gender differences in suicide

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The role that gender plays as a risk factor for suicide has been studied extensively. While females, particularly those under the age of 25,Crosby AE, Han B, Ortega LAG, Parks SE, Gfoerer J. [https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6013a1.htm "Suicidal thoughts and behaviors among adults aged ≥18 years-United States, 2008-2009."] MMWR Surveillance Summaries 2011;60(no. SS-13). show higher rates of non-fatal suicidal behavior and suicide thoughts, and attempt suicide more frequently than males do, males have a much higher rate of suicide. This is known as the gender paradox in suicide, a term coined by Silvia Sara Canetto and Isaac Sakinofsky.{{Cite web|title=Critical Suicide Theory and Research -- From the Gender Paradox to Cultural Scripts of Suicidal Behaviors: Interview with Professor Silvia Sara Canetto {{!}} Episode 73|url=https://www.sallyspencerthomas.com/hope-illuminated-podcast/73|access-date=2022-01-18|website=Dr. Sally Spencer-Thomas|date=10 November 2020 |language=en-US}}

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), challenges represented by social stigma, the taboo to openly discuss suicide, and low availability of data are obstacles leading to poor data quality for both suicide and suicide attempts. The organization states that "given the sensitivity of suicide – and the illegality of suicidal behaviour in some countries – it is likely that under-reporting and misclassification are greater problems for suicide than for most other causes of death."{{cite web|title=Suicide - Challenges and obstacles |website=who.int |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs398/en/ |date=August 2017}}{{cite web |author=WHO |title=Self-directed violence|url=https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/factsheets/en/selfdirectedviolfacts.pdf |website=www.who.int |date=2002}}

Many researchers have attempted to find explanations for why gender is such a significant indicator for suicide.

A common explanation relies on the social constructions of hegemonic masculinity and femininity. According to literature on gender and suicide, male suicide rates are explained in terms of traditional gender roles. Male gender roles tend to emphasize greater levels of strength, independence, risk-taking behavior, economic status, and individualism.{{cite journal | author=Payne, Sarah| title=The social construction of gender and its influence on suicide: a review of the literature | journal=Journal of Men's Health | volume=5 | issue=1 | pages=23–35 | doi=10.1016/j.jomh.2007.11.002|display-authors=etal | year=2008}}{{cite book |vauthors=Schrijvers DL, Bollen J, Sabbe BG |date=May–October 2011 |section=The gender paradox in suicidal behavior and its impact on the suicidal process |veditors=Milner A, Kõlves KE, De Leo D |title=Suicide Research: Selected Readings |volume=6 |pages=56–57 |url=https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/499348/SuicideResearchVol6.pdf#page=67 |access-date=27 December 2017|archive-date=24 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924190115/https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/499348/SuicideResearchVol6.pdf#page=67 }}

• {{cite journal |vauthors=Schrijvers DL, Bollen J, Sabbe BG |date=April 2012 |title=The gender paradox in suicidal behavior and its impact on the suicidal process |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |volume=138 |issue=1–2 |pages=19–26 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.050 |pmid=21529962}} Reinforcement of this gender role often prevents males from seeking help for suicidal feelings and depression.

Various other factors have been put forward as the cause of the gender paradox. Part of the gap may be explained by heightened levels of stress that result from traditional gender roles. For example, the death of a spouse and divorce are risk factors for suicide in both genders, but the effect is somewhat mitigated for females.{{cite journal | author=Stack, Steven | title=New Micro-Level Data on the Impact of Divorce on Suicide, 1959–1980: A Test of Two Theories | journal=Journal of Marriage and the Family | volume=52 | issue=1 | pages=119–127 | jstor=352844 | doi=10.2307/352844 | year=1990}} In the Western world, females are more likely to maintain social and familial connections that they can turn to for support after losing their spouse. Another factor closely tied to gender roles is male employment status. Males' vulnerability may be heightened during times of unemployment because of societal expectations that they should provide for themselves and their families.

The gender gap is less stark in developing nations. One theory put forward for the smaller gap is the increased burden of motherhood due to cultural norms. In regions where the identity of females is constructed around the family, having young children may correlate with lower risks for suicide. At the same time, stigma attached to infertility or having children outside of marriage can contribute to higher rates of suicide among women.{{cite journal | author=Girard, Chris | title=Age, Gender, and Suicide: A Cross-National Analysis | journal=American Sociological Review | volume=58 | issue=4 | pages=553–574 | jstor=2096076 | doi=10.2307/2096076 | year=1993}} Men are more likely to commit suicide who are from less affluent areas, than men who are from more affluent areas.{{cite book |last=Goldney |first=Robert D. |date=2011-06-21 |chapter=Antidepressants and Suicide Prevention |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119998556.ch26 |title=International Handbook of Suicide Prevention |pages=457–471 |doi=10.1002/9781119998556.ch26|isbn=9780470683842 }}

In 2003, a group of sociologists examined the gender and suicide gap by considering how cultural factors impacted suicide rates. The four cultural factors – power-distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity – were measured for 66 countries using data from the World Health Organization. Cultural beliefs regarding individualism were most closely tied to the gender gap; countries that placed a higher value on individualism showed higher rates of male suicide. Power-distance, defined as the social separation of people based on finances or status, was negatively correlated with suicide. However, countries with high levels of power-distance had higher rates of female suicide. The study ultimately found that stabilizing cultural factors had a stronger effect on suicide rates for women than men.{{cite journal | author=Rudmin, Lloyd Webster | title=Questions of Culture, Age, and Gender in the Epidemiology of Suicide | journal=Scandinavian Journal of Psychology | volume=44 | issue=4 | pages=373–381 | doi=10.1111/1467-9450.00357 | year=2003| pmid=12887559 }}

{{Main|Suicide methods}}

The reported difference in suicide rates for males and females is partially a result of the methods used by each gender. Although females attempt suicide at a higher rate, they are more likely to use methods that are less immediately lethal. Males frequently die by suicide via high mortality actions such as hanging, carbon-monoxide poisoning, and firearms. This is in contrast to females, who tend to rely on drug overdosing.{{cite journal | author=Schrijvers, Didier | title=The gender paradox in suicidal behavior and its impact on the suicidal process | journal=Journal of Affective Disorders | volume=138 | issue=2 | pages=19–26 | doi=10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.050 | pmid=21529962 | year=2012}} While overdosing can be deadly, it is less immediate and therefore more likely to be caught before death occurs. In Europe, where the gender discrepancy is the greatest, a study found that the most frequent method of suicide among both genders was hanging; however, the use of hanging was significantly higher in males (54.3%) than in females (35.6%). The same study found that the second most common methods were firearms (9.7%) for men and poisoning by drugs (24.7%) for women.

Some research says that males using deadlier means to die by suicide cannot be the only reason for the gender disparity. One reason for this may be that men who try to commit suicide may have a stronger and more genuine will to end their own lives, while women engage in more "suicidal gestures".{{Cite journal|last1=Freeman|first1=Aislinné|last2=Mergl|first2=Roland|last3=Kohls|first3=Elisabeth|last4=Székely|first4=András|last5=Gusmao|first5=Ricardo|last6=Arensman|first6=Ella|last7=Koburger|first7=Nicole|last8=Hegerl|first8=Ulrich|last9=Rummel-Kluge|first9=Christine|date=2017-06-29|title=A cross-national study on gender differences in suicide intent|journal=BMC Psychiatry|volume=17|issue=1|pages=234|doi=10.1186/s12888-017-1398-8|issn=1471-244X|pmc=5492308|pmid=28662694 |doi-access=free }} Other research suggests that even when men and women use the same methods, men are still more likely to die from them.

In the United States, both the Department of Health and Human Services and the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention address different methods of reducing suicide, but do not recognize the separate needs of males and females. In 2002, the English Department of Health launched a suicide prevention campaign that was aimed at high-risk groups including young men, prisoners, and those with mental health disorders. The Campaign Against Living Miserably is a charity in the UK that attempts to highlight this issue for public discussion. Some studies have found that because young females are at a higher risk of attempting suicide, policies tailored towards this demographic are most effective at reducing overall rates. Researchers have also recommended more aggressive and long-term treatments and follow up for males that show indications of suicidal thoughts. Shifting cultural attitudes about gender roles and norms, and especially ideas about masculinity, may also contribute to closing the gender gap.{{cite journal | author=Thompson, Martie| title=Examining Gender Differences in Risk Factors for Suicide Attempts Made 1 and 7 Years Later in a Nationally Representative Sample | journal=Journal of Adolescent Health | volume=48 | issue=4 | pages=391–397 | doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.07.018| pmid=21402269 |display-authors=etal | year=2011}}

{{Further|List of countries by suicide rate}}

File:Suicides rates of men compared to those of women by country, OWID chart.png |access-date=25 May 2025 |language=en}}]]

File:Suicide death rates by sex, OWID.svg |access-date=25 May 2025}}]]

The incidence of suicide is vastly higher among males than females among all age groups in most of the world. {{as of|2015}}, almost two-thirds of worldwide suicides (representing about 1.5% of all deaths) are by men.{{cite journal|last1=((GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators))|title=Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.|journal=Lancet|date=8 October 2016|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1459–1544|pmid=27733281|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1|pmc=5388903}}

{{Main|Suicide in the United States}}

Since the 1950s, typically males die from suicide three to five times more often than females.{{cite web|title=Deaths by suicide per 100,000 resident population in the United States from 1950 to 2015, by gender|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/187478/death-rate-from-suicide-in-the-us-by-gender-since-1950/|publisher=statista.com|access-date=12 September 2017}}{{cite web|url=http://www.familyfirstaid.org/suicide.html|title=Teen Suicide Statistics|year=2001|publisher=FamilyFirstAid.org|work=Adolescent Teenage Suicide Prevention|access-date=2006-04-11}}{{cite journal | author=Murphy, George E. | title=Why Women are Less Likely Than Men to Commit Suicide | journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry | volume=39 | issue=4 | pages=165–175 | doi=10.1016/S0010-440X(98)90057-8 | pmid=9675500 | year=1998}} Use of mental health resources may be a significant contributor to the gender difference in suicide rates in the US. Studies have shown that females are 13–21% more likely than males to receive a psychiatric affective diagnosis.{{cite journal | author=Kung, Hsiang-Ching| title=Risk factors for male and female suicide decedents ages 15–64 in the United States | journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology | volume=38 | issue=8 | pages=419–426 | doi=10.1007/s00127-003-0656-x| pmid=12910337 |display-authors=etal | year=2003| s2cid=23269254 }} 72–89% of females who died by suicide had contact with a mental health professional at some point in their life and 41–58% of males who died by suicide had contact with a mental health professional.

Within the United States, there are variances in rates of suicide by ethnic group. For example, from 1999 to 2004, the rate of suicide for Native American adolescent males is nearly 20 per 100,000, while the rate for African-American females is roughly 1 per 100,000.{{cite journal|last=Goldston|first=David B.|author2=Sherry Davis Molock |author3=Leslie B. Whitbeck |author4=Jessica L. Murakami |author5=Luis H. Zayas |author6=Gordon C. Nagayama Hall |title=Cultural Considerations in Adolescent Suicide Prevention and Psychosocial Treatment|journal=American Psychologist|volume=63|issue=1|pages=14–31|doi=10.1037/0003-066x.63.1.14 |pmid=18193978 |pmc=2662358 |year=2008 |quote= "Evidence of racial and ethnic differences is readily apparent in the rates of lethal and nonlethal suicidal behaviors among different groups of adolescents. For example, as can be seen in Figure 1, the rate of suicide deaths among adolescents differs by a factor of 20 between the highest risk group (American Indian/Alaska Native males) and the lowest risk group (African American females). As can be seen in Figure 2, there is also a great deal of variability in rates of nonlethal suicide attempts. Specifically, suicide attempts are highest among American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) females, followed by Latinas, AI/AN males, and Asian American/Pacific Islander (AA/PI) females; suicide attempts are lowest among African American and White adolescent males."}} According to the CDC, as of 2013 the suicide rates of Whites and Native Americans are more than twice the rates of African Americans and Hispanics.{{cite web|url=https://www.afsp.org/understanding-suicide/facts-and-figures|title=Suicide Statistics|work=AFSP|date=2016-02-16|access-date=2015-10-30|archive-date=2015-04-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423173454/http://www.afsp.org/understanding-suicide/facts-and-figures}} However, whites have a lower suicide attempt rate than Hispanics, and black and white males had the lowest rate of suicide attempts.

The gender-suicide gap is generally highest in Western countries. Among the nations of Europe, the gender gap is particularly large in Eastern European countries such as Lithuania, Belarus, and Hungary. Some researchers attribute the higher rates in former Soviet countries to be a remnant of recent political instability. An increased focus on family led to females becoming more highly valued. Rapid economic fluctuations prevented males from providing fully for their families, which prevented them from fulfilling their traditional gender role. Combined, these factors could account for the gender gap.{{cite journal | author=Möller-Leimkühler, Anne Maria | title=The gender gap in suicide and premature death or: why are men so vulnerable? | journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience | volume=253 | issue=1 | pages= 1–8 | doi=10.1007/s00406-003-0397-6 | pmid=12664306 | date=Feb 2003| s2cid=23629557 }}{{cite journal | author=Varnik, A| title=Suicide methods in Europe: a gender-specific analysis of countries participating in the European Alliance Against Depression | journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Public Health | volume=62 | pages=545–551 | url= | issue=6 | doi=10.1136/jech.2007.065391| pmid=18477754 |display-authors=etal | year=2008| pmc=2569832}} Other research indicates that higher instances of alcoholism among males in these nations may be to blame.{{cite journal | author=Landburg, Jonas | title=Alcohol and Suicide in eastern Europe | journal=Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs | volume=27 | issue=4 | pages=361–373| doi=10.1080/09595230802093778 | pmid=18584385 | year=2008}} In 2014, suicides rates amongst under-45 men in UK reached a 15-year high of 78% of the total 5,140.{{cite news | title = 'A crisis of masculinity': men are struggling to cope with life | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/thinking-man/11238596/A-crisis-of-masculinity-men-are-struggling-to-cope-with-life.html|date=19 Nov 2014| access-date = 2014-11-20 | publisher = The Daily Telegraph| last1 = Men| first1 = Telegraph}}

A higher male mortality from suicide is also evident from data of non-Western countries: the Caribbean, often considered part of the West is the most prominent example. In 1979–81, out of 74 countries with a non-zero suicide rate, 69 countries had male suicide rates greater than females, two reported equal rates for the sexes (Seychelles and Kenya), while three reported female rates exceeding male rates (Papua New Guinea, Macau, and French Guiana).Lester, Patterns, Table 3.3, pp. 31-33 The contrast is even greater today, with WHO statistics showing China as the only country where the suicide rate of females matches or exceeds that of males.{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide_rates/en/ |title=WHO | Suicide rates per 100,000 by country, year and sex (Table) |access-date=November 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122021659/http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide_rates/en/ |archive-date=January 22, 2012 }} Barraclough found that the female rates of those aged 5–14 equaled or exceeded the male rates only in 14 countries, mainly in South America and Asia.{{cite journal |author=Barraclough BM |title=Sex ratio of juvenile suicide |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=434–5 |year=1987 |doi=10.1097/00004583-198705000-00027 |pmid=3496328 }}

In most countries, the majority of suicides are by men but in China, women are slightly more likely to die by suicide than men.Barlow, D. H., and V. M. Durand. Abnormal psychology, an integrative approach. Wadsworth Pub Co, 2011. Print. In 2015 China's ratio was around 8 males for every 10 females.{{cite web|title=2015 Suicide rates, age-standardized Data by country|url=http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.MHSUICIDEASDR?lang=en|publisher=WHO|access-date=11 September 2017}} According to the WHO, {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, the suicide rates in China for men and women were almost the same – 9.1 for male versus 10.3 for female (the rate is per 100,000 people).{{Cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.MHSUICIDEv?lang=en|title=GHO {{!}} By category {{!}} Suicide rate estimates, crude - Estimates by country|website=WHO|access-date=2019-06-22}}

Traditional gender roles in China hold women responsible for keeping the family happy and intact. Suicide for women in China is shown in literature to be an acceptable way to avoid disgrace that may be brought to themselves or their families. According to a 2002 review, the most common reasons for the difference in rate between genders are: "the lower status of Chinese women, love, marriage, marital infidelity, and family problems, the methods used to commit suicide, and mental health of Chinese women." Another explanation for increased suicide in women in China is that pesticides are easily accessible and tend to be used in many suicide attempts made by women.{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=J|last2=Jiang|first2=C|last3=Jia|first3=S|last4=Wieczorek|first4=WF|title=An Overview of Suicide Research in China.|journal=Archives of Suicide Research |date=2002|volume=6|issue=2|pages=167–184|doi=10.1080/13811110208951174|pmid=20686645|pmc=2913725}} The rate of nonlethal suicidal behavior is 40 to 60 percent higher in women than it is in men. This is due to the fact that more women are diagnosed as depressed than men, and also that depression is correlated with suicide attempts. However, thanks to urbanization, suicide rates in China – for both women and men – have dropped by 64% from 1990 to 2016.{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/drop-suicide-rate-china-fuels-global-fall-deaths/|title=Drop in suicide rate in China fuels global fall in deaths|last=Anne Gulland|first=Global health security correspondent|website=The Telegraph|date=8 June 2019|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-06-22}}

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