fracking

File:Comparison stimulation methods colour.jpg

Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and acidising (acid fracking) are two of the most common methods for well stimulation. The flow chart shows that hydraulic fracking and acid fracking, highlighted in yellow, are two categories of unconventional hydraulic methods. But acidising is complicated by the fact that matrix acidising is considered conventional. Note that it takes place below the fracture gradient of the rock.

In the UK legislative and hydrocarbon permitting context (see Fracking in the United Kingdom), Adriana Zalucka et al. have reviewed the various definitions,Zalucka A, Goodenough A, and Smythe D 2021. Acid stimulation: fracking by stealth continues despite the moratorium in England, Energy Policy 153: 112244. as well as the role of key regulators and authorities, in a peer-reviewed article published in 2021. They have proposed a new robust definition for unconventional well treatments:

{{Blockquote

|text=All well stimulation treatments of oil and gas wells which increase the permeability of the target rock volume to higher than 0.1 millidarcies beyond a 1 m radius from the borehole.}}

The above definition focuses on increasing permeability, rather than on any particular extraction process. It is quantitative, using the generally agreed 0.1 md cut-off value, below which rocks are considered impermeable. It exempts borehole cleaning processes like acid squeeze or acid wash from being classed as unconventional, by using the 1 m radius criterion. It avoids a definition based on, for example, the quantity of water injected, which is controversial,Smythe, D. and Haszeldine, S. 2017. Could fracking creep under the radar? Nature [Correspondence], 24 August 2017. or the injection pressure applied (whether the treatment is above or below the fracture gradient, as shown in the flow chart above). It also exempts non-hydrocarbon wells from being classed as unconventional.

The definition takes into account the views of the hydrocarbon industry and the US Geological Survey, in particular. A low permeability (by consensus defined as less than 0.1 millidarcies) implies that the resource is unconventional, meaning that it requires special

methods to extract the resource. Above that value, conventional methods suffice. Unconventional resources are also characterised by being widely

distributed, with low energy density (i.e. in a low concentration) and ill-defined in volume. There are no discrete boundaries, in contrast to those

bounding a conventional hydrocarbon reservoir.

Although the definition above was developed within the UK context, it is universally applicable.

{{Hydraulic fracturing}}

Hydraulic fracking{{Efn|Also known as hydraulic fracturing, fracing, fraccing, hydrofracturing, hydrofracking, or simply fracking.}} is the most commonly-used well stimulation technique. It involves the fracturing of formations in bedrock by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-pressure injection of "fracking fluid" (primarily water, containing sand or other proppants suspended with the aid of thickening agents) into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep rock formations through which natural gas, petroleum, and brine will flow more freely. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants (either sand or aluminium oxide) hold the fractures open.

Hydraulic fracking began as an experiment in 1947,{{Cite web |last1=Suchy |first1=Daniel R. |last2=Newell |first2=K.David |date=15 May 2012 |title=Kansas Geological Survey, Public Information Circular (PIC) 32 |url=https://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/PIC/pic32.html |access-date=8 October 2021 |publisher=Kansas Geological Survey}} and the first commercially successful application followed in 1949. As of 2012, 2.5 million "frac jobs" had been performed worldwide on oil and gas wells, over one million of those within the U.S.{{Citation | first=George E | last=King | url=http://www.kgs.ku.edu/PRS/Fracturing/Frac_Paper_SPE_152596.pdf | title=Hydraulic fracturing 101 | publisher=Society of Petroleum Engineers | year=2012 | id=SPE 152596 | via=Kansas Geological Survey}} Such treatment is generally necessary to achieve adequate flow rates in shale gas, tight gas, tight oil, and coal seam gas wells. Some hydraulic fractures can form naturally in certain veins or dikes.{{cite journal |author1=Blundell D. |year=November 2005 |title=Processes of tectonism, magmatism and mineralization: Lessons from Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DZCHESg9R4C&pg=PA340 |journal=Ore Geology Reviews |volume=27 |issue=1–4: Special Issue: Geodynamics and Ore Deposit Evolution in Europe |page=340 |doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.07.003 |isbn=978-0-444-52233-7|url-access=subscription }} Drilling and hydraulic fracking have made the United States a major crude oil exporter as of 2019,{{cite news |last1=Clifford Krauss |title=The 'Monster' Texas Oil Field That Made the U.S. a Star in the World Market |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/03/business/energy-environment/texas-permian-field-oil.html |access-date=21 September 2019 |work=The New York Times |date=3 February 2019 |quote=The shale-drilling frenzy in the Permian has enabled the United States not only to reduce crude-oil imports, but even to become a major exporter [...] New technologies for drilling and hydraulics fracturing helped bring the break-even price}} but leakage of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, has dramatically increased.{{cite news |last1=Umair Irfan |title=The best case for and against a fracking ban |url=https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/9/12/20857196/fracking-ban-case-democrats-2020-president |access-date=21 September 2019 |work=Vox |date=13 September 2019 |quote=During much of the fracking boom, the US economy grew and emissions declined. One study found that between 2005 and 2012, fracking created 725,000 jobs. That's largely due to natural gas from fracking displacing coal in electricity production.}}{{Cite web |date=24 February 2017 |title=Fracking fluid is leaking more often than we thought possible |url=https://www.popsci.com/fracking-fluid-hydraulic-fracturing-spill/ |access-date=22 September 2022 |website=Popular Science |language=en-US}} Increased oil and gas production from the decade-long fracking boom has led to lower prices for consumers, with near-record lows of the share of household income going to energy expenditures.{{cite news |last1=Rebecca Elliott |last2=Luis Santiago |title=A Decade in Which Fracking Rocked the Oil World |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-decade-in-which-fracking-rocked-the-oil-world-11576630807 |access-date=20 December 2019 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=17 December 2019 |quote=... hydraulic fracturing techniques spurred a historic U.S. production boom during the decade that has driven down consumer prices, buoyed the national economy and reshaped geopolitics.}}{{Cite web|url=https://data.bloomberglp.com/professional/sites/24/2019-Sustainable-Energy-in-America-Factbook.pdf|title=2019 Sustainable Energy in America Factbook|website=Bloomberg New Energy Finance|access-date=28 April 2020}}

Fracking is highly controversial.{{Cite news|last=Urbina|first=Ian|title=Drilling Down|work=The New York Times|url=http://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/interactive/us/DRILLING_DOWN_SERIES.html?_r=0}} Its proponents highlight the economic benefits of more extensively accessible hydrocarbons (such as petroleum and natural gas),Hillard Huntington et al. [http://emf.stanford.edu/publications/emf_26_changing_the_game_emissions_and_market_implications_of_new_natural_gas_supplies/ EMF 26: Changing the Game? Emissions and Market Implications of New Natural Gas Supplies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130192515/http://emf.stanford.edu/publications/emf_26_changing_the_game_emissions_and_market_implications_of_new_natural_gas_supplies/ |date=30 November 2020 }} Report. Stanford University. Energy Modeling Forum, 2013. the benefits of replacing coal with natural gas, which burns more cleanly and emits less carbon dioxide (CO₂),{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14432401|title=What is fracking and why is it controversial?|work=BBC News|date=15 October 2018}}{{cite web|title=Cost and performance baseline for fossil energy plants, Volume 1: Bituminous coal and natural gas to electricity|url=http://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-analyses/pubs/BitBase_FinRep_Rev2.pdf|publisher=National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), United States Department of Energy|date=November 2010|access-date=15 August 2019|archive-date=24 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124181012/http://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-analyses/pubs/BitBase_FinRep_Rev2.pdf|url-status=dead}} and the benefits of energy independence.{{Cite web |date=5 July 2017 |title=The Fracking Industry Deserves Our Gratitude |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2017/07/fracking-industry-united-states-energy-independence-oil-middle-east-venezuela/ |access-date=26 October 2022 |website=National Review |language=en-US}} Opponents of fracking argue that these are outweighed by the environmental impacts, which include groundwater and surface water contamination,{{cite news|last=Fischetti|first=Mark|date=20 August 2013|title=Groundwater Contamination May End the Gas-Fracking Boom|volume=309|work=Scientific American|issue=3|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/groundwater-contamination-may-end-the-gas-fracking-boom/}} noise and air pollution, the triggering of earthquakes, and the resulting hazards to public health and the environment. Research has found adverse health effects in populations living near hydraulic fracturing sites,{{cite journal |last1=Bamber |first1=AM |last2=Hasanali |first2=SH |last3=Nair |first3=AS |last4=Watkins |first4=SM |last5=Vigil |first5=DI |last6=Van Dyke |first6=M |last7=McMullin |first7=TS |last8=Richardson |first8=K |title=A Systematic Review of the Epidemiologic Literature Assessing Health Outcomes in Populations Living near Oil and Natural Gas Operations: Study Quality and Future Recommendations. |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |date=15 June 2019 |volume=16 |issue=12 |page=2123 |doi=10.3390/ijerph16122123 |pmid=31208070 |pmc=6616936|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=R |last2=Muma |first2=RD |s2cid=13653132 |title=High-Volume Hydraulic Fracturing and Human Health Outcomes: A Scoping Review. |journal=Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine |date=May 2018 |volume=60 |issue=5 |pages=424–429 |doi=10.1097/JOM.0000000000001278 |pmid=29370009 |url=https://insights.ovid.com/crossref?an=00043764-201805000-00003 |access-date=25 November 2019|url-access=subscription }} including confirmation of chemical, physical, and psychosocial hazards such as pregnancy and birth outcomes, migraine headaches, chronic rhinosinusitis, severe fatigue, asthma exacerbations and psychological stress.{{cite journal |last1=Gorski |first1=Irena |last2=Schwartz |first2=Brian S. |title=Environmental Health Concerns From Unconventional Natural Gas Development |journal=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Global Public Health |date=25 February 2019 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.013.44 |isbn=978-0-19-063236-6 |url=https://oxfordre.com/publichealth/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.001.0001/acrefore-9780190632366-e-44 |access-date=20 February 2020 |language=en|url-access=subscription }} Adherence to regulation and safety procedures are required to avoid further negative impacts.{{cite journal |last1=Costa |first1=D |last2=Jesus |first2=J |last3=Branco |first3=D |last4=Danko |first4=A |last5=Fiúza |first5=A |s2cid=36554832 |title=Extensive review of shale gas environmental impacts from scientific literature (2010-2015). |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research International |date=June 2017 |volume=24 |issue=17 |pages=14579–14594 |doi=10.1007/s11356-017-8970-0 |pmid=28452035 |bibcode=2017ESPR...2414579C }}

The scale of methane leakage associated with hydraulic fracking is uncertain, and there is some evidence that leakage may cancel out any greenhouse gas emissions benefit of natural gas relative to other fossil fuels.{{Cite web |last=Storrow |first=Benjamin |date=2020-05-05 |title=Methane Leaks Erase Some of the Climate Benefits of Natural Gas |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/methane-leaks-erase-some-of-the-climate-benefits-of-natural-gas/ |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yuzhong |last2=Gautam |first2=Ritesh |last3=Pandey |first3=Sudhanshu |date=2020-04-23 |title=Quantifying methane emissions from the largest oil producing basin in the U.S. from space - Methane Emissions from the Permian Basin |url=https://legacy-assets.eenews.net/open_files/assets/2020/04/23/document_ew_03.pdf |journal=Science Advances}}

File:Diagram of Hydraulic Fracking.jpg

Increases in seismic activity following hydraulic fracking along dormant or previously unknown faults are sometimes caused by the deep-injection disposal of fracking flowback fluid (a byproduct of hydraulically fracked wells), and produced formation brine (a byproduct of both fractured and non-fractured oil and gas wells).US Geological Survey, [http://energy.usgs.gov/EnvironmentalAspects/EnvironmentalAspectsofEnergyProductionandUse/ProducedWaters.aspx#3822110-overview Produced water, overview], accessed 8 November 2014. For these reasons, hydraulic fracturing is under international scrutiny, restricted in some countries, and banned altogether in others. The European Union is drafting regulations that would permit the controlled application of hydraulic fracturing.

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{{main|Fracture (geology)}}

Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently become suppressed by pressure due to the weight of the overlying rock strata and the cementation of the formation. This suppression process is particularly significant in "tensile" (Mode 1) fractures which require the walls of the fracture to move against this pressure. Fracturing occurs when effective stress is overcome by the pressure of fluids within the rock. The minimum principal stress becomes tensile and exceeds the tensile strength of the material. Fractures formed in this way are generally oriented in a plane perpendicular to the minimum principal stress, and for this reason, hydraulic fractures in wellbores can be used to determine the orientation of stresses. In natural examples, such as dikes or vein-filled fractures, the orientations can be used to infer past states of stress.

Most mineral vein systems are a result of repeated natural fracturing during periods of relatively high pore fluid pressure. The effect of high pore fluid pressure on the formation process of mineral vein systems is particularly evident in "crack-seal" veins, where the vein material is part of a series of discrete fracturing events, and extra vein material is deposited on each occasion. One example of long-term repeated natural fracturing is in the effects of seismic activity. Stress levels rise and fall episodically, and earthquakes can cause large volumes of connate water to be expelled from fluid-filled fractures. This process is referred to as "seismic pumping".

Minor intrusions in the upper part of the crust, such as dikes, propagate in the form of fluid-filled cracks. In such cases, the fluid is magma. In sedimentary rocks with a significant water content, fluid at fracture tip will be steam.

File:Halliburton Frack Job in the Bakken.JPG, North Dakota, United States]]

File:Lightning-Torpedo-Company.jpg

Fracking as a method to stimulate shallow, hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1860s, though the general concept of using water pressure to destroy rock was known as early as ancient Rome, in the form of ruina montium. Dynamite or nitroglycerin detonations were used to increase oil and natural gas production from petroleum bearing formations. On 24 April 1865, US Civil War veteran Col. Edward A. L. Roberts received a patent for an "exploding torpedo". It was employed in Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia using liquid and also, later, solidified nitroglycerin. Companies like Lightning Torpedo Company used this process in Oklahoma and Texas. Later still the same method was applied to water and gas wells. Stimulation of wells with acid, instead of explosive fluids, was introduced in the 1930s. Due to acid etching, fractures would not close completely, resulting in further productivity increase.

Harold Hamm, Aubrey McClendon, Tom Ward and George P. Mitchell are each considered to have pioneered hydraulic fracking innovations toward practical applications.[https://mises.org/library/government-roads-subsidies-and-costs-fracking Khan, Salmaan A.] "Government Roads, Subsidies, and the Costs of Fracking", Mises Institute, 19 June 2014. Retrieved 20 February 2018.[https://marcellusdrilling.com/2016/07/fracking-legend-harold-hamm-next-secretary-of-energy/ Marcellus] "Fracking Legend Harold Hamm – Next Secretary of Energy?", Marcellus Drilling News, 22 June 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2018.

The relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation. This study was the basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment, conducted in 1947 at the Hugoton gas field in Grant County of southwestern Kansas by Stanolind. For the well treatment, {{convert|1000|USgal}} of gelled gasoline (essentially napalm) and sand from the Arkansas River was injected into the gas-producing limestone formation at {{convert|2400|ft}}. The experiment was not very successful as the deliverability of the well did not change appreciably. The process was further described by J.B. Clark of Stanolind in his paper published in 1948. A patent on this process was issued in 1949 and an exclusive license was granted to the Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company. On 17 March 1949, Halliburton performed the first two commercial hydraulic fracking treatments in Stephens County, Oklahoma, and Archer County, Texas. Since then, hydraulic fracking has been used to stimulate approximately one million oil and gas wells in various geologic regimes with good success.

In contrast with large-scale hydraulic fracturing used in low-permeability formations, small hydraulic fracturing treatments are commonly used in high-permeability formations to remedy "skin damage", a low-permeability zone that sometimes forms at the rock-borehole interface. In such cases the fracturing may extend only a few feet from the borehole.A. J. Stark, A. Settari, J. R. Jones, [http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=PETSOC-98-71 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing of High Permeability Gas Wells to Reduce Non-darcy Skin Effects], Petroleum Society of Canada, Annual Technical Meeting, 8–10 June 1998, Calgary, Alberta. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016032801/http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=PETSOC-98-71 |date=16 October 2013 }}

In the Soviet Union, the first hydraulic proppant fracturing was carried out in 1952. Other countries in Europe and Northern Africa subsequently employed hydraulic fracturing techniques including Norway, Poland, Czechoslovakia (before 1989), Yugoslavia (before 1991), Hungary, Austria, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Tunisia, and Algeria.

File:Well Head where fluids are injected into the ground.JPG

File:Well head after all the Fracking equipment has been taken off location.JPG

Massive hydraulic fracturing (also known as high-volume hydraulic fracturing) is a technique first applied by Pan American Petroleum in Stephens County, Oklahoma, US in 1968. The definition of massive hydraulic fracturing varies, but generally refers to treatments injecting over 150 short tons, or approximately 300,000 pounds (136 metric tonnes), of proppant.Ben E. Law and Charles W. Spencer, 1993, "Gas in tight reservoirs-an emerging major source of energy", in David G. Howell (ed.), The Future of Energy Gasses, US Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1570, pp. 233–252.

American geologists gradually became aware that there were huge volumes of gas-saturated sandstones with permeability too low (generally less than 0.1 millidarcy) to recover the gas economically. Starting in 1973, massive hydraulic fracturing was used in thousands of gas wells in the San Juan Basin, Denver Basin,C.R. Fast, G.B. Holman, and R. J. Covlin, "The application of massive hydraulic fracturing to the tight Muddy 'J' Formation, Wattenberg Field, Colorado", in Harry K. Veal, (ed.), Exploration Frontiers of the Central and Southern Rockies (Denver: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, 1977) 293–300. the Piceance Basin,Robert Chancellor, "Mesaverde hydraulic fracture stimulation, northern Piceance Basin – progress report", in Harry K. Veal, (ed.), Exploration Frontiers of the Central and Southern Rockies (Denver: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, 1977) 285–291. and the Green River Basin, and in other hard rock formations of the western US. Other tight sandstone wells in the US made economically viable by massive hydraulic fracturing were in the Clinton-Medina Sandstone (Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York), and Cotton Valley Sandstone (Texas and Louisiana).

Massive hydraulic fracturing quickly spread in the late 1970s to western Canada, Rotliegend and Carboniferous gas-bearing sandstones in Germany, Netherlands (onshore and offshore gas fields), and the United Kingdom in the North Sea.

Horizontal oil or gas wells were unusual until the late 1980s. Then, operators in Texas began completing thousands of oil wells by drilling horizontally in the Austin Chalk, and giving massive slickwater hydraulic fracturing treatments to the wellbores. Horizontal wells proved much more effective than vertical wells in producing oil from tight chalk;C.E Bell and others, [http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=00026582 Effective diverting in horizontal wells in the Austin Chalk], Society of Petroleum Engineers conference paper, 1993. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005005046/http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=00026582 |date=5 October 2013 }} sedimentary beds are usually nearly horizontal, so horizontal wells have much larger contact areas with the target formation.

Hydraulic fracturing operations have grown exponentially since the mid-1990s, when technologic advances and increases in the price of natural gas made this technique economically viable.{{Cite journal|last1=McDermott-Levy|first1=Ruth|last2=Kaktins|first2=Nina|last3=Sattler|first3=Barbara|date=June 2013|title=Fracking, the Environment, and Health|journal=American Journal of Nursing|volume=113|issue=6|pages=45–51|doi=10.1097/01.naj.0000431272.83277.f4|pmid=23702766|issn=0002-936X}}

Hydraulic fracturing of shales goes back at least to 1965, when some operators in the Big Sandy gas field of eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia started hydraulically fracturing the Ohio Shale and Cleveland Shale, using relatively small fracs. The frac jobs generally increased production, especially from lower-yielding wells.E. O. Ray, [http://www.netl.doe.gov/kmd/cds/disk7/disk1/EGS%5CDevonian%20Shale%20Development%20in%20Eastern%20Kentucky.pdf Shale development in eastern Kentucky] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324162207/https://www.netl.doe.gov/kmd/cds/disk7/disk1/EGS/Devonian |date=24 March 2018 }}, US Energy Research and Development Administration, 1976.

In 1976, the United States government started the Eastern Gas Shales Project, which included numerous public-private hydraulic fracturing demonstration projects.US Dept. of Energy, [http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/04/f0/how_is_shale_gas_produced.pdf How is shale gas produced?], April 2013. During the same period, the Gas Research Institute, a gas industry research consortium, received approval for research and funding from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.

In 1997, Nick Steinsberger, an engineer of Mitchell Energy (now part of Devon Energy), applied the slickwater fracturing technique, using more water and higher pump pressure than previous fracturing techniques, which was used in East Texas in the Barnett Shale of north Texas. In 1998, the new technique proved to be successful when the first 90 days gas production from the well called S.H. Griffin No. 3 exceeded production of any of the company's previous wells.{{Cite book|title=The Boom: How Fracking Ignited the American Energy Revolution and Changed the World|last=Gold|first=Russell|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4516-9228-0|location=New York|pages=115–121}}{{Cite news | url = https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/11/breakthrough-the-accidental-discovery-that-revolutionized-american-energy/281193/ | title = Breakthrough: The Accidental Discovery That Revolutionized American Energy | last = Zukerman | first = Gregory | work = The Atlantis | date = 6 November 2013 | access-date = 18 September 2016}} This new completion technique made gas extraction widely economical in the Barnett Shale, and was later applied to other shales, including the Eagle Ford and Bakken Shale. George P. Mitchell has been called the "father of fracking" because of his role in applying it in shales.{{cite news | last = Zuckerman | first = Gregory | title = How fracking billionaires built their empires | url = http://qz.com/144435/how-fracking-billionaires-built-their-empires/ | work = Quartz|publisher=The Atlantic Media Company | date = 15 November 2013 | access-date = 15 November 2013}} The first horizontal well in the Barnett Shale was drilled in 1991, but was not widely done in the Barnett until it was demonstrated that gas could be economically extracted from vertical wells in the Barnett.{{Cite journal | url = http://law.case.edu/journals/LawReview/Documents/63CaseWResLRev4.6.Article.Robbins.pdf | title = Awakening the Slumbering Giant: How Horizontal Drilling Technology Brought the Endangered Species Act to Bear on Hydraulic Fracturing | last = Robbins | first = Kalyani | journal = Case Western Reserve Law Review | year = 2013 | volume = 63 | issue = 4 | access-date = 18 September 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140326094824/http://law.case.edu/journals/LawReview/Documents/63CaseWResLRev4.6.Article.Robbins.pdf | archive-date = 26 March 2014 }}

As of 2013, massive hydraulic fracturing is being applied on a commercial scale to shales in the United States, Canada, and China. Several additional countries are planning to use hydraulic fracturing.

{{for|further information on the reasons why fracking is carried out|Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir#Essential differences between conventional and unconventional reservoirs}}

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hydraulic fracturing is a process to stimulate a natural gas, oil, or geothermal well to maximize extraction. The EPA defines the broader process to include acquisition of source water, well construction, well stimulation, and waste disposal.

A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping fracturing fluid into a wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure at the target depth (determined by the location of the well casing perforations), to exceed that of the fracture gradient (pressure gradient) of the rock. The fracture gradient is defined as pressure increase per unit of depth relative to density, and is usually measured in pounds per square inch, per foot (psi/ft). The rock cracks, and the fracture fluid permeates the rock extending the crack further, and further, and so on. Fractures are localized as pressure drops off with the rate of frictional loss, which is relative to the distance from the well. Operators typically try to maintain "fracture width", or slow its decline following treatment, by introducing a proppant into the injected fluid{{spaced ndash}}a material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulate, thus preventing the fractures from closing when injection is stopped and pressure removed. Consideration of proppant strength and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher. The propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of gas, oil, salt water and hydraulic fracturing fluids to the well.

During the process, fracturing fluid leakoff (loss of fracturing fluid from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock) occurs. If not controlled, it can exceed 70% of the injected volume. This may result in formation matrix damage, adverse formation fluid interaction, and altered fracture geometry, thereby decreasing efficiency.

The location of one or more fractures along the length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various methods that create or seal holes in the side of the wellbore. Hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores, and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations.

Hydraulic-fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a slurry blender, one or more high-pressure, high-volume fracturing pumps (typically powerful triplex or quintuplex pumps) and a monitoring unit. Associated equipment includes fracturing tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high-pressure treating iron{{clarify|date=August 2014}}, a chemical additive unit (used to accurately monitor chemical addition), fracking hose (low-pressure flexible hoses), and many gauges and meters for flow rate, fluid density, and treating pressure. Chemical additives are typically 0.5% of the total fluid volume. Fracturing equipment operates over a range of pressures and injection rates, and can reach up to {{convert|100|MPa|psi}} and {{convert|265|L/s|cuft/s USbbl/min}}.

A distinction can be made between conventional, low-volume hydraulic fracturing, used to stimulate high-permeability reservoirs for a single well, and unconventional, high-volume hydraulic fracturing, used in the completion of tight gas and shale gas wells. High-volume hydraulic fracturing usually requires higher pressures than low-volume fracturing; the higher pressures are needed to push out larger volumes of fluid and proppant that extend farther from the borehole.

Horizontal drilling involves wellbores with a terminal drillhole completed as a "lateral" that extends parallel with the rock layer containing the substance to be extracted. For example, laterals extend {{convert|1500|to|5000|ft}} in the Barnett Shale basin in Texas, and up to {{convert|10000|ft}} in the Bakken formation in North Dakota. In contrast, a vertical well only accesses the thickness of the rock layer, typically {{convert|50|-|300|ft}}. Horizontal drilling reduces surface disruptions as fewer wells are required to access the same volume of rock.

Drilling often plugs up the pore spaces at the wellbore wall, reducing permeability at and near the wellbore. This reduces flow into the borehole from the surrounding rock formation, and partially seals off the borehole from the surrounding rock. Low-volume hydraulic fracturing can be used to restore permeability.

File:Water tanks preparing for a frac job.JPG

{{Main|Hydraulic fracturing proppants|List of additives for hydraulic fracturing}}

The main purposes of fracturing fluid are to extend fractures, add lubrication, change gel strength, and to carry proppant into the formation. There are two methods of transporting proppant in the fluid{{spaced ndash}}high-rate and high-viscosity. High-viscosity fracturing tends to cause large dominant fractures, while high-rate (slickwater) fracturing causes small spread-out micro-fractures.{{cite book | title = Alternative Energy Sources and Technologies | last1 = Martín | first1 = Mariano | chapter = Nonconventional Fossil Energy Sources: Shale Gas and Methane Hydrates | date = 2016 | pages = 3–16 | publisher = Springer International Publishing | doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-28752-2_1 | isbn = 978-3-319-28750-8 | chapter-url =https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-28752-2_1|quote=Two alternatives to transport the proppant can be used, either a high viscosity fluid or a high flow rate. The first one generates large fractures while the second one causes small micro fractures in the formation.}}

Water-soluble gelling agents (such as guar gum) increase viscosity and efficiently deliver proppant into the formation.

File:Process of mixing water with fracking fluids to be injected into the ground.JPG

Fluid is typically a slurry of water, proppant, and chemical additives. Additionally, gels, foams, and compressed gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air can be injected. Typically, 90% of the fluid is water and 9.5% is sand with chemical additives accounting to about 0.5%. However, fracturing fluids have been developed using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and propane. This process is called waterless fracturing.{{cite news |url=http://www.popsci.com/announcements/article/2013-05/june-2013-american-energy-independence |last=Brainard |first=Curtis |title=The Future of Energy |work=Popular Science Magazine |date=June 2013 |page=59 |access-date=1 January 2014}}

When propane is used it is turned into vapor by the high pressure and high temperature. The propane vapor and natural gas both return to the surface and can be collected, making it{{Clarify|date=July 2022}} easier to reuse and/or resale. None of the chemicals used will return to the surface. Only the propane used will return from what was used in the process.{{Cite web|last1=Brino|first1=Anthony|last2=Nearing|first2=Brian|date=6 November 2011|title=New Waterless Fracking Method Avoids Pollution Problems, But Drillers Slow to Embrace It|url=https://insideclimatenews.org/news/06112011/gasfrac-propane-natural-gas-drilling-hydraulic-fracturing-fracking-drinking-water-marcellus-shale-new-york/|access-date=17 November 2021|website=Inside Climate News|language=en-US}}

The proppant is a granular material that prevents the created fractures from closing after the fracturing treatment. Types of proppant include silica sand, resin-coated sand, bauxite, and man-made ceramics. The choice of proppant depends on the type of permeability or grain strength needed. In some formations, where the pressure is great enough to crush grains of natural silica sand, higher-strength proppants such as bauxite or ceramics may be used. The most commonly used proppant is silica sand, though proppants of uniform size and shape, such as a ceramic proppant, are believed to be more effective.

File:2011-2014 water use for fracking.jpg}}]]

The fracturing fluid varies depending on fracturing type desired, and the conditions of specific wells being fractured, and water characteristics. The fluid can be gel, foam, or slickwater-based. Fluid choices are tradeoffs: more viscous fluids, such as gels, are better at keeping proppant in suspension; while less-viscous and lower-friction fluids, such as slickwater, allow fluid to be pumped at higher rates, to create fractures farther out from the wellbore. Important material properties of the fluid include viscosity, pH, various rheological factors, and others.

Water is mixed with sand and chemicals to create hydraulic fracturing fluid. Approximately 40,000 gallons of chemicals are used per fracturing.{{cite web | access-date=27 April 2015 | archive-date=3 July 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703142441/http://www.dangersoffracking.com/ | first1=Linda | last1=Dong | url=http://www.dangersoffracking.com | title=What goes in and out of Hydraulic Fracturing | website=Dangers of Fracking}}

A typical fracture treatment uses between 3 and 12 additive chemicals. Although there may be unconventional fracturing fluids, typical chemical additives can include one or more of the following:

• Acids—hydrochloric acid or acetic acid is used in the pre-fracturing stage for cleaning the perforations and initiating fissure in the near-wellbore rock.
• Sodium chloride (salt)—delays breakdown of gel polymer chains.
• Polyacrylamide and other friction reducers decrease turbulence in fluid flow and pipe friction, thus allowing the pumps to pump at a higher rate without having greater pressure on the surface.
• Ethylene glycol—prevents formation of scale deposits in the pipe.
• Borate salts—used for maintaining fluid viscosity during the temperature increase.
• Sodium and potassium carbonates—used for maintaining effectiveness of crosslinkers.
• Glutaraldehyde- a biocide that prevents pipe corrosion from microbial activity.{{Cite journal|date=17 June 2016|title=Hydraulic fracturing chemical spills on agricultural land need scrutiny|journal=Gale Academic Onefile}}
• Guar gum and other water-soluble gelling agents—increases viscosity of the fracturing fluid to deliver proppant into the formation more efficiently.
• Citric acid—used for corrosion prevention.
• Isopropanol—used to winterize the chemicals to ensure it doesn't freeze.

The most common chemical used for hydraulic fracturing in the United States in 2005–2009 was methanol, while some other most widely used chemicals were isopropyl alcohol, 2-butoxyethanol, and ethylene glycol.

Typical fluid types are:

• Conventional linear gels. These gels are cellulose derivative (carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose), guar or its derivatives (hydroxypropyl guar, carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar), mixed with other chemicals.{{Clarify|date = November 2015|reason = How is this list supposed to be parsed?}}
• Borate-crosslinked fluids. These are guar-based fluids cross-linked with boron ions (from aqueous borax/boric acid solution). These gels have higher viscosity at pH 9 onwards and are used to carry proppant. After the fracturing job, the pH is reduced to 3–4 so that the cross-links are broken, and the gel is less viscous and can be pumped out.
• Organometallic-crosslinked fluids – zirconium, chromium, antimony, titanium salts – are known to crosslink guar-based gels. The crosslinking mechanism is not reversible, so once the proppant is pumped down along with cross-linked gel, the fracturing part is done. The gels are broken down with appropriate breakers.{{clarify|date=August 2014}}
• Aluminium phosphate-ester oil gels. Aluminium phosphate and ester oils are slurried to form cross-linked gel. These are one of the first known gelling systems.

For slickwater fluids the use of sweeps is common. Sweeps are temporary reductions in the proppant concentration, which help ensure that the well is not overwhelmed with proppant. As the fracturing process proceeds, viscosity-reducing agents such as oxidizers and enzyme breakers are sometimes added to the fracturing fluid to deactivate the gelling agents and encourage flowback. Such oxidizers react with and break down the gel, reducing the fluid's viscosity and ensuring that no proppant is pulled from the formation. An enzyme acts as a catalyst for breaking down the gel. Sometimes pH modifiers are used to break down the crosslink at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job, since many require a pH buffer system to stay viscous. At the end of the job, the well is commonly flushed with water under pressure (sometimes blended with a friction reducing chemical.) Some (but not all) injected fluid is recovered. This fluid is managed by several methods, including underground injection control, treatment, discharge, recycling, and temporary storage in pits or containers. New technology is continually developing to better handle waste water and improve re-usability.

Measurements of the pressure and rate during the growth of a hydraulic fracture, with knowledge of fluid properties and proppant being injected into the well, provides the most common and simplest method of monitoring a hydraulic fracture treatment. This data along with knowledge of the underground geology can be used to model information such as length, width and conductivity of a propped fracture.

{{Main|Hydraulic fracturing and radionuclides}}

Injection of radioactive tracers along with the fracturing fluid is sometimes used to determine the injection profile and location of created fractures. Radiotracers are selected to have the readily detectable radiation, appropriate chemical properties, and a half life and toxicity level that will minimize initial and residual contamination. Radioactive isotopes chemically bonded to glass (sand) and/or resin beads may also be injected to track fractures. For example, plastic pellets coated with 10 GBq of Ag-110mm may be added to the proppant, or sand may be labelled with Ir-192, so that the proppant's progress can be monitored. Radiotracers such as Tc-99m and I-131 are also used to measure flow rates. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission publishes guidelines which list a wide range of radioactive materials in solid, liquid and gaseous forms that may be used as tracers and limit the amount that may be used per injection and per well of each radionuclide.

A new technique in well-monitoring involves fiber-optic cables outside the casing. Using the fiber optics, temperatures can be measured every foot along the well – even while the wells are being fracked and pumped. By monitoring the temperature of the well, engineers can determine how much hydraulic fracturing fluid different parts of the well use as well as how much natural gas or oil they collect, during hydraulic fracturing operation and when the well is producing.{{Citation needed|date=November 2015}}

For more advanced applications, microseismic monitoring is sometimes used to estimate the size and orientation of induced fractures. Microseismic activity is measured by placing an array of geophones in a nearby wellbore. By mapping the location of any small seismic events associated with the growing fracture, the approximate geometry of the fracture is inferred. Tiltmeter arrays deployed on the surface or down a well provide another technology for monitoring strain

Microseismic mapping is very similar geophysically to seismology. In earthquake seismology, seismometers scattered on or near the surface of the earth record S-waves and P-waves that are released during an earthquake event. This allows for motion{{clarify|date=August 2014}} along the fault plane to be estimated and its location in the Earth's subsurface mapped. Hydraulic fracturing, an increase in formation stress proportional to the net fracturing pressure, as well as an increase in pore pressure due to leakoff.{{clarify|reason = Not only is this highly technical, it's not a sentence.|date=November 2015}}{{cite journal |last=Fehler |first=Michael C. |title=Stress Control of seismicity patterns observed during hydraulic fracturing experiments at the Fenton Hill hot dry rock geothermal energy site, New Mexico |journal=International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts |year= 1989 |volume= 26 |issue=3–4 |series=3 |doi=10.1016/0148-9062(89)91971-2 |pages=211–219|bibcode=1989IJRMA..26..211F |osti=6545065 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258335 }} Tensile stresses are generated ahead of the fracture's tip, generating large amounts of shear stress. The increases in pore water pressure and in formation stress combine and affect weaknesses near the hydraulic fracture, like natural fractures, joints, and bedding planes.{{cite journal|last=Le Calvez|first=Joel|title=Real-time microseismic monitoring of hydraulic fracture treatment: A tool to improve completion and reservoir management|journal=SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Conference|year=2007}}

Different methods have different location errors{{clarify|date=August 2014}} and advantages. Accuracy of microseismic event mapping is dependent on the signal-to-noise ratio and the distribution of sensors. Accuracy of events located by seismic inversion is improved by sensors placed in multiple azimuths from the monitored borehole. In a downhole array location, accuracy of events is improved by being close to the monitored borehole (high signal-to-noise ratio).

Monitoring of microseismic events induced by reservoir{{clarify|date=August 2014}} stimulation has become a key aspect in evaluation of hydraulic fractures, and their optimization. The main goal of hydraulic fracture monitoring is to completely characterize the induced fracture structure, and distribution of conductivity within a formation. Geomechanical analysis, such as understanding a formations material properties, in-situ conditions, and geometries, helps monitoring by providing a better definition of the environment in which the fracture network propagates.{{cite journal |url=http://www.slb.com/resources/technical_papers/stimulation/133877.aspx |last=Cipolla |first=Craig |title=Hydraulic Fracture Monitoring to Reservoir Simulation: Maximizing Value |journal=SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition |year=2010 |access-date=1 January 2014 |doi=10.2118/133877-MS |archive-date=23 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023080203/https://www.slb.com/resources/technical_papers/stimulation/133877.aspx |url-status=dead |url-access=subscription }} The next task is to know the location of proppant within the fracture and the distribution of fracture conductivity. This can be monitored using multiple types of techniques to finally develop a reservoir model that accurately predicts well performance.

Since the early 2000s, advances in drilling and completion technology have made horizontal wellbores much{{clarify|date=August 2014}} more economical. Horizontal wellbores allow far greater exposure to a formation than conventional vertical wellbores. This is particularly useful in shale formations which do not have sufficient permeability to produce economically with a vertical well. Such wells, when drilled onshore, are now usually hydraulically fractured in a number of stages, especially in North America. The type of wellbore completion is used to determine how many times a formation is fractured, and at what locations along the horizontal section.

In North America, shale reservoirs such as the Bakken, Barnett, Montney, Haynesville, Marcellus, and most recently the Eagle Ford, Niobrara and Utica shales are drilled horizontally through the producing intervals, completed and fractured.{{Citation needed |date=December 2011}} The method by which the fractures are placed along the wellbore is most commonly achieved by one of two methods, known as "plug and perf" and "sliding sleeve".

The wellbore for a plug-and-perf job is generally composed of standard steel casing, cemented or uncemented, set in the drilled hole. Once the drilling rig has been removed, a wireline truck is used to perforate near the bottom of the well, and then fracturing fluid is pumped. Then the wireline truck sets a plug in the well to temporarily seal off that section so the next section of the wellbore can be treated. Another stage is pumped, and the process is repeated along the horizontal length of the wellbore.

The wellbore for the sliding sleeve{{clarify|date=August 2014}} technique is different in that the sliding sleeves are included at set spacings in the steel casing at the time it is set in place. The sliding sleeves are usually all closed at this time. When the well is due to be fractured, the bottom sliding sleeve is opened using one of several activation techniques{{Citation needed |date=August 2015}} and the first stage gets pumped. Once finished, the next sleeve is opened, concurrently isolating the previous stage, and the process repeats. For the sliding sleeve method, wireline is usually not required.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}

File:Sleeves.JPG

These completion techniques may allow for more than 30 stages to be pumped into the horizontal section of a single well if required, which is far more than would typically be pumped into a vertical well that had far fewer feet of producing zone exposed.

Hydraulic fracturing is used to increase the rate at which substances such as petroleum or natural gas can be recovered from subterranean natural reservoirs. Reservoirs are typically porous sandstones, limestones or dolomite rocks, but also include "unconventional reservoirs" such as shale rock or coal beds. Hydraulic fracturing enables the extraction of natural gas and oil from rock formations deep below the earth's surface (generally {{convert|5000|–|20000|ft|m|abbr=on|order=flip|sigfig=1}}), which is greatly below typical groundwater reservoir levels. At such depth, there may be insufficient permeability or reservoir pressure to allow natural gas and oil to flow from the rock into the wellbore at high economic return. Thus, creating conductive fractures in the rock is instrumental in extraction from naturally impermeable shale reservoirs. Permeability is measured in the microdarcy to nanodarcy range. Fractures are a conductive path connecting a larger volume of reservoir to the well. So-called "super fracking" creates cracks deeper in the rock formation to release more oil and gas, and increases efficiency. The yield for typical shale bores generally falls off after the first year or two, but the peak producing life of a well can be extended to several decades.

While the main industrial use of hydraulic fracturing is in stimulating production from oil and gas wells, hydraulic fracturing is also applied:

• To stimulate groundwater wells
• To precondition or induce rock cave-ins mining
• As a means of enhancing waste remediation, usually hydrocarbon waste or spills
• To dispose waste by injection deep into rock
• To measure stress in the Earth
• For electricity generation in enhanced geothermal systems
• To increase injection rates for geologic sequestration of {{CO2}}
• To store electrical energy, pumped storage hydroelectricity{{cite news |author1=Russell Gold |title=Fracking Has a Bad Rep, but Its Tech Is Powering a Clean Energy Shift Texas start-ups are harnessing know-how born of the shale boom in pursuit of a greener future. |access-date=23 September 2021 |work=Texas Monthly |date=21 September 2021|url=https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/fracking-clean-energy-geothermal/}}

Since the late 1970s, hydraulic fracturing has been used, in some cases, to increase the yield of drinking water from wells in a number of countries, including the United States, Australia, and South Africa.{{Citation | first1 = James | last1 = Waltz | first2 = Tim L | last2 = Decker | title = Hydro-fracturing offers many benefits | journal = Johnson Driller's Journal | issue = 2nd quarter | year = 1981 | pages = 4–9}}{{Citation | first = WH | last = Williamson | contribution = The use of hydraulic techniques to improve the yield of bores in fractured rocks | title = Groundwater in Fractured Rock | publisher = Australian Water Resources Council | series = Conference Series | number = 5 | year = 1982}}{{Citation | first1 = C | last1 = Less | first2 = N | last2 = Andersen | title = Hydrofracture: state of the art in South Africa | journal = Applied Hydrogeology | date=Feb 1994 | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 59–63| doi = 10.1007/s100400050050 | bibcode = 1994HydJ....2...59L }}

{{see also|Shale gas|Tight oil|Price of oil|Hydraulic fracturing in the United States}}Hydraulic fracturing has been seen as one of the key methods of extracting unconventional oil and unconventional gas resources. According to the International Energy Agency, the remaining technically recoverable resources of shale gas are estimated to amount to {{convert|208|e12m3|e12cuft|abbr=off}}, tight gas to {{convert|76|e12m3|e12cuft|abbr=off}}, and coalbed methane to {{convert|47|e12m3|e12cuft|abbr=off}}. As a rule, formations of these resources have lower permeability than conventional gas formations. Therefore, depending on the geological characteristics of the formation, specific technologies such as hydraulic fracturing are required. Although there are also other methods to extract these resources, such as conventional drilling or horizontal drilling, hydraulic fracturing is one of the key methods making their extraction economically viable. The multi-stage fracturing technique has facilitated the development of shale gas and light tight oil production in the United States and is believed to do so in the other countries with unconventional hydrocarbon resources.

A large majority of studies indicate that hydraulic fracturing in the United States has had a strong positive economic benefit so far.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} The Brookings Institution estimates that the benefits of Shale Gas alone has led to a net economic benefit of $48 billion per year. Most of this benefit is within the consumer and industrial sectors due to the significantly reduced prices for natural gas.{{Cite news|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brookings-now/2015/03/23/the-economic-benefits-of-fracking/|title=The economic benefits of fracking|last=Dews|first=Fred|work=Brookings|access-date=21 November 2017}} Other studies have suggested that the economic benefits are outweighed by the externalities and that the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) from less carbon- and water-intensive sources is lower.Phillips. K. (2012). What is the True Cost of Hydraulic Fracturing? Incorporating Negative Externalities into the Cost of America's Latest Energy Alternative. Journal of Environmental Sciences Program. 2,1st Edition, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC

The primary benefit of hydraulic fracturing is to offset imports of natural gas and oil, where the cost paid to producers otherwise exits the domestic economy.{{Cite journal |last=Kilian |first=Lutz |date=November 2017 |title=The Impact of the Fracking Boom on Arab Oil Producers |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.5547/01956574.38.6.lkil |journal=The Energy Journal |language=en |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=137–160 |doi=10.5547/01956574.38.6.lkil |issn=0195-6574|hdl=10419/128457 |hdl-access=free }} However, shale oil and gas is highly subsidised in the US, and has not yet covered production costs{{cite news|title=Wall Street Tells Frackers to Stop Counting Barrels, Start Making Profits|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/wall-streets-fracking-frenzy-runs-dry-as-profits-fail-to-materialize-1512577420|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=13 December 2017|access-date=2 May 2018|last1=Lynn Cook|first1=Bradley Olson and}} – meaning that the cost of hydraulic fracturing is paid for in income taxes, and in many cases is up to double the cost paid at the pump.{{cite web|last1=Berman|first1=Art|title=Shale Gas Is Not A Revolution|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/arthurberman/2017/07/05/shale-gas-is-not-a-revolution/|work=Forbes|access-date=2 May 2018}}

Research suggests that hydraulic fracturing wells have an adverse effect on agricultural productivity in the vicinity of the wells.{{Cite conference |url=http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/512621474052605239/1A-3-Naima-Farah.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029111627/http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/512621474052605239/1A-3-Naima-Farah.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-29 |title=Fracking and Land Productivity: Effects of Hydraulic Fracturing on Agriculture |website=World Bank |author=Naima Farah|date=September 2016|pages=1–9|conference=Annual Meeting of the International Water and Resource Economics Consortium}} One paper found "that productivity of an irrigated crop decreases by 5.7% when a well is drilled during the agriculturally active months within 11–20 km radius of a producing township. This effect becomes smaller and weaker as the distance between township and wells increases." The findings imply that the introduction of hydraulic fracturing wells to Alberta cost the province $14.8 million in 2014 due to the decline in the crop productivity,

The Energy Information Administration of the US Department of Energy estimates that 45% of US gas supply will come from shale gas by 2035 (with the vast majority of this replacing conventional gas, which has a lower greenhouse-gas footprint).{{Cite journal|last1=Howarth|first1=Robert W.|last2=Ingraffea|first2=Anthony|last3=Engelder|first3=Terry|s2cid=205067220|date=September 2011|title=Should fracking stop?|journal=Nature|volume=477|issue=7364|pages=271–275|doi=10.1038/477271a|pmid=21921896|issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free}}

File:Vitoria - fracking ez.jpg (Spain, 2012)]]

File:Frack off, Extinction Rebellion (cropped).jpg (2018)]]

An anti-fracking movement has emerged both internationally with involvement of international environmental organizations and nations such as France and locally in affected areas such as Balcombe in Sussex where the Balcombe drilling protest was in progress during mid-2013.{{cite news|title=The UK's anti fracking movement is growing |url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/2016997/the_uks_anti_fracking_movement_is_growing.html |access-date=29 July 2013 |work=The Ecologist|date=1 August 2013|author=Jan Goodey}} The considerable opposition against hydraulic fracturing activities in local townships in the United States has led companies to adopt a variety of public relations measures to reassure the public, including the employment of former military personnel with training in psychological warfare operations. According to Matt Pitzarella, the communications director at Range Resources, employees trained in the Middle East have been valuable to Range Resources in Pennsylvania, when dealing with emotionally charged township meetings and advising townships on zoning and local ordinances dealing with hydraulic fracturing.

There have been many protests directed at hydraulic fracturing. For example, ten people were arrested in 2013 during an anti-fracking protest near New Matamoras, Ohio, after they illegally entered a development zone and latched themselves to drilling equipment. In northwest Pennsylvania, there was a drive-by shooting at a well site, in which someone shot two rounds of a small-caliber rifle in the direction of a drilling rig. In Washington County, Pennsylvania, a contractor working on a gas pipeline found a pipe bomb that had been placed where a pipeline was to be constructed, which local authorities said would have caused a "catastrophe" had they not discovered and detonated it.

The United States Department of State established the Global Shale Gas Initiative to persuade governments around the world to give concessions to the major oil and gas companies to set up fracking operations. A document from the United States diplomatic cables leak show that, as part of this project, U.S. officials convened conferences for foreign government officials that featured presentations by major oil and gas company representatives and by public relations professionals with expertise on how to assuage populations of target countries whose citizens were often quite hostile to fracking on their lands. The US government project succeeded as many countries on several continents acceded to the idea of granting concessions for fracking; Poland, for example, agreed to permit fracking by the major oil and gas corporations on nearly a third of its territory.Mother Jones, September–October 2014 [https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2014/09/hillary-clinton-fracking-shale-state-department-chevron/ "How Hillary Clinton's State Department Sold Fracking to the World: A Trove of Secret Documents Details the US Government's Global Push for Shale Gas"] The US Export-Import Bank, an agency of the US government, provided $4.7 billion in financing for fracking operations set up since 2010 in Queensland, Australia.The Guardian (UK), 1 December 2016 [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/dec/01/obama-fossil-fuels-us-export-import-bank-energy-projects "Obama's Dirty Secret: The Fossil Fuel Projects The US Littered Around The World"]

In 2014 a number of European officials suggested that several major European protests against hydraulic fracturing (with mixed success in Lithuania and Ukraine) may be partially sponsored by Gazprom, Russia's state-controlled gas company. The New York Times suggested that Russia saw its natural gas exports to Europe as a key element of its geopolitical influence, and that this market would diminish if hydraulic fracturing is adopted in Eastern Europe, as it opens up significant shale gas reserves in the region. Russian officials have on numerous occasions made public statements to the effect that hydraulic fracturing "poses a huge environmental problem".{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/01/world/russian-money-suspected-behind-fracking-protests.html | title=Russian Money Suspected Behind Fracking Protests | work=The New York Times | date=30 November 2014 | access-date=4 December 2014 | author=Andrew Higgins}}

Hydraulic fracturing is currently taking place in the United States in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Louisiana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia,{{cite web |last1=Uhle |first1=Amanda |title=He Said I Was a Fracking Heiress. I Went to West Virginia to Find Out. |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2023/05/28/fracking-economy-appalachia-00060086 |website=Politico |date=28 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023}} and Wyoming. Other states, such as Alabama, Indiana, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, and Ohio, are either considering or preparing for drilling using this method. Maryland{{Cite web|url=https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2017/04/04/with-governors-signature-maryland-becomes-third-state-to-ban-fracking/|title=With governor's signature, Maryland becomes third state to ban fracking|date=5 April 2017}} and Vermont have permanently banned hydraulic fracturing, and New York and North Carolina have instituted temporary bans. New Jersey currently has a bill before its legislature to extend a 2012 moratorium on hydraulic fracturing that recently expired. Although a hydraulic fracturing moratorium was recently lifted in the United Kingdom, the government is proceeding cautiously because of concerns about earthquakes and the environmental effect of drilling. Hydraulic fracturing is currently banned in France and Bulgaria.

Josh Fox's 2010 Academy Award nominated film GaslandDocumentary: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96AEzQYangE Gasland (2010)]. 104 minutes. became a center of opposition to hydraulic fracturing of shale. The movie presented problems with groundwater contamination near well sites in Pennsylvania, Wyoming and Colorado. Energy in Depth, an oil and gas industry lobbying group, called the film's facts into question. In response, a rebuttal of Energy in Depth's claims of inaccuracy was posted on Gasland's website. The Director of the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission (COGCC) offered to be interviewed as part of the film if he could review what was included from the interview in the final film but Fox declined the offer. ExxonMobil, Chevron Corporation and ConocoPhillips aired advertisements during 2011 and 2012 that claimed to describe the economic and environmental benefits of natural gas and argue that hydraulic fracturing was safe.

The 2012 film Promised Land, starring Matt Damon, takes on hydraulic fracturing. The gas industry countered the film's criticisms of hydraulic fracturing with flyers, and Twitter and Facebook posts.

In January 2013, Northern Irish journalist and filmmaker Phelim McAleer released a crowdfundedKickstarter, FrackNation by Ann and Phelim Media LLC, 6 April 2012 documentary called FrackNation as a response to the statements made by Fox in Gasland, claiming it "tells the truth about fracking for natural gas". FrackNation premiered on Mark Cuban's AXS TV. The premiere corresponded with the release of Promised Land.The Hollywood Reporter, Mark Cuban's AXS TV Picks Up Pro-Fracking Documentary 'FrackNation', 17 December 2012

In April 2013, Josh Fox released Gasland 2, his "international odyssey uncovering a trail of secrets, lies and contamination related to hydraulic fracking". It challenges the gas industry's portrayal of natural gas as a clean and safe alternative to oil as a myth, and that hydraulically fractured wells inevitably leak over time, contaminating water and air, hurting families, and endangering the Earth's climate with the potent greenhouse gas methane.

In 2014, Scott Cannon of Video Innovations released the documentary The Ethics of Fracking. The film covers the politics, spiritual, scientific, medical and professional points of view on hydraulic fracturing. It also digs into the way the gas industry portrays hydraulic fracturing in their advertising.{{cite web|title=The Ethics of Fracking|url=http://www.greenplanetfilms.org/product/the-ethics-of-fracking/|website=Green Planet Films|access-date=27 April 2015|archive-date=1 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001122318/https://www.greenplanetfilms.org/product/the-ethics-of-fracking/}}

In 2015, the Canadian documentary film Fractured Land had its world premiere at the Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival.{{cite web |url=https://thetyee.ca/Video/2015/09/09/Fractured-Land-VIFF/ |work=The Tyee |date=9 September 2015 |title='Fractured Land' Doc Coming to VIFF |access-date=20 October 2015}}

Typically the funding source of the research studies is a focal point of controversy. Concerns have been raised about research funded by foundations and corporations, or by environmental groups, which can at times lead to at least the appearance of unreliable studies. Several organizations, researchers, and media outlets have reported difficulty in conducting and reporting the results of studies on hydraulic fracturing due to industry and governmental pressure, and expressed concern over possible censoring of environmental reports. Some have argued there is a need for more research into the environmental and health effects of the technique.{{cite journal | last1 = Finkel | first1 = M.L. | last2 = Hays | first2 = J. |title=The implications of unconventional drilling for natural gas: a global public health concern |journal=Public Health |volume=127 |issue=10 |pages=889–893 | date=October 2013 |pmid=24119661 |doi=10.1016/j.puhe.2013.07.005 |type=Review}}

File:CleanEnergyMarch-4-1470248 (27926806733).jpg

There is concern over the possible adverse public health implications of hydraulic fracturing activity. A 2013 review on shale gas production in the United States stated, "with increasing numbers of drilling sites, more people are at risk from accidents and exposure to harmful substances used at fractured wells."{{cite journal|last1=Centner|first1=Terence J.|title=Oversight of shale gas production in the United States and the disclosure of toxic substances|journal=Resources Policy|date=September 2013|volume=38|issue=3|pages=233–240 |doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2013.03.001 |bibcode=2013RePol..38..233C }} A 2011 hazard assessment recommended full disclosure of chemicals used for hydraulic fracturing and drilling as many have immediate health effects, and many may have long-term health effects.{{cite journal|last1=Colborn|first1=Theo|s2cid=53996198|title=Natural Gas Operations from a Public Health Perspective|journal=Human and Ecological Risk Assessment|date=20 September 2011|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1039–1056|doi=10.1080/10807039.2011.605662|bibcode=2011HERA...17.1039C |url=http://cce.cornell.edu/EnergyClimateChange/NaturalGasDev/Documents/PDFs/fracking%20chemicals%20from%20a%20public%20health%20perspective.pdf|display-authors=etal}}

In June 2014 Public Health England published a review of the potential public health impacts of exposures to chemical and radioactive pollutants as a result of shale gas extraction in the UK, based on the examination of literature and data from countries where hydraulic fracturing already occurs. The executive summary of the report stated: "An assessment of the currently available evidence indicates that the potential risks to public health from exposure to the emissions associated with shale gas extraction will be low if the operations are properly run and regulated. Most evidence suggests that contamination of groundwater, if it occurs, is most likely to be caused by leakage through the vertical borehole. Contamination of groundwater from the underground hydraulic fracturing process itself (i.e. the fracturing of the shale) is unlikely. However, surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids or wastewater may affect groundwater, and emissions to air also have the potential to impact on health. Where potential risks have been identified in the literature, the reported problems are typically a result of operational failure and a poor regulatory environment."{{rp|iii}}

A 2012 report prepared for the European Union Directorate-General for the Environment identified potential risks to humans from air pollution and ground water contamination posed by hydraulic fracturing. This led to a series of recommendations in 2014 to mitigate these concerns.{{cite web |title=EU Commission minimum principles for the exploration and production of hydrocarbons (such as shale gas) using high-volume hydraulic fracturing|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32014H0070|website=European Union |date=8 February 2014}}{{cite web|title=Energy and environment|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/energy/unconventional_en.htm|website=European Union|date=16 June 2023 }} A 2012 guidance for pediatric nurses in the US said that hydraulic fracturing had a potential negative impact on public health and that pediatric nurses should be prepared to gather information on such topics so as to advocate for improved community health.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lauver LS |title=Environmental health advocacy: an overview of natural gas drilling in northeast Pennsylvania and implications for pediatric nursing |journal=J Pediatr Nurs |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=383–9 | date=August 2012 |pmid=22703686 |doi=10.1016/j.pedn.2011.07.012 }}

A 2017 study in The American Economic Review found that "additional well pads drilled within 1 kilometer of a community water system intake increases shale gas-related contaminants in drinking water."{{Cite journal|last1=Elaine|first1=Hill|last2=Lala|first2=Ma|date=1 May 2017|title=Shale Gas Development and Drinking Water Quality|journal=American Economic Review|volume=107|issue=5|doi=10.1257/aer.p20171133|pmid=29430021|pmc=5804812|issn=0002-8282|pages=522–525}}

A 2022 study conduced by Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and published in Nature Energy found that elderly people living near or downwind of unconventional oil and gas development (UOGD) -- which involves extraction methods including fracking—are at greater risk of experiencing early death compared with elderly persons who don't live near such operations.{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Longxiang|last2=Dominici|first2=Francesca|last3=Blomberg|first3=Annelise J.|last4=Bargagli-Stoffi|first4=Falco J.|last5=Schwartz|first5=Joel D.|last6=Coull|first6=Brent A.|last7=Spengler|first7=John D.|last8=Wei|first8=Yaguang|last9=Lawrence|first9=Joy|last10=Koutrakis|first10=Petros|date=27 January 2022|title=Exposure to unconventional oil and gas development and all-cause mortality in Medicare beneficiaries|journal=Nature Energy|volume=7 |issue=2 |language=en|pages=177–185|doi=10.1038/s41560-021-00970-y|pmid=35425643 |pmc=9004666 |bibcode=2022NatEn...7..177L |s2cid=246373641 |issn=2058-7546}}

Statistics collected by the U.S. Department of Labor and analyzed by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show a correlation between drilling activity and the number of occupational injuries related to drilling and motor vehicle accidents, explosions, falls, and fires.{{Cite journal |date=2008|title=Fatalities among oil and gas extraction workers – United States, 2003–2006 |website=American Psychological Association |doi=10.1037/e458082008-002 |url=https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fe458082008-002 |url-access=subscription}} Extraction workers are also at risk for developing pulmonary diseases, including lung cancer and silicosis (the latter because of exposure to silica dust generated from rock drilling and the handling of sand).{{Cite journal|last1=McDonald|first1=J. C.|last2=McDonald|first2=A. D.|last3=Hughes|first3=J. M.|last4=Rando|first4=R. J.|last5=Weill|first5=H.|date=22 February 2005|title=Mortality from Lung and Kidney Disease in a Cohort of North American Industrial Sand Workers: An Update|journal=The Annals of Occupational Hygiene|volume=49|issue=5|pages=367–73|doi=10.1093/annhyg/mei001|issn=1475-3162|pmid=15728107|doi-access=free}} The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) identified exposure to airborne silica as a health hazard to workers conducting some hydraulic fracturing operations.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012-166/|title=OSHA/NIOSH Hazard Alert: Worker Exposure to Silica During Hydraulic Fracturing|date=June 2012}} NIOSH and OSHA issued a joint hazard alert on this topic in June 2012.

Additionally, the extraction workforce is at increased risk for radiation exposure. Fracking activities often require drilling into rock that contains naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), such as radon, thorium, and uranium.{{Cite journal |date=1 June 1993|title=Office of radiation and indoor air: Program description |website=University of North Texas |doi=10.2172/10115876 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1272587/|doi-access=free }}

Another report done by the Canadian Medical Journal reported that after researching they identified 55 factors that may cause cancer, including 20 that have been shown to increase the risk of leukemia and lymphoma. The Yale Public Health analysis warns that millions of people living within a mile of fracking wells may have been exposed to these chemicals.{{cite journal| pmc=5235941 | pmid=27956395 | doi=10.1503/cmaj.109-5358 | volume=189 | issue=2 | title=Fracking tied to cancer-causing chemicals | year=2017 | journal=CMAJ | pages=E94–E95 | last1 = Vogel | first1 = L}}

{{Main |Environmental impact of fracking}}

{{See also|Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing in the United States|Exemptions for hydraulic fracturing under United States federal law}}

{{infobox industrial process

| name = Environmental Effects of Hydraulic Fracturing

| image = HydroFrac2.svg

| caption = Schematic depiction of hydraulic fracturing for shale gas

| type = Mechanical

| sector = Mining

| technologies = Fluid pressure

| feedstock =

| product = Natural gas, petroleum

| companies =

| facility =

| inventor = Floyd Farris, Joseph B. Clark (Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation)

| year = 1947

| developer =

}}

File:CleanEnergyMarch-4-1470259 (27925280684).jpg

File:ALICE-SPRINGS-20-SEPT-2019-STRIKE-00006 (48762501556).jpg in Alice Springs, Australia]]

The potential environmental effects of hydraulic fracturing include air emissions and climate change, high water consumption, groundwater contamination, land use,{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Tongxi |last2=Toman |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Chen |first3=Gang |last4=Shao |first4=Gang |last5=Zhou |first5=Yuyu |title=Mapping fine-scale human disturbances in a working landscape with Landsat time series on Google Earth Engine |journal=ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing |date=2021 |volume=176 |pages=250–261 |doi=10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2021.04.008 |bibcode=2021JPRS..176..250H |s2cid=236339268 |url=https://pages.charlotte.edu/gang-chen/wp-content/uploads/sites/184/2021/05/Hu_2021_BEAST-HF-s.pdf}} risk of earthquakes, noise pollution, and various health effects on humans.Tatomir, A., McDermott, C., Bensabat, J., Class, H., Edlmann, K., Taherdangkoo, R., & Sauter, M. (2018) https://www.adv-geosci.net/45/185/2018/. Conceptual model development using a generic Features, Events, and Processes (FEP) database for assessing the potential impact of hydraulic fracturing on groundwater aquifers, Advances in Geosciences, v.45, p185-192. Air emissions are primarily methane that escapes from wells, along with industrial emissions from equipment used in the extraction process. Modern UK and EU regulation requires zero emissions of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in ones built under more recent EU legislation.

In December 2016 the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the "Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)." The EPA found scientific evidence that hydraulic fracturing activities can impact drinking water resources.{{cite web|title=Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)|url=https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990|website=United States Environmental Protection Agency|publisher=Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=17 December 2016}} {{PD-notice}} A few of the main reasons why drinking water can be contaminated according to the EPA are:

• Water removal to be used for fracking in times or areas of low water availability
• Spills while handling fracking fluids and chemicals that result in large volumes or high concentrations of chemicals reaching groundwater resources
• Injection of fracking fluids into wells when mishandling machinery, allowing gases or liquids to move to groundwater resources
• Injection of fracking fluids directly into groundwater resources
• Leak of defective hydraulic fracturing wastewater to surface water
• Disposal or storage of fracking wastewater in unlined pits resulting in contamination of groundwater resources.

The lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of shale oil are 21%-47% higher than those of conventional oil, while emissions from unconventional gas are from 6% lower to 43% higher than the emissions of conventional gas.{{cite web |title=Unconventional Fossil Fuels Factsheet |url=https://css.umich.edu/publications/factsheets/energy/unconventional-fossil-fuels-factsheet |website=Center for Sustainable Systems |publisher=University of Michigan |access-date=1 December 2023}}

Hydraulic fracturing uses between {{convert|1.2|and|3.5|e6USgal|m3}} of water per well, with large projects using up to {{convert|5|e6USgal|m3}}.{{cite book |last1=Buono |first1=Regina |last2=Lopez-Gunn |first2=Elena |last3=McKay |first3=Jennifer |last4=Staddon |first4=Chad |title=Regulating Water Security in Unconventional Oil and Gas |date=2020 |location=Cham |isbn=978-3-030-18342-4 |edition=1st 2020}} Additional water is used when wells are refractured. An average well requires {{convert |3|to|8|e6USgal|m3}} of water over its lifetime. According to the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, greater volumes of fracturing fluids are required in Europe, where the shale depths average 1.5 times greater than in the U.S. Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits, and ground water can be contaminated if the fluid is able to escape the formation being fractured (through, for example, abandoned wells, fractures, and faults{{cite journal |last1=Taherdangkoo |first1=Reza |last2=Tatomir |first2=Alexandru |last3=Taylor |first3=Robert |last4=Sauter |first4=Martin |title=Numerical investigations of upward migration of fracking fluid along a fault zone during and after stimulation |journal=Energy Procedia |date=September 2017 |volume=125 |pages=126–135 |doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2017.08.093 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017EnPro.125..126T }}) or by produced water (the returning fluids, which also contain dissolved constituents such as minerals and brine waters). The possibility of groundwater contamination from brine and fracturing fluid leakage through old abandoned wells is low.{{cite journal |last1=Taherdangkoo |first1=Reza |last2=Tatomir |first2=Alexandru |last3=Anighoro |first3=Tega |last4=Sauter |first4=Martin |title=Modeling fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing fluid in the presence of abandoned wells |journal=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology |date=February 2019 |volume=221 |pages=58–68 |doi=10.1016/j.jconhyd.2018.12.003 |pmid=30679092 |bibcode=2019JCHyd.221...58T |s2cid=59249479 }} Produced water is managed by underground injection, municipal and commercial wastewater treatment and discharge, self-contained systems at well sites or fields, and recycling to fracture future wells. Typically less than half of the produced water used to fracture the formation is recovered.{{cite web|last1=Köster|first1=Vera|title=What is Shale Gas? How Does Fracking Work?| url = http://www.chemistryviews.org/details/education/1316813/What_is_Shale_Gas_How_Does_Fracking_Work.html|website=www.chemistryviews.org|date=5 February 2013 |access-date=4 December 2014}}

In the United States over 12 million acres are being used for fossil fuels. About {{convert|3.6|ha}} of land is needed per each drill pad for surface installations. This is equivalent of six Yellowstone National Parks.{{Cite web|title=7 ways oil and gas drilling is bad for the environment {{!}} The Wilderness Society|url=https://www.wilderness.org/articles/blog/7-ways-oil-and-gas-drilling-bad-environment|access-date=1 December 2021|website=www.wilderness.org|language=en}} Well pad and supporting structure construction significantly fragments landscapes which likely has negative effects on wildlife.{{cite journal|title=Habitat Loss and Modification Due to Gas Development in the Fayetteville Shale |date=8 January 2015 |doi=10.1007/s00267-014-0440-6 |pmid=25566834 |volume=55 |issue = 6|journal=Environmental Management |pages=1276–1284 | last1 = Moran | first1 = Matthew D.|s2cid=36628835 |bibcode=2015EnMan..55.1276M }} These sites need to be remediated after wells are exhausted. Research indicates that effects on ecosystem services costs (i.e., those processes that the natural world provides to humanity) has reached over $250 million per year in the U.S.{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/fee.1492 | volume=15 | issue=5 | title=Land-use and ecosystem services costs of unconventional US oil and gas development | journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment | pages=237–242 | last1 = Moran | first1 = Matthew D | year=2017| bibcode=2017FrEE...15..237M }} Each well pad (in average 10 wells per pad) needs during preparatory and hydraulic fracturing process about 800 to 2,500 days of noisy activity, which affect both residents and local wildlife. In addition, noise is created by continuous truck traffic (sand, etc.) needed in hydraulic fracturing. Research is underway to determine if human health has been affected by air and water pollution, and rigorous following of safety procedures and regulation is required to avoid harm and to manage the risk of accidents that could cause harm.

In July 2013, the US Federal Railroad Administration listed oil contamination by hydraulic fracturing chemicals as "a possible cause" of corrosion in oil tank cars.Frederick J. Herrmann, Federal Railroad Administration, [https://www.fra.dot.gov/eLib/Details/L04717 letter to American Petroleum Institute], 17 July 2013, p.4.

Hydraulic fracturing has been sometimes linked to induced seismicity or earthquakes.{{cite web|last1=Fitzpatrick, Jessica &|first1=Petersen, Mark|title=Induced Earthquakes Raise Chances of Damaging Shaking in 2016|url=https://www.usgs.gov/news/induced-earthquakes-raise-chances-damaging-shaking-2016|website=USGS|access-date=1 April 2019}} The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface, although tremors attributed to fluid injection into disposal wells have been large enough to have often been felt by people, and to have caused property damage and possibly injuries.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-15550458 |title=Fracking tests near Blackpool 'likely cause' of tremors |work = BBC News |date=2 November 2011 |access-date=22 February 2012}}{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1225942 | pmid=23846903 | volume=341 | issue=6142 | title=Injection-Induced Earthquakes | year=2013 | journal=Science | page=1225942 | last1 = Ellsworth | first1 = W. L.| s2cid=206543048 | citeseerx=10.1.1.460.5560 }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2016/09/07/the-connection-between-earthquakes-and-fracking/|title=Thanks To Fracking, Earthquake Hazards In Parts Of Oklahoma Now Comparable To California|first=James|last=Conca|website=Forbes}} A U.S. Geological Survey reported that up to 7.9 million people in several states have a similar earthquake risk to that of California, with hydraulic fracturing and similar practices being a prime contributing factor.{{cite news|last1=Egan, Matt &|first1=Wattles, Jackie|title=Oklahoma orders shutdown of 37 wells after earthquake|url=https://money.cnn.com/2016/09/03/news/economy/oklahoma-earthquake-fracking-oil/|access-date=17 December 2016|agency=CNN Money|publisher=CNN|date=3 September 2016}}

Microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing. A better understanding of the geology of the area being fracked and used for injection wells can be helpful in mitigating the potential for significant seismic events.[http://www.earthmagazine.org/article/managing-seismic-risk-posed-wastewater-disposal Managing the seismic risk posed by wastewater disposal], Earth Magazine, 57:38–43 (2012), M. D. Zoback. Retrieved 31 December 2014.

People obtain drinking water from either surface water, which includes rivers and reservoirs, or groundwater aquifers, accessed by public or private wells. There are already a host of documented instances in which nearby groundwater has been contaminated by fracking activities, requiring residents with private wells to obtain outside sources of water for drinking and everyday use.{{Cite journal|last1=Osborn|first1=S. G.|last2=Vengosh|first2=A.|last3=Warner|first3=N. R.|last4=Jackson|first4=R. B.|date=9 May 2011|title=Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying gas-well drilling and hydraulic fracturing|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=20|pages=8172–8176|doi=10.1073/pnas.1100682108|pmid=21555547|pmc=3100993|issn=0027-8424|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.8172O|doi-access=free}}Roberts JS Testimony of J.Scott Roberts, Deputy Secretary for Mineral Resources Management, Department of Environmental Protection (Pennsylvania) 20 May 2010.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances also known as "PFAS" or "forever chemicals" have been linked to cancer and birth defects. The chemicals used in fracking stay in the environment. Once there those chemicals will eventually break down into PFAS. These chemicals can escape from drilling sites and into the groundwater. PFAS are able to leak into underground wells that store million gallons of wastewater.{{Cite news |last=Tabuchi |first=Hiroko |author-link=Hiroko Tabuchi |title=E.P.A. Allowed Fracking Chemicals Despite Worries |date=13 July 2021 |newspaper=The New York Times |page=B1 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/12/climate/epa-pfas-fracking-forever-chemicals.html |access-date=20 October 2021 |id={{Gale|A668271858}} }}

Despite these health concerns and efforts to institute a moratorium on fracking until its environmental and health effects are better understood, the United States continues to rely heavily on fossil fuel energy. In 2017, 37% of annual U.S. energy consumption is derived from petroleum, 29% from natural gas, 14% from coal, and 9% from nuclear sources, with only 11% supplied by renewable energy, such as wind and solar power.{{Cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/?page=us_energy_home |title=U.S. Energy Facts Explained |last=U.S. Energy Information Administration |date=16 May 2018}}

In 2022 the USA experienced a fracking boom, when the war in Ukraine led to a massive increase in approval of new drillings. Planned drillings will release 140 billion tons of carbon, 4 times more than the annual global emissions.{{cite news |last1=Lakhani |first1=Nina |last2=Milman |first2=Oliver |title=US fracking boom could tip world to edge of climate disaster |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/may/11/us-fracking-climate-fossil-fuel-gases |access-date=1 December 2023 |agency=The Guardian |date=11 May 2022}}

{{See also|Hydraulic fracturing by country|Regulation of hydraulic fracturing}}

Countries using or considering use of hydraulic fracturing have implemented different regulations, including developing federal and regional legislation, and local zoning limitations. In 2011, after public pressure France became the first nation to ban hydraulic fracturing, based on the precautionary principle as well as the principle of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards.{{Cite web|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/loda/id/JORFTEXT000024361355/|title=LOI n° 2011-835 du 13 juillet 2011 visant à interdire l'exploration et l'exploitation des mines d'hydrocarbures liquides ou gazeux par fracturation hydraulique et à abroger les permis exclusifs de recherches comportant des projets ayant recours à cette technique (1) - Légifrance|website=www.legifrance.gouv.fr}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000043084969/|title=Article L110-1 - Code de l'environnement - Légifrance|website=www.legifrance.gouv.fr}} The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the Constitutional Council.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24489986 |title=Fracking ban upheld by French court |date=11 October 2013 |work=BBC |access-date=16 October 2013}} Some other countries such as Scotland have placed a temporary moratorium on the practice due to public health concerns and strong public opposition. Countries like South Africa have lifted their bans, choosing to focus on regulation instead of outright prohibition.{{cite news|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201209180701.html | title=South Africa: International Groups Rally Against Fracking, TKAG Claims | first = Francis | last = Hweshe | work= West Cape News | date=17 September 2012 | access-date=11 February 2014}} Germany has announced draft regulations that would allow using hydraulic fracturing for the exploitation of shale gas deposits with the exception of wetland areas. In China, regulation on shale gas still faces hurdles, as it has complex interrelations with other regulatory regimes, especially trade.{{cite SSRN |last1=Farah|first1=Paolo Davide|last2=Tremolada|first2=Riccardo|title=Regulation and Prospects of the Shale Gas Market in China in Light of International Trade, Energy Law, Production-Sharing Agreements, Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development: A Comparison with the US Experience|date=2015|ssrn=2666216}} Many states in Australia have either permanently or temporarily banned fracturing for hydrocarbons.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} In 2019, hydraulic fracturing was banned in UK.{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/nov/02/fracking-banned-in-uk-as-government-makes-major-u-turn |title=Fracking banned in UK as government makes major U-turn|last=Ambrose|first=Jillian|date=2 November 2019|work=The Guardian|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}

The European Union has adopted a recommendation for minimum principles for using high-volume hydraulic fracturing. Its regulatory regime requires full disclosure of all additives. In the United States, the Ground Water Protection Council launched FracFocus.org, an online voluntary disclosure database for hydraulic fracturing fluids funded by oil and gas trade groups and the U.S. Department of Energy. Hydraulic fracturing is excluded from the Safe Drinking Water Act's underground injection control's regulation, except when diesel fuel is used. The EPA assures surveillance of the issuance of drilling permits when diesel fuel is employed.[http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/hydraulicfracturing/wells_hydroreg.cfm], Environmental Protection Agency

In 2012, Vermont became the first state in the United States to ban hydraulic fracturing. On 17 December 2014, New York became the second state to issue a complete ban on any hydraulic fracturing due to potential risks to human health and the environment.{{cite news | title = Gov. Cuomo Makes Sense on Fracking | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/18/opinion/gov-cuomo-makes-sense-on-fracking.html |date=17 December 2014 | work= The New York Times |access-date=18 December 2014 }}{{cite news | url = http://www.timesunion.com/local/article/State-1st-in-U-S-to-ban-fracking-5964402.php | title = Citing perils, state bans fracking | first = Brian | last = Nearing | date=18 December 2014 | work= Times Union |access-date=25 January 2015}}{{cite news|last1=Brady|first1=Jeff|title=Citing Health, Environment Concerns, New York Moves To Ban Fracking|url=https://www.npr.org/2014/12/18/371597785/citing-heath-environment-concerns-new-york-moves-to-ban-fracking| work = NPR |date=18 December 2014 |access-date=25 January 2015}}

{{Portal|Earth sciences|Energy|Environment}}

• Directional drilling
• Environmental impact of electricity generation
• Environmental effects of petroleum
• Fracking by country
• Fracking in the United States
• Fracking in the United Kingdom
• In situ leach
• Nuclear power
• Peak oil
• Stranded asset
• Shale oil extraction
• Vaca Muerta

{{Notelist}}

{{EPA content|title=Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (Final Report)|url=https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990|publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=17 December 2016 }}

{{reflist|refs=

{{cite book |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=X2YrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA139 |title= Hydraulic fracturing stress measurements | chapter = Measurement of Instantaneous Shut-In Pressure in Crystalline Rock | year = 1983 | last1 = Aamodt | first1 = R. Lee | last2 = Kuriyagawa | first2= Michio | publisher = National Academies | page = 139}}

{{cite report | title = Support to the identification of potential risks for the environment and human health arising from hydrocarbons operations involving hydraulic fracturing in Europe | url = http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/energy/pdf/fracking%20study.pdf | first = Mark | last = Broomfield | publisher = European Commission | date = 10 August 2012 | access-date = 29 September 2014 | pages = vi–xvi | id = ED57281 | issue = 17c}}

{{cite report|url=http://www.aogc.state.ar.us/ALL%20FayettevilleFrac%20FINAL.pdf |title=Hydraulic Fracturing Considerations for Natural Gas Wells of the Fayetteville Shale |first1=J. Daniel |last1=Arthur |first2=Brian |last2=Bohm |first3=Bobbi Jo |last3=Coughlin |first4=Mark |last4=Layne |year=2008 |page=10 |publisher=ALL Consulting |access-date=7 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015081325/http://www.aogc.state.ar.us/ALL%20FayettevilleFrac%20FINAL.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2012 }}

{{cite web|url=http://thebreakthrough.org/archive/shale_gas_fracking_history_and|title=US Government Role in Shale Gas Fracking History: An Overview|publisher=The Breakthrough Institute|access-date=31 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119044208/http://thebreakthrough.org/archive/shale_gas_fracking_history_and|archive-date=19 January 2013}}

{{Cite web|url=https://carboceramics.com:443/|title=A Material Difference|website=carboceramics.com}}

{{cite journal |last=Seale |first= Rocky | date=July–August 2007 |url= http://drillingcontractor.org/dcpi/dc-julyaug07/DC_July07_PackersPlus.pdf |title=Open hole completion systems enables multi-stage fracturing and stimulation along horizontal wellbores |journal = Drilling Contractor |access-date= 1 October 2009 |edition=Fracturing stimulation}}

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{{cite web |title=The Barnett Shale |url=http://www.nknt.org/Exhibits/Barnett_shale_points2.pdf |publisher=North Keller Neighbors Together |access-date=14 May 2012 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126011800/http://www.nknt.org/Exhibits/Barnett_shale_points2.pdf |url-status=dead }}

{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/now/shows/613/index.html |title=Gasland |website=PBS |year=2010 |access-date=14 May 2012}}

{{cite news |title=Affirming Gasland |date=July 2010 |url=http://1trickpony.cachefly.net/gas/pdf/Affirming_Gasland_Sept_2010.pdf |access-date=21 December 2010 |archive-date=19 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019165827/http://1trickpony.cachefly.net/gas/pdf/Affirming_Gasland_Sept_2010.pdf |url-status=dead }}

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{{cite news|last=Phillips|first=Susan|title='We're Dealing with an Insurgency,' says Energy Company Exec of Fracking Foes|url=http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2011/11/09/were-dealing-with-an-insurgency-says-energy-company-exec-of-fracking-foes/|work=National Public Radio|date=9 November 2011}}

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{{cite journal |first=David |last=Banks |author2=Odling, N. E.|author3= Skarphagen, H.|author4= Rohr-Torp, E. |title=Permeability and stress in crystalline rocks |journal=Terra Nova |volume=8 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3121.1996.tb00751.x | date=May 1996 |pages=223–235|bibcode=1996TeNov...8..223B }}

{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Edwin Thomas |year=2007 |orig-date=2003 |title=Block Caving Geomechanics |edition=2nd |location=Indooroopilly, Queensland |publisher=Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, UQ |isbn=978-0-9803622-0-6 |url=https://www.jkmrc.uq.edu.au/jkmrc-block-caving-geomechanics-second-edition |access-date=14 May 2012}}

{{cite web|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/egs_animation.html |title=Geothermal Technologies Program: How an Enhanced Geothermal System Works |publisher=eere.energy.gov |date=16 February 2011 |access-date=2 November 2011}}

{{cite web|url=http://thebreakthrough.org/archive/interview_with_dan_steward_for|title=Interview with Dan Steward, Former Mitchell Energy Vice President|publisher=The Breakthrough Institute|access-date=31 December 2012|archive-date=11 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211083923/https://thebreakthrough.org/archive/interview_with_dan_steward_for|url-status=dead}}

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{{cite news | url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-02-26/germany-agrees-on-regulation-to-permit-fracking-for-shale-gas.html |title= Germany agrees on regulations to allow fracking for shale gas |first1= Stefan |last1= Nicola | first2 = Tino | last2 = Andersen |date= 26 February 2013 |agency= Bloomberg |access-date= 1 May 2014}}

{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-01-11/fracking-s-political-support-unshaken-by-doctors-call-for-ban.html |title=Fracking Political Support Unshaken by Doctors' Call for Ban | first=Mark | last = Drajem |date=11 January 2012 |agency=Bloomberg |access-date=19 January 2012}}

{{cite journal |title=Radionuclides in Fracking Wastewater: Managing a Toxic Blend|author=V. J. Brown|date=February 2014|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=122 | issue = 2 |pages=A50–A55|doi=10.1289/ehp.122-A50|pmid=24486733|pmc=3915249}}

{{cite web|title = Hydraulic Fracturing | url=http://www.oilandgasbmps.org/resources/fracing.php |publisher = University of Colorado Law School | access-date= 2 June 2012}}

{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-01-10/health-effects-of-fracking-need-study-says-cdc-scientist.html |title=Health Effects of Fracking Need Study, Says CDC Scientist |author=Alex Wayne |date=4 January 2012 |work=Bloomberg Businessweek |access-date=29 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313051634/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-01-10/health-effects-of-fracking-need-study-says-cdc-scientist.html |archive-date=13 March 2012 }}

{{cite news |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/like-fracking-youll-love-super-fracking-01192012.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123022140/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/like-fracking-youll-love-super-fracking-01192012.html |archive-date=23 January 2012 |title=Like Fracking? You'll Love 'Super Fracking' |author=David Wethe |date=19 January 2012 |work=Businessweek |access-date=22 January 2012}}

{{cite news |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-10-04/france-to-keep-fracking-ban-to-protect-environment-sarkozy-says.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008000938/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-10-04/france-to-keep-fracking-ban-to-protect-environment-sarkozy-says.html |archive-date=8 October 2011 |title=France to Keep Fracking Ban to Protect Environment, Sarkozy Says |first =Tara | last = Patel |date=4 October 2011 | work = Bloomberg Businessweek |access-date=22 February 2012}}

{{cite news |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/11_15/b4223060759263.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110404234618/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/11_15/b4223060759263.htm |archive-date=4 April 2011 |title=The French Public Says No to {{'}}Le Fracking{{'}} |first =Tara | last = Patel |date=31 March 2011 | work = Bloomberg Businessweek |access-date=22 February 2012}}

{{cite report |url= http://www.capp.ca/getdoc.aspx?DocId=210903&DT=NTV |title= The Modern Practices of Hydraulic Fracturing: A Focus on Canadian Resources |date= June 2012 |author= ALL Consulting |publisher= Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers |format= PDF |access-date= 4 August 2012 |archive-date= 18 May 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130518222938/http://www.capp.ca/getdoc.aspx?DocId=210903&DT=NTV |url-status= dead }}

{{cite book |last=Charlez |first=Philippe A. |year=1997 |title=Rock Mechanics: Petroleum Applications |location=Paris |publisher=Editions Technip |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=NigwG_BYRsYC&pg=PA239 | page = 239| access-date = 14 May 2012 |isbn=978-2-7108-0586-1}}

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[http://cogcc.state.co.us/library/GASLAND%20DOC.pdf COGCC Gasland Correction Document] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905130921/http://cogcc.state.co.us/library/GASLAND%20DOC.pdf |date=5 September 2013 }} Colorado Department of Natural Resources 29 October 2010

{{cite report |url= https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40894.pdf |title=Unconventional Gas Shales: Development, Technology, and Policy Issues |author= Andrews, Anthony|date=30 October 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=22 February 2012| pages = 7; 23|display-authors=etal}}

{{cite journal | first1 = Steven | last1 = Deller | first2 = Andrew | last2 = Schreiber | year = 2012 | journal = The Review of Regional Studies | volume = 42 | pages = 121–141 | title = Mining and Community Economic Growth | issue = 2 | doi = 10.52324/001c.8126 | url = http://journal.srsa.org/ojs/index.php/RRS/article/viewFile/42.2.3/pdf# | access-date = 3 March 2013 | format = PDF | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140502032926/http://journal.srsa.org/ojs/index.php/RRS/article/viewFile/42.2.3/pdf | archive-date = 2 May 2014 | doi-access = free }}

{{cite news |url= http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2012/08/15/pipe-bomb-found-near-allegheny-county-pipeline/ |first=Scott |last=Detrow |date=15 August 2012 |work= NPR | title= Pipe Bomb Found Near Allegheny County Pipeline | access-date=27 March 2013}}

{{cite report |url= http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/03/f0/ShaleGasPrimer_Online_4-2009.pdf |title=Modern Shale Gas Development in the United States: A Primer |author1=Ground Water Protection Council |author2=ALL Consulting | date=April 2009 |publisher=DOE Office of Fossil Energy and National Energy Technology Laboratory |access-date=24 February 2012|id= DE-FG26-04NT15455 |pages=56–66}}

{{cite book | title= Reservoir stimulation | year = 2000 | first1 = Michael J. | last1 = Economides | publisher = J. Wiley | page = P-2 | isbn = 978-0-471-49192-7}}

{{cite report | url=https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/overview-hydraulic-fracturing-and-other-formation-stimulation-technologies-shale-gas-0 | title=An overview of hydraulic fracturing and other formation stimulation technologies for shale gas production – Update 2015 | publisher=Joint Research Centre of the European Commission; Publications Office of the European Union | work=Scientific and Technical Research Reports | date=2015 | access-date=31 May 2016 | first1=Luca | last2=Von Estorff | first2=Ulrik | format=PDF | isbn=978-92-79-53894-0 | issn=1831-9424 | doi=10.2790/379646 | last1=Gandossi}}

{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/pdfs/hfresearchstudyfs.pdf |title=Hydraulic fracturing research study |date=June 2010 |publisher=EPA |access-date=26 December 2012 |id=EPA/600/F-10/002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203005215/http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/pdfs/hfresearchstudyfs.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2012 }}

{{cite report | url = http://www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/research/sss/UniAberdeen_FrackingReport.pdf | title = Hydraulic Fracturing or 'Fracking': A Short Summary of Current Knowledge and Potential Environmental Impacts | first = Dave | last = Healy | date = July 2012 | publisher = Environmental Protection Agency| access-date = 28 July 2013 }}

{{cite book|last=Fjaer|first=E.|title=Petroleum related rock mechanics|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6CfasFxhzYC&pg=PA369 |edition=2nd|series=Developments in petroleum science|year=2008|publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-50260-5|page=369|chapter=Mechanics of hydraulic fracturing|access-date=14 May 2012}}

{{cite web|author=|title= State by state maps of hydraulic fracturing in US. |publisher=Fractracker.org|url=http://www.fractracker.org/maps/|access-date=19 October 2013}}

{{cite web | url= http://www.api.org/policy/exploration/hydraulicfracturing/upload/HYDRAULIC_FRACTURING_PRIMER.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113105130/http://www.api.org/policy/exploration/hydraulicfracturing/upload/HYDRAULIC_FRACTURING_PRIMER.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2012 |title= Freeing Up Energy. Hydraulic Fracturing: Unlocking America's Natural Gas Resources |website=American Petroleum Institute | date = 19 July 2010 | access-date = 29 December 2012}}

{{cite web |url=http://geology.com/royalty/production-decline.shtml |title=Production Decline of a Natural Gas Well Over Time |date=3 January 2012 |work=Geology.com | publisher=The Geology Society of America |access-date=4 March 2012}}

{{cite book|last=Gill|first=R.|title=Igneous rocks and processes: a practical guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgpmAcu_M-AC&pg=PA102|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3065-6 |page=102}}

{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-14/fracking-hazards-obscured-in-failure-to-disclose-wells.html |title=Fracking Hazards Obscured in Failure to Disclose Wells |first=Benjamin |last=Hass |date=14 August 2012 | agency=Bloomberg |access-date=27 March 2013}}

{{cite book |title= A review of the management of the Gas Research Institute |publisher=National Academies |year= 1989}}

Wasley, Andrew (1 March 2013) [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/mar/01/frontline-poland-fracking-frontier On the frontline of Poland's fracking rush] The Guardian, Retrieved 3 March 2013

{{cite magazine|last=Hartnett-White|first=K.|title=The Fracas About Fracking- Low Risk, High Reward, but the EPA is Against it|magazine=National Review Online|url=http://www.energyindepth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/The-Fracas-about-Fracking.pdf|year=2011|access-date=7 May 2012}}

{{cite journal |title=Remediation of low permeability subsurface formations by fracturing enhancement of soil vapor extraction |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |volume=40 |issue= 2 |date=February 1995 |pages=191–201 |issn=0304-3894 |doi=10.1016/0304-3894(94)00069-S |last1=Frank |first1=U. |last2=Barkley |first2=N.|bibcode=1995JHzM...40..191F |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258461 }}

{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Valerie J. |title=Industry Issues: Putting the Heat on Gas |date=February 2007 |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |page=A76 |volume=115 |issue=2 |pmc=1817691 |pmid=17384744 |doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a76}}

{{cite report|url=http://democrats.energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20Report%204.18.11.pdf |publisher=Committee on Energy and Commerce U.S. House of Representatives |title=Chemicals Used in Hydraulic Fracturing |date=18 April 2011 |page=? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721042543/http://democrats.energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20Report%204.18.11.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}

{{cite report |url=http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1171_web.pdf|title= Radiation Protection and the Management of Radioactive Waste in the Oil and Gas Industry |date=2003 |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |access-date=20 May 2012| pages = 39–40 |quote=Beta emitters, including ³H and ¹⁴C, may be used when it is feasible to use sampling techniques to detect the presence of the radiotracer, or when changes in activity concentration can be used as indicators of the properties of interest in the system. Gamma emitters, such as ⁴⁶Sc, ¹⁴⁰La, ⁵⁶Mn, ²⁴Na, ¹²⁴Sb, ¹⁹²Ir, ⁹⁹Tc^m, ¹³¹I, ¹¹⁰Ag^m, ⁴¹Ar and ¹³³Xe are used extensively because of the ease with which they can be identified and measured. ... In order to aid the detection of any spillage of solutions of the 'soft' beta emitters, they are sometimes spiked with a short half-life gamma emitter such as ⁸²Br}}

{{cite web |title=Gasland Debunked |publisher=Energy in Depth |url=http://www.energyindepth.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Debunking-Gasland.pdf|access-date = 14 May 2012}}

{{cite news |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2013/08/govt-energy-industry-accused-of-suppressing-fracking-dangers/ |title=Govt, Energy Industry Accused of Suppressing Fracking Dangers|author=Jared Metzker |date=7 August 2013 |publisher=Inter Press Service |access-date=28 December 2013}}

Kim, Won-Young [http://im.ft-static.com/content/images/7c4754d6-0a81-11e3-9cec-00144feabdc0.pdf 'Induced seismicity associated with fluid injection into a deep well in Youngstown, Ohio'], Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth

{{cite journal|last=Laubach|first=S. E.|author2=Reed, R. M.|author3= Olson, J. E.|author4= Lander, R. H.|author5= Bonnell, L. M.|year=2004|title=Coevolution of crack-seal texture and fracture porosity in sedimentary rocks: cathodoluminescence observations of regional fractures|journal=Journal of Structural Geology|volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=967–982 |doi=10.1016/j.jsg.2003.08.019 |bibcode = 2004JSG....26..967L }}

{{cite report |title=Natural Gas and the Transformation of the U.S. Energy Sector: Electricity |first=Jeffrey |last=Logan |publisher=Joint Institute for Strategic Energy Analysis | url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/55538.pdf | year = 2012 |access-date=27 March 2013}}

{{cite web|url=http://www.johnsonwright.net/newsletters/2011-December/Fracking-The_Controversy_Over_its_Safety_for_the_Environment.htm |title=Fracking: The Controversy Over its Safety for the Environment |date=December 2005 |last1=Love |first1=Adam H. |publisher=Johnson Wright, Inc. |access-date=10 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501060306/http://www.johnsonwright.net/newsletters/2011-December/Fracking-The_Controversy_Over_its_Safety_for_the_Environment.htm |archive-date=1 May 2013 }}

{{cite book |title= Hydraulic Proppant Fracturing and Gravel Packing | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FyGcOI42oBMC&pg=PA174 | year= 1989 | first= Detlef | last = Mader | publisher = Elsevier | isbn = 978-0-444-87352-1 | pages = 173–174; 202}}

{{cite book|last1=Manthei|first1=G.|last2=Eisenblätter|first2=J.|last3=Kamlot|first3=P.|editor=Natau, Fecker & Pimentel|title=Geotechnical Measurements and Modelling|chapter-url=http://www.gmugmbh.de/download/gmug_Scan0965.pdf|access-date=6 March 2012|year=2003|isbn=978-90-5809-603-6|pages=355–360|chapter=Stress measurement in salt mines using a special hydraulic fracturing borehole tool|publisher=CRC Press }}

{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PYyJEEyJN94C&pg=PA380 |title= Coal Energy Systems | series = Sustainable World Series | year = 2005 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Bruce G. | publisher = Academic Press | page = 380 | isbn = 978-0-12-497451-7}}

{{cite journal|last1=Montgomery|first1=Carl T.|last2=Smith|first2=Michael B. |date=December 2010 |title= Hydraulic fracturing. History of an enduring technology |journal=JPT Online |volume=62|issue=12|pages=26–41 |doi=10.2118/1210-0026-JPT|url=http://www.spe.org/jpt/print/archives/2010/12/10Hydraulic.pdf |access-date=13 May 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927042258/http://www.spe.org/jpt/print/archives/2010/12/10Hydraulic.pdf | archive-date = 27 September 2011 }}

{{cite journal |last1=Mooney |first1=Chris |title=The Truth about Fracking |journal=Scientific American |date=18 October 2011 |volume=305 |issue=5 |pages=80–85 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1111-80|pmid=22125868 |bibcode=2011SciAm.305d..80M }}

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{{cite web|last=Moore|first=Robbie|title=Fracking, PR, and the Greening of Gas|url=http://www.theinternational.org/articles/369-fracking-pr-and-the-greening-of-gas|work=The International|access-date=16 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321211142/http://www.theinternational.org/articles/369-fracking-pr-and-the-greening-of-gas|archive-date=21 March 2013}}

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{{cite journal | last = Negro | first = Sorrell E. | title = Fracking Wars: Federal, State, and Local Conflicts over the Regulation of Natural Gas Activities | url = http://www.ourenergypolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Fracking-Wars.pdf | journal = Zoning and Planning Law Report | volume = 35 | issue = 2 | date = February 2012 | pages = 1–14 | access-date = 1 May 2014}}

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(7 August 2012) [http://www.naturalgaseurope.com/jkx-awards-fracking-contract-for-ukrainian-prospect JKX Awards Fracking Contract for Ukrainian Prospect] Natural Gas Europe, Retrieved 3 March 2013

4

{{Cite journal |last1=Nolon |first1=John R. |last2= Polidoro |first2= Victoria | title= Hydrofracking: Disturbances Both Geological and Political: Who Decides? |year= 2012 |journal= The Urban Lawyer |pages=1–14 |volume=44 |issue=3 | url = http://environment.yale.edu/content/documents/00002783/Hydrofracking-Disturbances-Both-Geological-and-Political-Who-Decides.pdf |access-date=21 December 2012}}

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{{cite web |url=https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr1556/v14/#_1_26 |title=Consolidated Guidance About Materials Licenses: Program-Specific Guidance About Well Logging, Tracer, and Field Flood Study Licenses (NUREG-1556, Volume 14) |author=Jack E. Whitten |author2=Steven R. Courtemanche |author3=Andrea R. Jones |author4=Richard E. Penrod |author5=David B. Fogl |quote=labeled Frac Sand...Sc-46, Br-82, Ag-110m, Sb-124, Ir-192 |date=June 2000 |publisher=US Nuclear Regulatory Commission|access-date=19 April 2012}}

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{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/02/27/us/natural-gas-documents-1.html#document/p533/a9948 |title=Natural Gas Documents |date=27 February 2011 |work=The New York Times |access-date=5 May 2012 |quote=The Times reviewed more than 30,000 pages of documents obtained through open records requests of state and federal agencies and by visiting various regional offices that oversee drilling in Pennsylvania. Some of the documents were leaked by state or federal officials.}}

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{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/04/us/20110304_natural-gas-documents-intro.html |title=The Debate Over the Hydrofracking Study's Scope |quote= While environmentalists have aggressively lobbied the agency to broaden the scope of the study, industry has lobbied the agency to narrow this focus |date=3 March 2011 |work= The New York Times |access-date=1 May 2012}}

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{{cite journal | url = https://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/ors05/win05/04_the_source_for_hydraulic.ashx | title = The Source for Hydraulic Fracture Characterization | journal = Oilfield Review | pages = 42–57 | issue = Winter 2005/2006 | author = Bennet, Les | format = PDF | access-date = 30 September 2012 | display-authors = etal | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140825144515/https://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/ors05/win05/04_the_source_for_hydraulic.ashx | archive-date = 25 August 2014 }}

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{{cite news |url = http://www.timesleaderonline.com/page/content.detail/id/545690/Oil-gas-boom-spawns-Harrison-safety-talks.html?nav=5010 |first=Mike |last=Palmer |date=27 March 2013 | work=Times Leader | title=Oil-gas boom spawns Harrison safety talks | access-date=27 March 2013}}

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{{cite report |title=Water Withdrawals for Development of Marcellus Shale Gas in Pennsylvania. Introduction to Pennsylvania's Water Resources |first1=Charles W. |last1=Abdalla |first2=Joy R. |last2=Drohan |publisher=The Pennsylvania State University |quote=Hydrofracturing a horizontal Marcellus well may use 4 to 8 million gallons of water, typically within about 1 week. However, based on experiences in other major U.S. shale gas fields, some Marcellus wells may need to be hydrofractured several times over their productive life (typically five to twenty years or more) |url=http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/ua460.pdf |year=2010 |access-date=16 September 2012 |archive-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302155258/http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/ua460.pdf |url-status=dead }}

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{{cite journal|last1=Penny |first1=Glenn S. |last2=Conway |first2=Michael W. |last3=Lee |first3=Wellington |title=Control and Modeling of Fluid Leakoff During Hydraulic Fracturing |date=June 1985 |pages=1071–1081 |volume=37 |issue=6 |journal=Journal of Petroleum Technology |doi=10.2118/12486-PA }}

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{{cite web | url= http://petrowiki.spe.org/Acid_fracturing | title = Acid fracturing | publisher = Society of Petroleum Engineers | access-date = 12 October 2014}}

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{{cite report|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/332837/PHE-CRCE-009_3-7-14.pdf |title=Review of the Potential Public Health Impacts of Exposures to Chemical and Radioactive Pollutants as a Result of the Shale Gas Extraction Process | first1 = A. | last1 = Kibble | first2 = T. | last2 = Cabianca | first3 = Z. | last3 = Daraktchieva | first4 = T. | last4 = Gooding | first5 = J. | last5 = Smithard | first6 = G. | last6 = Kowalczyk | first7 = N. P. | last7 = McColl | first8 = M. | last8 = Singh | first9 = L. | last9 = Mitchem | first10 = P. | last10 = Lamb | first11 = S. | last11 = Vardoulakis | first12 = R. | last12 = Kamanyire |publisher=Public Health England |docket=PHE-CRCE-009 |date=June 2014 |isbn = 978-0-85951-752-2 }}

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• {{cite journal |last= Weinhold |first= Bob |date= 19 September 2012 |title= Unknown Quantity: Regulating Radionuclides in Tap Water |quote = Examples of human activities that may lead to radionuclide exposure include mining, milling, and processing of radioactive substances; wastewater releases from the hydraulic fracturing of oil and natural gas wells... Mining and hydraulic fracturing, or 'fracking', can concentrate levels of uranium (as well as radium, radon, and thorium) in wastewater... | journal= Environmental Health Perspectives |volume= 120 |issue= 9 |pages= A350–56 |doi= 10.1289/ehp.120-a350 |pmid= 23487846 |pmc= 3440123 }}

{{refend}}

{{commons category}}

{{wikinews|Disposal of fracking wastewater poses potential environmental problems}}

{{wiktionary}}

• [https://udayton.edu/directory/law/documents/watson/blake_watson_hydraulic_fracturing_primer.pdf Hydraulic Fracturing Litigation Summary] (22 April 2021)
• Science blogs by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health [https://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/category/hydraulic-fracturing/ on Fracking].

{{Shale gas|technology=yes}}

{{Petroleum industry}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:1947 introductions

Category:Unconventional oil