happiness at work

Ryan and Deci offer a definition for happiness in two views: happiness as being hedonic, accompanied with enjoyable feelings and desirable judgements, and happiness as being eudemonic, which involves doing virtuous, moral and meaningful things.{{Cite journal |url = http://aging.wisc.edu/pdfs/1808.pdf |title = Know thyself and become what you are: a eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being |date = 2006 |journal = Journal of Happiness Studies |volume = 9 |pages = 13–39 |access-date = 6 November 2016 |doi = 10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0 |last1 = Ryff |first1 = Carol D. |last2 = Singer |first2 = Burton H. |s2cid = 5677286 |archive-date = 20 October 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161020021354/http://aging.wisc.edu/pdfs/1808.pdf |url-status = dead }} Watson et al. claims that the most important approach to explain an individual's experience is in a hedonic tone,{{cite web|url = http://www.psychology.uniowa.edu/faculty/Clark/PANAS-X.pdf|title = the PANAS-X: manual for the positive and negative affect schedule|last = watson and clark}}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} which is concerned with the subject's pleasant feelings, satisfying judgments, self-validation and self-actualization.{{Cite book|title = work, happiness, and unhappiness|last = warr|publisher = lawrence erlbaum|year = 2007|location = Mahwah, NJ}} However, some psychologists argue that hedonic happiness is unstable over a long period of time, especially in the absence of eudaimonic well-being.{{Cite journal|title = Happiness at Work|journal = International Journal of Management Reviews|date = 2010-12-01|issn = 1468-2370|pages = 384–412|volume = 12|issue = 4|doi = 10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00270.x|language = en|first = Cynthia D. |last= Fisher|s2cid = 145683925}} Thus, in order for one to live a happy life one must be concerned with doing virtuous, moral and meaningful things while utilising personal talents and skills.

{{Main|Organisational culture}}

Organisational culture represents the internal work environment created for operating an organisation. It can also represent how employees are treated by their bosses and peers. An effective organisation should have a culture that takes into account employee's happiness and encourages employee satisfaction.{{Cite journal|title = Impact Of Employee Participation On Job Satisfaction, Employee Commitment And Employee Productivity |author1=Bhatti, K. K. |author2=Qureshi, T. M. |date = June 2007|journal = International Review of Business Research Papers |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=54–68}} Although each individual has unique talents and personal preferences, the behaviors and beliefs of the people in the same organizations show common properties.{{Cite journal |title=Some relationship between job satisfaction and organizational climate |date=1975 |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |pages=318–328 |volume=60 |issue=3 |doi=10.1037/h0076756|last1=Schneider |first1=Benjamin |last2=Snyder |first2=Robert A. }} This, to some extent, helps organisations to create their own cultural properties.

Jarow concludes that an employee feels satisfied not through comparisons with other peers, but through his/her own happiness and awareness of being in harmony with their colleagues.{{Cite journal|title = Antykariera - w poszukiwaniu pracy zycia. Czy trzeba orzegrac swiat zeby wygrac dusze?|last = Jarow, R. |date = 1999|journal = Nowy Marketing}} He uses a term called "carrier" to represent lack of happiness, life in constant tension and never-ending struggle for status.

{{see also|Well-being contributing factors#Personal finances}}

There are many reasons that can contribute to happiness at work. However, when individuals are asked with regards to why they work, money is one of the most common answers{{cite journal | last1 = Jurgensen | first1 = C. E. | year = 1978 | title = Job preferences (What makes a job good or bad?) | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 63 | issue = 3| pages = 267–76 | doi = 10.1037/0021-9010.63.3.267}} as it provides people with sustenance, security and privilege. To a large extent, people work to live, and the pecuniary aspect of the work is what sustains the living. Locke, Feren, McCaleb Shaw and Denny argued that no other incentive or motivational technique comes even close to money with respect to its instrumental value.Locke, E. A., Feren, D. B., McCaleb, V. M., Shaw, K. N., & Denny, A. T. (1980). The relative effectiveness of four methods of motivating employee performance. In K. D. Duncan, M. M. Gruenberg, & D. Wallis (Eds.), Changes in working life (pp. 363−388). New York: Wiley.

The income-happiness relationship in life can also be applied in organisational psychology. Some studies have found positively significant relationships between salary level and job satisfaction.{{cite journal | last1 = Beutell | first1 = N. J. | last2 = Wittig-Berman | first2 = U. | year = 1999 | title = Predictors of work–family conflict and satisfaction with family, job, career, and life | journal = Psychological Reports | volume = 85 | issue = 3| pages = 893–903 | doi = 10.2466/pr0.1999.85.3.893 }} Some have suggested that income and happiness at work are positively correlated, and the relationship is stronger for individuals with extrinsic value orientations.{{cite journal | last1 = Malka | first1 = A. | last2 = Chatman | first2 = J. A. | year = 2003 | title = Intrinsic and extrinsic orientations as moderators of the effect of annual income on subjective well-being: A longitudinal study | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 29 | issue = 6| pages = 737–746 | doi=10.1177/0146167203029006006| pmid = 15189629 | s2cid = 22104465 }}

However, others don't believe that salary, in itself, is a very strong factor in job satisfaction.Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hundreds of studies and scores of systematic reviews of incentive studies consistently document the ineffectiveness of external rewards.Pfeffer, J. (1998). The human equation: Building profits by putting people first. Boston: Harvard Business School. The question regarding this subject has been recently studied by a group of people, including Judge and his colleagues. Their research shows that the intrinsic relationship between job and salary is complex. In their research, they analysed the combined impact of many existing studies to produce a much larger and statistically powerful analysis. By looking at 86 previous studies, they concluded that while it is true to say that money is a driver of employee's happiness, the produced effect is transitory. Judge and his colleagues have reminded us that money may not necessarily make employees happy.{{cite journal |year=2010|title=The relationship between pay and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis of the literature|journal=Journal of Vocational Behavior|volume=77|issue=2|pages=157–167|doi=10.1016/j.jvb.2010.04.002|last1=Judge|first1=Timothy A.|last2=Piccolo|first2=Ronald F.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|last4=Shaw|first4=John C.|last5=Rich|first5=Bruce L.|s2cid=59445977 }}

{{Main|Job security}}

Job security is an important factor to determine whether employees feel happiness at work. Different types of jobs have different levels of job security: in some situations, a position is expected to be offered for a long time, whereas in other jobs an employee may be forced to resign his/ her job.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W755AgAAQBAJ&q=978-0-8058-5710-8&pg=PR4 |last1=Warr|first1=Peter.B|title=Work, Happiness, and Unhappiness|date=2007|publisher=Erlbaum|location=Mahwah, NJ [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-8058-5710-8|page=133|access-date=1 September 2015}}{{cite journal |jstor=256569|last1=Ashford|first1=S|last2=Lee|first2=C|last3=Bobko|first3=P|title=Content, Causes, and Consequences of Job Insecurity: A Theory-Based Measure and Substantive Test |journal=Academy of Management Journal|date=1989|volume=32|issue=4|pages=803–829 }} The expectation of the job availability has been related with the job-related well-being{{cite journal |title=Work characteristics and employee health and well-being: Test of a model of healthy work organization|journal=Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology|date=2004|volume=77|issue=4 |pages=565–588 |doi=10.1348/0963179042596522|last1=Wilson|first1=Mark G.|last2=Dejoy|first2=David M.|last3=Vandenberg|first3=Robert J.|last4=Richardson|first4=Hettie A.|last5=McGrath|first5=Allison L.}} and a higher level of job security corresponds to a higher level of job satisfaction alongside a higher level of well-being.{{cite journal|last1=Sverke|first1=M.|last2=Hellgren|first2=J.|last3=Naswall|first3=K.|title=No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences |journal=Journal of Occupational Health Psychology|date=2005|volume=7|issue=3|pages=242–264|doi=10.1037/1076-8998.7.3.242|pmid=12148956}}

The option for moving or shifting to alternative roles motivates the employee's participation in the workplace{{cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=A. E. |last2=Oswald|first2=A. J. |title=Satisfaction and comparison income|journal=Journal of Public Economics|date=1996|volume=61|issue=3 |pages=359–381|doi=10.1016/0047-2727(95)01564-7|citeseerx=10.1.1.25.5747 }} meaning if an employee can see the future potential for a promotion, motivation levels will increase. By contrast, if an organisation does not provide any potential for higher status position in the future, the employee's effectiveness in work will decrease. In addition, the employee may consider whether or not the position would be offered to them in the future. On the other hand, not all of the opportunities for transferring into another activity are aimed to obtain the upward movement. In some cases, they are aimed to prevent the skills obsolescence, provides more future career possibility, as well as directly increasing the skill development.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W755AgAAQBAJ&q=978-0-8058-5710-8&pg=PR4 |last1=Warr|first1=Peter|title=Work, happiness, and unhappiness|date=2007|publisher=Erlbaum|location=Mahwah, NJ [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-8058-5710-8|page=134|access-date=10 September 2015}}

{{Main|Job control (workplace)}}

Job autonomy may be defined as the condition of being self-governing or free from excessive external control in the workplace environment. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant believed that autonomy is important to human beings because it is the foundation of human dignity and the source of all morality.{{cite book|last1=Hill |first1=Thomas E. Jr.|title=Autonomy and self-respect|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge [England]|isbn=9780521397728|edition=1st}} Among the models of human growth and development that are centred on autonomy, the most theoretically sophisticated approach has been developed around the concepts of self-regulation and intrinsic motivation. Self-determination theory proposes that 'higher behavioural effectiveness, greater volitional persistence, enhanced subjective well-being, and better assimilation of the individual within his or her social group' result when individuals act from motivations that emanate from the inner self (intrinsic motivation) rather than from sources of external regulation.{{cite journal|last1=Ryan|first1=Richard M. |last2=Deci|first2=Edward L. |title=Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being |journal=American Psychologist|date=2000|volume=55|issue=1|pages=68–78|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68|pmid=11392867 |citeseerx=10.1.1.529.4370 }} For self-determination theorists, it is the experience of an external locus of causation (or the belief that one's actions are controlled by external forces) that undermines the most powerful source of natural motivation and that (when chronic) also can lead to stultification, weak self-esteem, anxiety and depression, and alienation. Thus, health and well-being as well as effective performance in social settings are closely related to the experience of autonomy. Hackman and Oldham developed the Job Characteristics Model, a framework that focused attention on autonomy and four other key factors involved in designing enriched work. Work designed to be complex and challenging (characterized by high levels of autonomy, skill variety, identity, significance, and feedback) was theorized to promote high intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, and overall work performance.{{cite journal|last1=Hackman|first1=J.Richard|last2=Oldham|first2=Greg R.|author2-link=Greg Oldham |title=Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Performance|date=August 1976|volume=16|issue=2|pages=250–279|doi=10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7|s2cid=8618462 }} Two decades of research in this tradition have shown that job scope or complexity, an additive combination of autonomy and the four other job characteristics: (a) is correlated significantly with more objective ratings of job characteristics; (b) may be reduced to a primary factor consisting of autonomy and skill variety; and (c) has substantial effects on affective and behavioural reactions to work, mostly indirectly through critical psychological states such as experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work. It is possible to infer from this line of research that the experience of autonomy at work has positive consequences ranging from higher job performance to job satisfaction and enhanced general well-being, which are both related to the concept of happiness at work. However, Dysvik and Kuvaas highlight that employees with lower intrinsic motivation may require more structure and support to perform well.{{Cite journal |last=Dysvik |first=Anders |last2=Kuvaas |first2=Bård |date=2011-06-01 |title=Intrinsic motivation as a moderator on the relationship between perceived job autonomy and work performance |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13594321003590630 |journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=367–387 |doi=10.1080/13594321003590630 |issn=1359-432X|hdl=11250/93644 |hdl-access=free }} This complexity is further illustrated by the findings of Preenen et al., who noted that job autonomy's effects on performance indicators such as motivation to learn and commitment are moderated by the maturity of the company.{{Cite journal |last=Preenen |first=Paul T. Y. |last2=Oeij |first2=Peter R. A. |last3=Dhondt |first3=Steven |last4=Kraan |first4=Karolus O. |last5=Jansen |first5=Emma |date=2016 |title=Why job autonomy matters for young companies' performance: company maturity as a moderator between job autonomy and company performance |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/ids/wremsd/v12y2016i1p74-100.html |journal=World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=74–100}}

{{Main|Work–life balance}}

Work–life balance is a state of equilibrium, characterised by a high level of satisfaction, functionality, and effectiveness while successfully performing several tasks simultaneously.{{cite journal | last1 = Journal | last2 = Tausig | first2 = M. | last3 = Fenwick | first3 = R. | year = 2001 | title = Unbinding Time: Alternate Work Schedules and Work–Life Balance | journal = Journal of Family and Economic Issues | volume = 22 | page = 2 }} The non-work activity is not limited to family life only but also to various occupations and activities of which one's life is composed. Scholars and popular press articles have started promoting the importance of maintaining a work–life balance beginning in the early 1970s and have been increasing ever since.White, M., Hill, S., McGoven, P., Mills, C., Smeaton, D. (2003). 'High- Performance' Management Practices, Working Hours and Work–Life Balance. British Journal of International Relations. Vol. 41 No. 2. Retrieved August 18, 2015 . Studies suggestCarponi, P J. (1997). Work/Life Balance: You Can't Get There From Here. Journal of Applied Behavioural Science. Vol. 33. No. 1 pp. 46-56. Retrieved August 20, 2015. that there is a clear connection between the increase in work related stress to the constant advancements in digital and telecommunications technology. The existence of cell phones and other internet based devices enables access to work related issues in non- working periods, thus, adding more hours and work load. A decrease in the time allocated to non- work related activities and working nonstandard shifts has been proven to have significant negative effects on family and personal life. The immediate effect is a decrease in general well- being as the individual is unable to properly allocate the appropriate amount of time necessary to maintain a balance between the two spheres. Therefore, extensive research has been done on properly managing time as a main strategy of managing stress. It is estimated by the American Psychological AssociationCarlopio, J., Andrewartha, G., (2012). Developing Management Skills: A Comprehensive Guide for Leaders (pp. 129-171,). 5th Ed. Sydney, NSW: Pearson

that the national cost of stress for the US economy is approximately US$500 billion annually.

Research recommends there are five stressors related to the workplace (perceived job intensity, limited workspace, technostress, work interdependence, and professional isolation) and three stressors unrelated to the workplace (intensity of housework, care work, and emotional demands).{{Cite journal |last1=Shirmohammadi |first1=Melika |last2=Chan Au |first2=Wee |last3=Beigi |first3=Mina |date=December 2022 |title=Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Life Balance While Working from Home: A Review of the Research Conducted During the COVID-19 Pandemic |journal=Human Resource Development Review |language=en |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=473–516 |doi=10.1177/15344843221125834 |issn=1534-4843 |pmc=9535461}}

Some of the physiological effects of stress include cognitive problems (forgetfulness, lack of creativity, inefficient decision making), emotional reactions (mood swings, irritability, depression, lack of motivation), behavioural issues (withdrawal from relationships and social situations, neglecting responsibilities, abuse of drugs and alcohol) and physical symptoms (tiredness, aches and pain, loss of libido).{{cite web|url = http://www.medicinenet.com/stress_and_heart_disease/page2.htm|title = Heart Disease and Stress|access-date = 2015-08-18|website = Medicine Net}}

The condition in which work performance is negatively affected by a high level of stress is termed 'burnout', in which the employee experiences a significant reduction in motivation. According to Vroom's Expectancy Theory, when the outcomes of work performance are offset by the negative impacts on the individual's general well-being, or, are not valued enough by the employee, levels of motivation are low.{{Cite journal |url=http://www.cs.unca.edu/~manns/MotivationExpectancyTheory.pdf |title=Leadership and Motivation: The Effective Application of Expectancy Theory |author1=Isaac, R G. |author2=Zerbe, W J. |author3=Pitt, D C. |date=2001 |journal=Journal of Managerial Issues |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=212–226 |access-date=2015-08-28}} Time management, prioritising certain tasks and actions according to one's values and beliefs are amongst the suggested course of action for managing stress and maintaining a healthy work–life balance. Psychologists have suggested that when workers have control over their work schedule, they are more capable of balancing work and non- work related activities. The difficulty of distinguishing and balancing between those spheres was defined by sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild as Time Bind.{{Cite journal |url=http://www3.uakron.edu/publications/tausigunbindingtime.pdf |title=Unbinding Time: Alternate Work Schedules and Work–Life Balance |author1=Tausig, M. |author2=Fenwick, R. |journal=Journal of Family and Economic Issues |volume=22 |issue=2 |date=Summer 2001 |pages=101–119 |doi=10.1023/A:1016626028720 |s2cid=145264943 |access-date=2015-09-21 |archive-date=13 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313062906/http://www3.uakron.edu/publications/tausigunbindingtime.pdf |url-status=dead }} The reality of constant increase in competition and economic uncertainty frequently forces the employee to compromise the balance for the sake of financial and job security. Therefore, work–life balance policies are created by many businesses and are largely implemented and dealt by line managers and supervisors, rather than at the organizational level{{Cite journal|url = http://trap.ncirl.ie/961/1/Work-life_balance_policy_and_practice_article.pdf|title = Work–Life Balance Policy and Practice: Understanding Line Manager Attitudes and Behaviors|last1 = McCarthy |first1=A. |last2=Darcy |first2=C. |last3=Grady |first3=G. |date = 2010|journal = Human Resource Management Review |volume=20 |issue = 2|pages=158–167 |doi = 10.1016/j.hrmr.2009.12.001|hdl = 10379/12717|access-date = 2015-09-21|hdl-access = free }} as the employee's well-being can be more carefully observed and monitored.

According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, feeling a sense of belonging to groups is a significant motivation for human beings. Co-workers are an important social group and relationships with them can be a source of pleasure.{{cite book|last1=Hodson|first1=Christine|title=Psychology and Work|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=USA|isbn=978-0-415-22773-5|page=30}} Three Need theory also suggests that people have a Need for affiliation. Also, person-job fit, the matching between personal abilities and job demand, has important effects on job satisfaction.{{cite journal|last1=Peng|first1=Yuwen|last2=Mao|first2=Chao|title=The Impact of Person–Job Fit on Job Satisfaction: The Mediator Role of Self Efficacy|journal=Social Indicators Research|date=3 June 2014|volume=121|issue=3|pages=805–813|doi=10.1007/s11205-014-0659-x|s2cid=144342670}}{{cite web |title=Happiness at Work: 10 Tips for How to be Happy at Work |url=https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/happiness-at-work/ |website=positivepsychologyprogram.com |access-date=3 February 2019 |date=25 January 2019}}

Herzberg's Two-Factor theory indicates that co-workers relationship belongs to hygiene needs, which are related to environmental elements. When environmental elements are met, satisfaction will be achieved. Employees tend to be happier and more hardworking when they are in good working environment, for instance, being happy to work in a good working relationship.{{cite book|last1=Hodson|first1=Christine|title=Psychology and Work|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=USA|isbn=978-0-415-22773-5|page=36}}

Group relationship is important and has effects on employees' absenteeism and turnover rate. Cohesive groups increase job satisfactions. Mann and Baumgartel state that the sense of group belongingness, group pride, group solidarity or group spirit relates inversely to the absenteeism rate. Among the target groups, group with high cohesiveness tend to have low absenteeism rate while group with low cohesiveness tend to have higher absenteeism rate.{{cite book|last1=F.G|first1=Mann|last2=H.G. |first2=Baumgartel|title=Absences and employee attitudes in an electric power company|date=1952|publisher=University of Michigan}}

Seashore investigated 228 work groups in a heavy-machinery-manufacturing company. His findings suggest that Group cohesiveness helps employees solve their work-related pressure. Seashore define cohesiveness as '1) members perceive themselves to be a part of a group 2) members prefer to remain in the group rather than to leave, and 3) perceive their group to be better than other groups with respect to the way the men get along together, the way they help each other out, and the way they stick together'. Among the target group, the less cohesive the group, the more likely its employees are to feel nervous and jumpy.{{cite book|last1=Arnold|first1=Tannenbaum|title=Social psychology of the work organization |date=2013|publisher=Routledge}}

Different communication ways in groups contribute to different employees satisfaction. For example, the chain structure results in low satisfaction while the circle structure results in high satisfaction.{{cite book|last1=Christine |first1=Hodson|title=Psychology and work|date=2001 |publisher=Psychology Press}}

In relations to the work place, successful leadership will structure and develop relationships amongst employees and consequently, employees will empower each other.{{cite book|last1=Tjosvold|first1=Dean|last2=Tjosvold|first2=Mary M.|title=Psychology for Leaders|date=1995|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd|location=US|isbn=9780471597551|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyforlea0000tjos/page/52 52]|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyforlea0000tjos/page/52}}

Kurt Lewin argued that there are 3 main styles of leaderships:

1. Autocratic leaders: control the decision-making power and do not consult team members.
2. Democratic leaders: include team members in the decision-making process but make the final decisions.
3. Laissez-faire leaders: team members have huge freedom in how they do their work, and how they set their deadlines.

Management plays an important role in an employee's job satisfaction and happiness.{{cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=Ardala R. |last2=Alberti|first2=Jennifer L. |last3=Snipes|first3=Robin L. |title=AN EXAMINATION OF THE IMPACT OF GENDER ON LEADERSHIP STYLE AND EMPLOYEE JOB SATISFACTION IN THE MODERN WORKPLACE|journal=Journal of Organizational Culture|volume=18|pages=141–152}} Good leadership can empower employees to work better towards reaching the organisation's goals.{{cite journal|last1=Kerfoot|first1=Karlene M. |title=The Pursuit of Happiness, Science, and Effective Staffing: The Leader's Challenge|journal=Pediatric Nursing|date=April 2015|volume=41|pages=93–95}} For example, if a leader is considerate, the employees will tend to develop a positive attitude towards management and thus, work more effectively.{{cite book|last1=Gruneberg|first1=Michael|last2=Wall|first2=Toby|title=Social Psychology and Organizational Behaviour|date=1984|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd.|isbn=978-0471103264|page=[https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000unse_v6k7/page/108 108]|url=https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000unse_v6k7/page/108}}

Feelings, including happiness, are often hidden by employees and should be identified{{cite book|last1=Tjosvold|first1=Dean|last2=Tjosvold|first2=Mary M.|title=Psychology for Leaders|date=1995|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd|location=US|isbn=9780471597551|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyforlea0000tjos}} for effective communication in the workplace. Ineffective communication at work is not uncommon, as leaders tend to focus on their own matters and give less attention to employees at a lower rank. Employees, on the other hand, tend to be reluctant to talk about their own problem and assume leaders can figure out the problem. As a result, both leaders and employees can cause repetitive misunderstandings.

{{Main|Job performance}}

Research shows that employees who are happiest at work are considered to be the most efficient and display the highest levels of performance. For instance, the iOpener Institute found that a happy worker is a high-performing one.{{cite journal|last1=J|first1=Pryce-Jones|title=Managing happiness at work|date=2013|journal=Assessment and Development Matters|volume=5 |issue=2}} The happiest employees only take one-tenth the sick leave of their least happy colleagues as they are in better physical and psychological health than their colleagues. Furthermore, happier employees display a higher level of loyalty, as they tend to stay for far longer periods in their organizations. Happiness at work is the feeling that employee really enjoy what they do and they are proud of themselves, they enjoy people being around, thus they have better performance.

{{Main|Absenteeism}}

Employees' behaviour can be influenced by happiness or unhappiness. People would like to participate in work when they feel happiness, or in the converse, absenteeism might occur.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W755AgAAQBAJ&q=978-0-8058-5710-8&pg=PR4 |last1=Warr|first1=Peter|title=Work, happiness, and unhappiness|date=2007|publisher=Erlbaum|location=Mahwah, NJ [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-8058-5710-8|page=427|access-date=10 September 2015}} Absenteeism can be defined as the lack of physical presence at a given place and time determined by an individual's work schedule.{{cite book|last1=Schmitt|first1=Neal W. |last2=chief|first2=Scott Highhouse|author3=Irving B. Weiner|title=Handbook of psychology |date=2013|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=9781118282007|edition=2nd}}

Although employee absenteeism is usually associated with the job-related well-being or simply whether the employee feels happiness during the work, other factors are also important. Firstly, the health constraints such as being ill would force the employee absence from the work. Secondly, social and families pressure can also influence the employee's decision to participate in the work.

{{Main|Employee turnover}}

Employee turnover can be considered as another result derived from employee happiness. In particular, it is more likely that individual employees are able to deal with stress and passive feelings when they are in good mood.{{cite journal | last1 = Maertz | first1 = C.P. | last2 = Griffeth | first2 = R.W. | year = 2004 | title = Eight motivational forces and voluntary turnover: a theoretical synthesis with implications for research | journal = Journal of Management | volume = 30 | issue = 5| pages = 667–683 | doi=10.1016/j.jm.2004.04.001| s2cid = 146253290 }} As people spend a considerable amount of time in the workplace, factors such as employee relationship, organizational culture and job performance can have a significant impact on work happiness. What is more, Avey and his colleagues use a concept called psychological capital to link employee satisfaction with work related outcomes, especially turnover intention and actual turnover.{{cite journal | last1 = Avey | first1 = J.B. | last2 = Luthans | first2 = F. | last3 = Jensen | first3 = S. | year = 2009 | title = Psychological capital: a positive resource for combating employee stress and turnover | journal = Human Resource Management | volume = 48 | issue = 5| pages = 677–693 | doi=10.1002/hrm.20294}} However, their findings were limited due to some reasons. For example, they omitted an important factor, which was emotional stability.{{cite journal | last1 = Avey | first1 = J.B. | last2 = Luthans | first2 = F. | last3 = Smith | first3 = R.M. | last4 = Palmer | first4 = N.F. | year = 2010 | title = Impact of positive psychological capital on employee well-being over time | url = http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1055&context=managementfacpub| journal = Journal of Occupational Health Psychology | volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 17–28 | doi=10.1037/a0016998| pmid = 20063956 | s2cid = 14733746 }} Additionally, other researchers have pointed out that the relationship between work happiness and turnover intention is generally low, even if a dissatisfied employee is more likely to quit his/her job than the satisfied one.{{cite journal | last1 = Arnold | first1 = H. | last2 = Feldman | first2 = D. | year = 1982 | title = A multivariate analysis of the determinants of job turnover | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 67 | issue = 3| pages = 350–60 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.67.3.350}} Therefore, whether or not employee happiness can be linked with employee's turnover intention is still a moot point.

There are a few surveys used to measure the happiness or well-being level of people in different countries such as the World Happiness Report, the Happy Planet Index and the OECD Better Life Index. There are also surveys created to assess the job satisfaction level of employees. Job satisfaction is a different concept from happiness, but it is positively correlated to happiness and subjective well-being.{{cite journal|last1=Bowling|first1=Nathan A. |last2=Eschleman|first2=Kevin J. |last3=Wang|first3=Qiang|title=A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being|journal=Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology|date=December 2010|volume=83|issue=4|pages=915–934|doi=10.1348/096317909X478557}} The main job satisfaction scales are: The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ).{{cite book|last1=Spector|first1=Paul E. |title=Job satisfaction : application, assessment, cause, and consequences|date=1997|publisher=Sage Publications|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn=978-0761989226|edition=[Nachdr.].}} The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) assesses nine facets of job satisfaction, as well as overall satisfaction. The facets include pay and pay raises, promotion opportunities, relationship with the immediate supervisor, fringe benefits, rewards given for good performance, rules and procedures, relationship with coworkers, type of work performed and communication within the organization. The scale contains thirty-six items and uses a summated rating scale format. The JSS can provide ten scores. Each of the nine subscales produce a separate score and the total of all items produces a total score. The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) scale assesses five facets which are work, pay, promotion, supervision and coworkers. The entire scale contains seventy-two items with either nine or eighteen items per subscale. Each item is an evaluative adjective or short phrase that is descriptive of the job. The individual has to respond "yes", "uncertain" or "no" for each item. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) has two versions, a one hundred item long version and a twenty item short form. It covers twenty facets including activity, independence, variety, social status, supervision (human relations), supervision (technical), moral values, security, social service, authority, ability utilization, company policies and practices, compensation, advancement, responsibility, creativity, working conditions, coworkers, recognition and achievement. The long form contains five items per facet, while the short one contains only one.

University of Kent research show that career satisfaction stems from living near work, access to the outdoors, mindfulness, flow, non open plan offices, absence of many tight deadlines or long hours, small organisations or self-employment, variety, friends at work, working on a product or service from start to finish, focus, financial freedom, autonomy, positive feedback, helping others, purpose/goals, learning new skill and challenges.{{cite web|url=https://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/Choosing/career-satisfaction.htm|title=Career Satisfaction|website=www.kent.ac.uk}}{{cite web |title=Three Keys to Happiness at Work |url=https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/three_keys_to_happiness_at_work |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |access-date=3 February 2019 |language=en}}

The University of Warwick, UK, mentioned in one of their studies that happy workers are up to 12% more productive than unhappy professionals.{{cite journal |last1=MADHULEENA |first1=ROY CHOWDHURY |title=Happiness at Work: 10 Tips for How to be Happy at Work |journal=Positive Psychology Program |date=May 17, 2019 |url=https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/happiness-at-work/ |access-date=June 10, 2019}}

Doctor, dentist, armed forces, teacher, leisure/tourism and journalist are the 6 happiest graduate jobs while social worker, civil servant, estate agent, secretary and administrator are the 5 least happy. According to one study Clergy, CEO's, Agriculturist, Company Secretaries, Regulatory professional, Health managers, Medical Professionals, Farmers and Accommodation managers are the happiest jobs in that order in another study.{{Cite web |date=2022-05-29 |title=Job Satisfaction By Occupation - Costto.live |url=https://costto.live/job-satisfaction-by-occupation/,%20https://costto.live/job-satisfaction-by-occupation/ |access-date=2022-06-27 |language=en-US}}

On the other hand, social workers, nurses, social workers, medical doctors, and psychiatrists abuse substances and incur mental ill-health at among the highest rates of any occupation. For instance, the psychiatrist burnout rate is 40%.{{cite web|url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/blogs/life-coaching-and-stigma-psychiatry/page/0/2|title=Life Coaching and the Stigma of Psychiatry - Psychiatric Times|website=www.psychiatrictimes.com}}

• Critique of work
• Decent work
• Dignity of labour
• Happiness economics
• Job satisfaction
• Philosophy of happiness
• Positive psychology in the workplace
• {{section link|Salutogenesis|Workplace}}
• Workplace wellness

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• {{Wikiversity inline|Have a Happy Job}}

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