geothermal energy in the United States

File:GeysersGeothermalDrilling1977.jpg in California, 1977]]

Archaeological evidence documents that geothermal resources have been in use in the US for more than 10,000 years. Paleo-Indians first used geothermal hot springs for warmth, cleansing, and minerals.{{Cite web |title=Geo-energy.org |url=http://www.geo-energy.org/publications/reports/Environmental+Guide.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012125308/http://www.geo-energy.org/publications/reports/Environmental%20Guide.pdf |archivedate=October 12, 2007 |website=www.geo-energy.org}}

Pacific Gas and Electric opened the US' first commercial geothermal power plant at The Geysers in California in September 1960, initially producing eleven megawatts of net power. The Geysers system grew into the world's largest, with an output of 750 MW. It exploits the largest dry steam field, {{convert|116|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of San Francisco.{{Citation |last=Lund |first=J. |title=100 Years of Geothermal Power Production |date=September 2004 |url=http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull25-3/art2.pdf |periodical=Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=11–19 |access-date=2009-04-13 |location=Klamath Falls, Oregon |publisher=Oregon Institute of Technology |issn=0276-1084 |archive-date=June 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617221828/http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull25-3/art2.pdf |url-status=dead }} The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years.{{Cite journal |last1=McLarty |first1=Lynn |last2=Reed |first2=Marshall J. |date=October 1992 |title=The U.S. Geothermal Industry: Three Decades of Growth |url=http://geotherm.inel.gov/publications/articles/mclarty/mclarty-reed.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects |location=London |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=443–455 |doi=10.1080/00908319208908739 |issn=1556-7230 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516221028/http://geotherm.inel.gov/publications/articles/mclarty/mclarty%2Dreed.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-16}}

Near Several small power plants were built during the late 1980s in the Basin and Range geologic province in Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, Arizona and western Utah. is now an area of rapid geothermal development.{{cite web |title=Geothermal Resources |url=https://www.nvenergy.com/cleanenergy/renewable-energy-portfolio/geothermal-resources |access-date=9 March 2020 |publisher=NV Energy}}

In the Salton Sea, as of 2001, 15 geothermal plants were producing electricity. Hudson Ranch I geothermal plant, a 50 MW plant opened in May 2012. A second similar plant was to open in 2013.[http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/05/49-9-mw-hudson-ranch-i-geothermal-plant-unveiled-in-calif# 49.9-MW Hudson Ranch I Geothermal Plant Unveiled in California], Meg Cichon, RenewableEnergyWorld.com

File:Geothermal_resource_map_US.png

The most significant development catalyst is the Energy Policy Act of 2005. This Act made new geothermal plants eligible for the full federal production tax credit, previously available only to wind power projects and certain kinds of biomass. It also authorized and directed increased funding for research by the Department of Energy, and enabled the Bureau of Land Management to address its backlog of geothermal leases and permits.{{Cite web|url=http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/partner/story?id=48465|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070527134625/http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/partner/story?id=48465|url-status=usurped|title=6 Million American Households to be Powered by Geothermal Energy, New Survey Reports|archivedate=May 27, 2007|website=renewableenergyaccess.com}}

In April 2008, exploratory drilling began at Newberry Volcano in Oregon.{{cite news |author=Gail Kinsey-Hill |date=2008-06-03 |title=Company Seeks Power From Crater |page=B2 |publisher=Vancouver Sun}} As of August 2008, 103 new projects were under way in 13 US states. When developed, these projects could potentially supply up to 3,979 MW of power, meeting the needs of about 4 million homes.{{Cite web |title=News Archives |url=https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/news/ |website=Renewable Energy World}} The DOE Geothermal Technologies Program (part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009) allowed the USDOE to fund research in Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) to learn more about the fracture systems in geothermal reservoirs and better predict the results of reservoir stimulation.

In 2009, investment bank Credit Suisse calculated that geothermal power costs 3.6 cents per kilowatt-hour, versus 5.5 cents per kilowatt-hour for coal, if geothermal receives subsidized loans.Christopher Mims [http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=can-geothermal-power-compete-with-coal-on-price “Can Geothermal Power Compete with Coal on Price?”] Scientific American, 2 March 2009. Web. 9 Oct. 2009.

A report released in late May 2019 by the Department of Energy suggests that US geothermal power capacity could increase by more than twenty-six times by 2050, reaching a capacity of 60 GW, thanks to accelerated technological development and adoption. The report documented the benefits of geothermal power for residential and industrial heating.{{Cite web |date=May 30, 2019 |title=DOE Releases New Study Highlighting the Untapped Potential of Geothermal Energy in the United States |url=https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-releases-new-study-highlighting-untapped-potential-geothermal-energy-united-states |access-date=June 3, 2019 |website=U.S. Department of Energy}} Energy Secretary Rick Perry announced his Department had provided funding for a $140-million research facility at the University of Utah on man-made geothermal energy.{{Cite news |last=McCombs |first=Brady |date=May 30, 2019 |title=Trump administration doubles down on fossil fuels |work=Associated Press (via LA Times) |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-trump-rick-perry-fossil-fuels-protest-20190530-story.html |access-date=June 3, 2019}}

In 2018 the Department of Energy (DOE), launched the Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE).{{Cite magazine |last=Barber |first=Gregory |title=A Vast Untapped Green Energy Source Is Hiding Beneath Your Feet |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/a-vast-untapped-green-energy-source-is-hiding-beneath-your-feet/ |access-date=2023-08-08 |issn=1059-1028}}

In 2018, due to volcanic activity the Puna Geothermal Venture in Hawaii had to be closed and was inundated by lava flows.{{Cite web |date=28 May 2018 |title=Ash reaches nearly 15,000 feet after latest explosion at Halemaumau Crater |url=http://www.staradvertiser.com/2018/05/27/breaking-news/lava-speeds-up-takes-aim-at-puna-geothermal-wells/}} It reopened in November 2020.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2020/11/12/puna-geothermal-venture-goes-back-online/|title=Puna Geothermal Venture Goes Back Online|website=www.bigislandvideonews.com}}

In 2023, Houston-based startup Fervo began sending electricity to the grid from its 3.5 MW enhanced geothermal system Project Red. The project used horizontal drilling to drill two wells and access additional thermal resources. The company began drilling for a 400 MW project involving 100 wells in Beaver County, Utah.{{Cite web |last=Gallucci |first=Maria |date=2023-11-28 |title=America's first 'enhanced' geothermal plant just got up and running |url=https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/geothermal/americas-first-enhanced-geothermal-plant-just-got-up-and-running |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=Canary Media |language=en}} In 2024 the company announced a 70% YoY reduction in drilling times, achieving 70 ft/hr in granite and >{{Convert|430|F|abbr=on}}.{{Cite web |last=Fervo Energy |date=2024-02-12 |title=Fervo Energy Drilling Results Show Rapid Advancement of Geothermal Performance |url=https://fervoenergy.com/fervo-energy-drilling-results-show-rapid-advancement-of-geothermal-performance/ |access-date=2024-02-12 |website=fervoenergy.com |language=en-US}}

File:2015-04-17_Geothermal_Capacity.jpg

{{see also|List of geothermal power stations in the United States}}

With 3,900 MW of installed geothermal capacity as of 2023, the US remains the world leader with about 25% of the online capacity total.{{Cite web |last=GeoEnergy |first=Think |date=2024-01-08 |title=ThinkGeoEnergy’s Top 10 Geothermal Countries 2023 – Power Generation Capacity |url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/thinkgeoenergys-top-10-geothermal-countries-2023-power-generation-capacity/ |access-date=2024-05-29 |language=en-US}} The future outlook for expanded production from conventional and enhanced geothermal systems is positive as new technologies promise increased growth in locations previously not considered.

Geothermal production in terrawatt hours (TWh) by state as of December 2023[https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/geothermal/use-of-geothermal-energy.php Geothermal explained], U.S. Energy Information Administration, April 3, 2024, accessed June 25, 2024[https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/archive/february2024.pdf Table 1.16.B. Utility Scale Facility Net Generation from Geothermal by State], U.S. Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Monthly, February 2024, accessed June 25, 2024

The Geysers has 1517 megawatt (MW){{cite book |last1=DiPippo |first1=Ronald |title=Geothermal Power Plants, Second Edition: Principles, Applications, Case Studies and Environmental Impact |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7506-8620-4}} of active installed capacity with an average capacity factor of 63%.{{Citation |last1=Lund |first1=John W. |title=Archived copy |date=24–29 April 2005 |access-date=2009-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927160419/http://www.osti.gov/geothermal/servlets/purl/895237-Vp8ett/895237.pdf |url-status=dead |series=Proceedings World Geothermal Congress |contribution=The United States of America Country Update |contribution-url=http://www.osti.gov/geothermal/servlets/purl/895237-Vp8ett/895237.pdf |place=Antalya, Turkey |archive-date=2012-09-27 |last2=Bloomquist |first2=R. Gordon |last3=Boyd |first3=Tonya L. |last4=Renner |first4=Joel}} Calpine Corporation owns 15 of the 18 active plants in the Geysers and is the US' largest producer of geothermal energy.All figures adjusted to include recently reopened Bottle Rock Power plant. Two other plants are owned jointly by the Northern California Power Agency{{Cite web |title=NCPA {{!}} Northern California Power Agency |url=http://www.ncpa.com/ |access-date=2022-04-07 |language=en-US}} and Silicon Valley Power.{{Cite web |date=2007-10-11 |title=Electric Utility |url=http://ci.santa-clara.ca.us/pub_utility/eu_index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011041342/http://ci.santa-clara.ca.us/pub_utility/eu_index.html |archive-date=11 October 2007 |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=}} The remaining Bottle Rock Power Plant is owned by the US Renewables Group.{{cite news |last=Baker |first=David R. |date=January 14, 2007 |title=Steamy industry may clear the air |page=F-1 |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |location=Lake County |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2007/01/14/BUGV2NHQP61.DTL |access-date=2009-11-09}} A nineteenth plant is under development by Ram Power. The Geysers is recharged by injecting treated sewage effluent from the City of Santa Rosa and the Lake County sewage treatment plant. This effluent used to be dumped into rivers and streams and is now piped to the geothermal field where it replenishes the steam produced for power generation.

File:Davis-Schrimpf Seep Field.jpg near the Salton Sea]]

Another major geothermal area is located in south central California, on the southeast side of the Salton Sea, near Niland and Calipatria, California. 15 geothermal plants combine for a capacity of about 570 MW. CalEnergy owns about half of them and the rest are owned by various companies.

The Basin and Range geologic province in Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, Arizona and western Utah hosts 19 geothermal power plants in Nevada that produce more than 486 MW. The largest plant is the McGinnis Hills facility operated by Ormat with a capacity of 96 MW. Other geothermal plants in Nevada are at Steamboat Springs, Brady/Desert Peak, Dixie Valley, Soda Lake, Stillwater and Beowawe.

Puna Geothermal Venture operates a geothermal power plant in Puna, Hawaii. Its capacity is 25.7 MWe. The plant reopened in 2020 following Kilauea's 2018 eruption that destroyed part of the plant.{{Cite web |last=Dobbyn |first=Paula |date=2023-07-08 |title=Puna Geothermal Plant Runs Into Problems Ramping Up Production |url=https://www.civilbeat.org/2023/07/puna-geothermal-plant-runs-into-problems-ramping-up-production/ |access-date=2023-08-07 |website=Honolulu Civil Beat |language=en}}

File:McGinness_Hills_Pipelines_with_Expansion_Joints.jpg in Nevada]]

Unlike power sources such as wind and solar, geothermal energy is dispatchable, meaning that it is both available whenever needed, and can quickly adjust output to match demand. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), of all types of new electrical generation plants, geothermal generators have the highest capacity factor, a measure of how much power a facility actually generates as a percent of its maximum capacity.US Energy Information Administration, [http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/electricity_generation.cfm Levelized cost of new generation resources], Annual Energy Outlook 2013, 15 April 2013.

The EIA rates new geothermal plants as having a 92% capacity factor, comparable to those of nuclear (90%), and higher than gas (87%), or coal (85%), and much higher than those of intermittent sources such as onshore wind (34%) or solar photovoltaic (25%).US Energy Information Administration, [http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/electricity_generation.cfm Levelized cost of new generation resources], Annual Energy Outlook 2013, 15 April 2013. While the carrier medium for geothermal electricity (water) must be properly managed, the source of geothermal energy, the Earth's heat, will be available, for most intents and purposes, indefinitely.[http://www.geo-energy.org/publications/reports/Geo101_Final_Feb_15.pdf Geothermal 101: Basics of Geothermal Energy Production and Use] p. 5 & 7. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306185229/http://www.geo-energy.org/publications/reports/Geo101_Final_Feb_15.pdf|date=March 6, 2009}}

The US operates the National Geothermal Data System (NGDS). Through the NGDS, many older paper archives and drill logs stored at state geological surveys are now being digitized and made available for free to the public.[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-geothermal-data-system/ "New Geothermal Data System Could Open Up Clean-Energy Reserves"]. Scientific American, William Ferguson on February 25, 2013

{{blockquote|The initial cost for the field and power plant is around $2500 per installed kW in the U.S., probably $3000 to $5000/kWe for a small (<1Mwe) power plant. Operating and maintenance costs range from $0.01 to $0.03 per kWh.{{Cite web |title=Geothermal FAQs |website=Energy.gov |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/geothermal-faqs |access-date=2022-04-07}}|US Department of Energy, 2022}}

The underground hot water and steam used to generate geothermal power may contain chemical pollutants, such as hydrogen sulfide ({{Chem|H|2|S}}).

{{Chem|H|2|S}} is toxic in high concentrations, and is sometimes found in geothermal systems.McFarland, Ernest L. “Geothermal Energy.” Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. Ed. Ed John Zumerchik. Vol. 2. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2001. 572-579. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 9 Oct. 2009. Newer production methods separate the hot steam collected underground from the steam used to power turbines, and substantially reduce the risk of releasing contaminants.Raser Technologies - [http://www.rasertech.com/geothermal/geothermal-multimedia/geothermal-process-animation-video How Modular Geothermal Power Generation Works] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703153801/http://www.rasertech.com/geothermal/geothermal-multimedia/geothermal-process-animation-video|date=2011-07-03}}

The water mixed with the steam contains dissolved salts that can damage pipes and harm aquatic ecosystems.“Alternative Energy Sources.” UXL Encyclopedia of Science. Ed. Rob Nagel. 2nd ed. Detroit: UXL, 2007. Student Resource Center Gold. Web. 9 Oct. 2009. Some subsurface water associated with geothermal sources contains high concentrations of toxic elements such as boron, lead, and arsenic.

Injection of water in enhanced geothermal systems may induce seismicity. Earthquakes at the Geysers geothermal field in California, the largest being Richter magnitude 4.6, have been linked to injected water.Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, [http://esd.lbl.gov/research/projects/induced_seismicity/egs/geysers_risk.html The Geysers]

"Possible effects include scenery spoliation, drying out of hot springs, soil erosion, noise pollution, and chemical pollution of the atmosphere and of surface- and groundwaters."{{cite journal |last=Arnórsson |first=Stefán |year=2004 |title=Environmental impact of geothermal energy utilization |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/236/1/297.abstract |journal=Special Publications |publisher=The Geological Society of London |volume=236 |issue=1 |pages=297–336 |bibcode=2004GSLSP.236..297A |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2004.236.01.18 |s2cid=131145568 |access-date=2013-09-23}}

{{Portal|Renewable energy|Energy|Environment|United States

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• Geothermal desalination
• Geothermal Energy Association
• Geothermal Resources Council
• :Commons:Category:Maps of geothermal resources of the United States
• List of hot springs in the United States

US renewables:

• Renewable energy in the United States
• Biofuel in the United States
• Hydroelectric power in the United States
• Solar power in the United States
• Wind power in the United States

International:

• List of renewable energy topics by country

• GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), [http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/9699 Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State], World Sci. Pub. Co., {{ISBN|978-981-4704-00-7}}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070504012744/http://geo-energy.org/aboutGE/currentUse.asp Geothermal Energy Association]
• [http://www.geothermal.org/ Geothermal Resources Council]
• [http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2007/08/geothermal-lease-auction-signals-new-trend-in-u-s-49693 Geothermal Lease Auction Signals New Trend in US]
• [http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/podcast/2007/10/the-status-of-the-u-s-geothermal-industry-50173 The Status of the US Geothermal Industry]
• [http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2007/10/scaling-geothermal-for-reliable-baseload-power-50159 Scaling Geothermal for Reliable Baseload Power]
• [http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2008/10/technological-innovation-driving-renewed-interest-in-geothermal-energy-53805 Technological Innovation Driving Renewed Interest in Geothermal Energy]
• [http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2008/10/interior-department-to-open-190-million-acres-to-geothermal-power-53980 Interior Department To Open 190 Million Acres to Geothermal Power]
• [http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/01/raser-ready-to-deliver-power-from-thermo-plant-54505 Raser Ready to Deliver Power from Thermo Plant]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070904230627/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/history.html A History of Geothermal Energy in the United States]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20091215151504/http://www.renewableenergybenefits.com/2009/12/geothermal-energy-in-united-states.html Geothermal energy prospect in the United States]
• [http://www.higp.hawaii.edu/hggrc/ Hawaii Groundwater & Geothermal Resources Center by the University of Hawaii at Manoa]
• [http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/21320 The Geothermal Collection by UH Manoa]
• [https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/nc72737985#executive M 5.0 - 8km NW of The Geysers, California] – United States Geological Survey

{{Geothermal power}}{{Renewable energy by country}}