050113100054/http://www.fjfi.cvut.cz/con_adtt99/papers/P-g5.pdf |archivedate=13 January 2005}}
• [http://www.energyfromthorium.com/pdf/ORNL-4577.pdf Low-pressure distillation of a portion of the fuel carrier salt from the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment] (PDF)
• [http://www.studentpipeline.org/afci/theses/milliron.pdf Use of the Fluoride Volatility Process to Extract Technetium from Transmuted Spent Nuclear Fuel] (PDF)
• [https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/238572.pdf A Peer Review of the Strategy for Characterizing Transuranics and Technetium Contamination in Depleted Uranium Hexafluoride Tails Cylinders] (PDF)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100704232250/http://www.sciencenet.cn/upload/blog/file/2008/12/2008121510347360620.pdf PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS] (PDF)

Category:Nuclear reprocessing

Category:Nuclear chemistry

Category:Fluorides