fusarium

{{Automatic taxobox

| image = Fusarium verticillioides 01.jpg

| image_caption = Fusarium verticillioides

| taxon = Fusarium

| authority = Link (1809){{cite journal |last1=Link |first1=Johann Heinrich Friedrich |author-link1=Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link |year=1809 |title=Observationes in ordines plantarum naturales. Dissertatio I.|journal=Magazin der Gesellschaft Naturforschenden Freunde Berlin |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=10 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044106318025;view=1up;seq=15 |language=la}}

| subdivision_ranks = Species

| subdivision =

List of Fusarium species

| synonyms_ref =

| synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets=on

|Bidenticula {{au|Deighton (1972)}}

|Cyanonectria {{au|Samuels & P.Chaverri (2009)}}

|Disco-fusarium {{au|Petch (1921)}}

|Fusidomus {{au|Grove (1929)}}

|Fusisporium {{au|Link (1809)}}

|Geejayessia {{au|Schroers, Gräfenhan & Seifert (2011)}}

|Gibberella {{au|Sacc. 1877)}}

|Gibberella subgen. Lisiella {{au|Cooke & Massee (1887)}}

|Haematonectria {{au|Samuels & Nirenberg (1999)}}

|Hyaloflorea {{au|Bat. & H.Maia (1955)}}

|Lachnidium {{au|Giard (1891)}}

|Lisea {{au|Sacc. (1877)}}

|Lisiella {{au|(Cooke & Massee) Sacc. (1891)}}

|Neocosmospora {{au|E.F.Sm. (1899)}}

|Nothofusarium {{au|Crous, Sand.-Den. & L.Lombard (2021)}}

|Pionnotes {{au|Fr. (1849)}}

|Pseudofusarium {{au|Matsush. (1971)}}

|Pycnofusarium {{au|Punith. (1973)}}

|Rachisia {{au|Lindner (1913)}}

|Selenosporium {{au|Corda (1837)}}

|Septorella {{au|Allesch. (1897)}}

|Sporotrichella {{au|P.Karst. (1887)}}

|Stagonostroma {{au|Died. (1914)}}

|Trichofusarium {{au|Bubák (1906)}}

|Ustilaginoidella {{au|Essed (1911)}}

}}

Fusarium ({{IPAc-en|f|j|u|ˈ|z|ɛər|i|əm}}; {{small|Audio:}}{{Audio|Fusarium Pronunciation.ogg|}}) is a large genus of filamentous fungi, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes, and are relatively abundant members of the soil microbial community. Some species produce mycotoxins in cereal crops that can affect human and animal health if they enter the food chain. The main toxins produced by these Fusarium species are fumonisins and trichothecenes. Despite most species apparently being harmless (some existing on the skin as commensal members of the skin flora), some Fusarium species and subspecific groups are among the most important fungal pathogens of plants and animals.

The name of Fusarium comes from Latin fusus, meaning a spindle.

Taxonomy

The taxonomy of the genus is complex. A number of different schemes have been used, and up to 1,000 species have been identified at times, with approaches varying between wide and narrow concepts of speciation (lumpers and splitters).{{sfn|Nelson|1994}}{{sfn|Moretti|2009}}{{sfn|Watanabe|2011}}

Phylogenetic studies seven major clades within the genus.{{sfn|Watanabe|2011}}

There is a proposed concept{{snd}}widely subscribed by specialists{{snd}}that would include essentially the genus as it now stands, including especially all agriculturally significant Fusaria. There is a counterproposal (unrelated to {{harvnb|Watanabe|2011}}) that goes far in the other direction, with seven entirely new genera.

= Subdivision =

Various schemes have subdivided the genus into subgenera and sections. There is a poor correlation between sections and phylogenetic clades.{{sfn|Watanabe|2011}}

Sections previously described include:

Arachnites
Arthrosporiella
Discolour
Elegans
Eupionnotes
Gibbosum
Lateritium
Liseola
Martiella
Ventricosum
Roseum
Spicarioides
Sporotrichiella

= Species =

Selected species include:

Pathogen

File:Fusarium chlamydospores 160X.png

File:Fusarium Micro and Macro conidia.jpg

File:Fusarium conidiophores and macroconidia 160X.png

The genus includes a number of economically important plant pathogenic species.

Fusarium graminearum commonly infects barley if there is rain late in the season. It is of economic impact to the malting and brewing industries, as well as feed barley. Fusarium contamination in barley can result in head blight, and in extreme contaminations, the barley can appear pink.Brewing Microbiology, 3rd edition. Priest and Campbell, {{ISBN|0-306-47288-0}} {{page needed|date=June 2021}} The genome of this wheat and maize pathogen has been sequenced. F. graminearum can also cause root rot and seedling blight. The total losses in the US of barley and wheat crops between 1991 and 1996 have been estimated at $3 billion.

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense is a fungal plant pathogen that causes Panama disease of banana (Musa spp.), also known as fusarium wilt of banana. Panama disease affects a wide range of banana cultivars, which are propagated asexually from offshoots and therefore have very little genetic diversity. Panama disease is one of the most destructive plant diseases of modern times, and caused the commercial disappearance of the once dominant Gros Michel cultivar. A more recent strain also affects the Cavendish cultivars which commercially replaced Gros Michel. It is considered inevitable{{By whom|date=May 2023}} that this susceptibility will spread globally and commercially wipe out the Cavendish cultivar, for which there are currently no acceptable replacements.

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. narcissi causes rotting of the bulbs (basal rot) and yellowing of the leaves of daffodils (Narcissi).

In 2021 it was discovered that Fusarium xyrophilum was able to hijack a South American species of yellow-eyed Xyris grass, creating fake flowers, fooling bees and other pollinating insects into visiting them, taking fungal spores to other plants.{{Cite journal |last1=Laraba |first1=Imane |last2=McCormick |first2=Susan P. |last3=Vaughan |first3=Martha M. |last4=Proctor |first4=Robert H. |last5=Busman |first5=Mark |last6=Appell |first6=Michael |last7=O'Donnell |first7=Kerry |last8=Felker |first8=Frederick C. |last9=Catherine Aime |first9=M. |last10=Wurdack |first10=Kenneth J. |date=2020 |title=Pseudoflowers produced by Fusarium xyrophilum on yellow-eyed grass (Xyris spp.) in Guyana: A novel floral mimicry system? |journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology |volume=144 |pages=103466 |doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2020.103466 |pmid=32956810 |issn=1087-1845|doi-access=free }}{{Cite web|last=Simons|first=Paul|date=17 February 2021|title=Plantwatch: fungus creates fake fragrant flowers to fool bees|url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/feb/17/plantwatch-fungus-creates-fake-fragrant-flowers-xyris-to-fool-bees|access-date=18 February 2021|website=the Guardian|language=en}}

= In humans =

Some species may cause a range of opportunistic infections in humans. In humans with normal immune systems, fusarial infections may occur in the nails (onychomycosis) and in the cornea (keratomycosis or mycotic keratitis).{{cite book |vauthors=Walsh TJ, Dixon DM | title = Spectrum of Mycoses. In: Baron's Medical Microbiology| chapter = Spectrum of Mycoses| editor = Baron S| display-editors = etal| edition = 4th | publisher = Univ of Texas Medical Branch | year = 1996 | pmid = 21413276| url= https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.section.4006 |via= NCBI Bookshelf | isbn = 978-0-9631172-1-2 }} In humans whose immune systems are weakened in a particular way, (neutropenia, i.e., very low neutrophils count), aggressive fusarial infections penetrating the entire body and bloodstream (disseminated infections) may be caused by members of the Fusarium solani complex, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium proliferatum and, rarely, other fusarial species.{{cite book | author = Howard DH | title = Pathogenic Fungi in Humans and Animals | edition = 2nd | publisher = Marcel Dekker | year = 2003| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=my7KbbJi2b4C&q=Marcel+Dekker+Howard+Fungi |via=Google Books | isbn = 978-0-8247-0683-8 }}

Research

The isolation medium for Fusaria is usually peptone PCNB agar (peptone pentachloronitrobenzene agar, PPA).{{cite book | last1=Leslie | first1=John F. | last2=Summerell | first2=Brett A. | title=The Fusarium Laboratory Manual | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | publication-place=Ames, Iowa | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-470-27837-6 | oclc=608623925 | pages=ix-388 | doi=10.1002/9780470278376 | s2cid=82470396}}{{rp|page=7}}{{cite journal | last1=Summerell | first1=Brett A. | last2=Salleh | first2=Baharuddin | last3=Leslie | first3=John F. | title=A Utilitarian Approach to Fusarium Identification | journal=Plant Disease | publisher=American Phytopathological Society | volume=87 | issue=2 | year=2003 | issn=0191-2917 | doi=10.1094/pdis.2003.87.2.117 | pages=117–128| pmid=30812915 | doi-access= | bibcode=2003PlDis..87..117S }} For F. oxysporum specifically, Komada's medium is most common.{{rp|page=7}} Differential identification is difficult in some strains. Vegetative compatibility group analysis is best for some, is one usable method for others, and requires such a large number of assays that it is too complicated for yet others.

Use as human food

Fusarium venenatum is produced industrially for use as a human food by Marlow Foods, Ltd., and is marketed under the name Quorn in Europe and North America.

Fusarium strain flavolapis is also produced as a human food by Nature's Fynd under the name Fy in North America.{{Cite web |last=Watson |first=Elaine |date=2021-06-18 |title=Nature's Fynd receives GRAS no questions letter from FDA for 'Fy' nutritional fungi protein |url=https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2021/06/18/Nature-s-Fynd-receives-GRAS-no-questions-letter-from-FDA-for-Fy-nutritional-fungi-protein |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=foodnavigator-usa.com |language=en-GB}} It is used as a part of Le Bernardin menu in several dishes.{{Cite web |last=Axworthy |first=Nicole |title=This Vegan Fungi Protein Makes Fine-Dining Debut at NYC's Le Bernardin |url=https://vegnews.com/2022/7/fungi-protein-fine-dining-le-bernardin |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=VegNews.com |language=en-US}}

Some consumers of fusarium products have shown food allergies similar in nature to peanut and other food allergies. People with known sensitivities to molds should exercise caution when consuming such products.{{cite journal | vauthors = Katona SJ, Kaminski ER | title = Sensitivity to Quorn mycoprotein (Fusarium venenatum) in a mould allergic patient | journal = Journal of Clinical Pathology | volume = 55 | issue = 11 | pages = 876–7 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12401831 | pmc = 1769805 | doi = 10.1136/jcp.55.11.876-a }}

Biological warfare

Mass casualties occurred in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and 1940s when Fusarium-contaminated wheat flour was baked into bread, causing alimentary toxic aleukia with a 60% mortality rate. Symptoms began with abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and prostration, and within days, fever, chills, myalgias and bone marrow depression with granulocytopenia and secondary sepsis occurred. Further symptoms included pharyngeal or laryngeal ulceration and diffuse bleeding into the skin (petechiae and ecchymoses), melena, bloody diarrhea, hematuria, hematemesis, epistaxis, vaginal bleeding, pancytopenia and gastrointestinal ulceration. Fusarium sporotrichoides contamination was found in affected grain in 1932, spurring research for medical purposes and for use in biological warfare. The active ingredient was found to be trichothecene T-2 mycotoxin, and it was produced in quantity and weaponized prior to the passage of the Biological Weapons Convention in 1972. The Soviets were accused of using the agent, dubbed "yellow rain", to cause 6,300 deaths in Laos, Kampuchea, and Afghanistan between 1975 and 1981.{{cite journal | vauthors = Peraica M, RadicÂ B, LucicÂ A, PavlovicÂ M | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | date = September 1999 | volume = 77 | issue = 7 | pages = 754–66 | url =https://www.who.int/docstore/bulletin/pdf/issue9/bu0024.pdf | title=Toxic effects of mycotoxins in humans | pmid = 10534900 | pmc = 2557730 }}{{cite web | url = http://www.drugpolicy.org/docUploads/Mycoherbicide06.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090204214458/http://www.drugpolicy.org/docUploads/Mycoherbicide06.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 4 February 2009 | title = Repeating mistakes of the past: another mycoherbicide research bill | publisher= Drug Policy Alliance | year = 2006 | access-date = 2007-05-27 }} The "biological warfare agent" was later purported to be merely bee feces,{{cite journal | vauthors = Earl C | title = Yellow rain: Thai bees' faeces found | journal = Nature | volume = 308 | issue = 5959 | pages = 485 | year = 1984 | pmid = 6709055 | doi = 10.1038/308485b0 | bibcode = 1984Natur.308..485. | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Marshall E | title = Yellow rain evidence slowly whittled away | journal = Science | volume = 233 | issue = 4759 | pages = 18–19 | date = July 1986 | pmid = 3715471 | doi = 10.1126/science.3715471 | bibcode = 1986Sci...233...18M }} but the issue remains disputed.

Pest

Fusarium has posed a threat to the ancient cave paintings in Lascaux since 1955, when the caves were first opened to visitors. The caves subsequently closed and the threat subsided, but the installation of an air conditioning system in 2000 caused another outbreak of the fungus which is yet to be resolved.{{cite journal | vauthors = Rinaldi A | title = Saving a fragile legacy. Biotechnology and microbiology are increasingly used to preserve and restore the world's cultural heritage | journal = EMBO Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 11 | pages = 1075–79 | date = November 2006 | pmid = 17077862 | pmc = 1679785 | doi = 10.1038/sj.embor.7400844 }}

Microbiota

Fusarium may be part of microbiota including digestive as well as oral/dental, there have been rare cases of Fusariosis presenting as a necrotic ulceration of the gingiva, extending to the alveolar bone has been reported in a granulocytopenic patient.{{Cite journal |last1=Deepa |first1=A. G. |last2=Nair |first2=Bindu J. |last3=Sivakumar |first3=T. T. |last4=Joseph |first4=Anna P. |date=2014-05-01 |title=Uncommon opportunistic fungal infections of oral cavity: A review |journal=Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology |language=en |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=235–243 |doi=10.4103/0973-029X.140765 |issn=0973-029X |pmc=4196293 |pmid=25328305 |doi-access=free }}

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{{cite web |title=Synonymy. Current Name: Fusarium Link, Mag. Gesell. naturf. Freunde, Berlin 3(1-2): 10 (1809)|url=https://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=8284 |publisher=Species Fungorum |access-date=7 October 2024}}

}}

Bibliography

{{cite journal | vauthors = Nelson PE, Dignani MC, Anaissie EJ | title = Taxonomy, biology, and clinical aspects of Fusarium species | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 479–504 | date = October 1994 | pmid = 7834602 | pmc = 358338 | ref = {{harvid|Nelson|1994}} | doi=10.1128/cmr.7.4.479}}
{{cite journal|last1=Moretti |first1=Antonio | name-list-style = vanc |title=Taxonomy of Fusarium genus: A continuous fight between lumpers and splitters |journal=Zbornik Matice Srpske Za Prirodne Nauke |date=2009 |issue=117 |pages=7–13 |doi=10.2298/ZMSPN0917007M |doi-access=free }}
{{cite journal | vauthors = Watanabe M, Yonezawa T, Lee K, Kumagai S, Sugita-Konishi Y, Goto K, Hara-Kudo Y | title = Molecular phylogeny of the higher and lower taxonomy of the Fusarium genus and differences in the evolutionary histories of multiple genes | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 322 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 22047111 | pmc = 3270093 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-11-322 | ref = {{harvid|Watanabe|2011}} | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2011BMCEE..11..322W }}
{{cite journal|last1=Summerell|first1=Brett A.|last2=Laurence|first2=Matthew H.|last3=Liew|first3=Edward C. Y.|last4=Leslie|first4=John F. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Biogeography and phylogeography of Fusarium: a review|journal=Fungal Diversity|date=14 September 2010|volume=44|issue=1|pages=3–13|doi=10.1007/s13225-010-0060-2|s2cid=37051295|ref=none}}

External links

[https://archive.today/20121211092026/http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/3000/3122.html Fusarium and Verticillium Wilts of Tomato, Potato, Pepper, and Eggplant]
[https://web.archive.org/web/20140315035807/http://www.bugwood.org/container/fusarium.html Fusarium Root Rot in Container Tree Nurseries]
[http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/plantanswers/turf/publications/fusarium.html Fusarium Blight on Turfgrass]
[http://www.logicalimages.com/resourcesFusariumKeratitis.htm Fusarium Keratitis]
[http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/documents/Pests_Pesticides/caribbeantr4/06Evolution.pdf Evolution of Fusarium taxonomy. FAO 2014]
[http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/genome/fusarium_group/MultiHome.html Fusarium Comparative Database]
{{cite journal |url=http://www.mycotaxon.com/resources/checklists/asan-v116-checklist.pdf | vauthors = Asan A |title=Checklist of Fusarium Species Reported from Turkey |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=116 |page=479 |year=2011 }}
[http://www.agromila.com/#!mla-fusa/c225q Simple explanation of Fusarium. FAO 2014]

Category:Fungal plant pathogens and diseases

Category:Animal diseases

Category:Nectriaceae genera

Category:Meat substitutes