human–animal communication#Cetaceans

Parrots are able to use words meaningfully in linguistic tasks.{{Cite web |date=2004-02-09 |title=This Bird Is No Airhead: Scientist |url=http://www.nserc.ca/news/features/parrot_e.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215082122/http://www.nserc.ca/news/features/parrot_e.htm |archive-date=2007-12-15 |access-date=2023-08-28}} For example, a grey parrot named Alex learned one hundred words,{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/10/science/10cnd-parrot.html |title=Alex, a Parrot Who Had a Way With Words, Dies |last=Carey |first=Benedict |date=2007-09-10 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2018-02-23 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}} and after training used English words to answer questions about color, shapes, size and numbers correctly about 80% of the time.{{cite web|title=Ask the Scientists: Irene Pepperberg Q&A |website=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/safarchive/3_ask/archive/qna/3293_pepperberg.html |access-date=11 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018070320/http://www.pbs.org/safarchive/3_ask/archive/qna/3293_pepperberg.html |archive-date=18 October 2007 |url-status=live}}

He also wanted to try to go without training;{{Clarify|date=August 2023}} said where he wanted to be taken, such as his cage or the back of a chair; and protested when taken elsewhere or when hidden objects were not where he thought they were.{{cite book |title=Drawing the Line |last=Wise |first=Steven M. |author-link=Steven M. Wise |year=2002 |publisher=Perseus Books |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-7382-0340-9 |pages=101–102, 107}} He asked what color he was, which has been called the only question so far asked by a non-human animal.{{cite book | title = Who Asked the First Question? The Origins of Human Choral Singing, Intelligence, Language and Speech | last1 = Jordania | first1=Joseph | isbn = 978-99940-31-81-8 |year = 2006 | publisher = Logos | location = Tbilisi| title-link = Who Asked the First Question? }} Scientific American editor Madhusree Mukerjee described these abilities as creativity and reasoning comparable to nonhuman primates or cetaceans,{{Cite journal |last=Mukerjee |first=Madhusree |date=1996 |title=An interview with Alex, the African grey parrot |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/news-blog/an-interview-with-alex-the-african/ |journal=Scientific American Blog Network |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0496-28 |language=en}} while expressing concern that extensive language use resulted in feather-plucking behavior, a possible sign of stress.

Most bird species have at least six calls which humans can learn to understand, for situations including danger, distress, hunger, and the presence of food.{{Cite book |title=Animal behavior. |last=Scott |first=John Paul |date=1972 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226743363 |location=Chicago |pages=[https://archive.org/details/animalbehavior0000scot/page/190 190, 197] |language=en |url=https://archive.org/details/animalbehavior0000scot/page/190 }}

Pigeons can identify different artists.{{Cite journal |last=Watanabe |first=Shigeru |date=2001-11-01 |title=Van Gogh, Chagall and pigeons: picture discrimination in pigeons and humans |journal=Animal Cognition |language=en |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=147–151 |doi=10.1007/s100710100112 |pmid=24777504 |s2cid=21344708 |issn=1435-9448}} Pigeons can learn to recognize up to 58 four-letter English words, with an average of 43, though they were not taught any meanings to associate with the words.{{Cite journal |last1=Scarf |first1=Damian |last2=Boy |first2=Karoline |last3=Reinert |first3=Anelisie Uber |last4=Devine |first4=Jack |last5=Güntürkün |first5=Onur |last6=Colombo |first6=Michael |date=2016-10-04 |title=Orthographic processing in pigeons (Columba livia) |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=113 |issue=40 |pages=11272–11276 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1607870113 |issn=0027-8424 |pmid=27638211 |pmc=5056114|bibcode=2016PNAS..11311272S |doi-access=free }}

Java sparrows chose music by sitting on a particular perch, which determined which music was played. Two birds preferred Bach and Vivaldi over Schoenberg or silence. The other two birds had varying preferences among Bach, Schoenberg, white noise and silence.{{Cite journal |last1=Watanabe |first1=Shigeru |last2=Nemoto |first2=M |date=1998-05-01 |title=Reinforcing property of music in Java sparrows (Padda oryzivora) |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=211–218 |doi=10.1016/S0376-6357(98)00014-X |pmid=24896007 |s2cid=12648961 |issn=0376-6357}}

The greater honeyguide has a specific call to alert humans that it can lead them to honey, and also responds to a specific human call requesting such a lead. By leading humans to honeybee hives, it can eat the discarded honeycomb wax after the honey is collected. The human call varies regionally, so the honeyguide's response is learned in each area, not instinctive.{{Cite journal |last1=Spottiswoode |first1=Claire N. |last2=Begg |first2=Keith S. |last3=Begg |first3=Colleen M. |date=2016-07-22 |title=Reciprocal signaling in honeyguide-human mutualism |url=https://nature.berkeley.edu/garbelottoat/wp-content/uploads/spottiswoode-etal-2016.pdf |journal=Science |language=en |volume=353 |issue=6297 |pages=387–389 |doi=10.1126/science.aaf4885 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=27463674|bibcode=2016Sci...353..387S |s2cid=206648494 }}

Crows identify and respond differently to different human faces and can be trained to understand and reply to verbal commands.{{Cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=106826971 |title=The Crow Paradox |date=2009-07-27 |website=NPR.org |language=en |access-date=2017-12-28}}{{Cite book |last=Tarter |first=R. R. |title=The Vocal Behavior of the American Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos [master's thesis]. |publisher=The Ohio State University |year=2008}}

Fictional portrayals of sentient talking parrots and similar birds are common in children's fiction,{{Cite book |title=Parrot culture: our 2,500-year-long fascination with the world's most talkative bird |last=Boehrer |first=Bruce Thomas |date=2004 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0812237931 |location=Philadelphia |oclc=54446320 |url=https://archive.org/details/parrotculture00bruc }} such as the talking, loud-mouth parrot Iago of Disney's Aladdin.

{{Main|Great ape language}}

Chimpanzees can make at least 32 sounds with distinct meanings for humans.

Chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans have used sign language, physical tokens, keyboards and touch screens to communicate with humans in numerous research studies. The research showed that they understood multiple signals and produced them to communicate with humans. There is a broad consensus among linguists that sign language experiments with great apes have not produced any evidence of true linguistic ability,{{cite journal |last1=Tomasello |first1=Michael |title=What did we learn from the ape language studies? |journal=Bonobos |date=12 October 2017 |pages=95–104 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198728511.003.0007 |isbn=978-0-19-872851-1 }}{{cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Raffaele |first2=Paul |title=Speaking Bonobo |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/speaking-bonobo-134931541/ |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}} and high profile examples such as Koko have faced intense criticism, despite public perceptions of the experiments.

Baboons can learn to recognize an average of 139 four-letter English words (maximum of 308), though they were not taught any meanings to associate with the words.{{Cite journal |last1=Grainger |first1=Jonathan |last2=Dufau |first2=Stéphane |last3=Montant |first3=Marie |last4=Ziegler |first4=Johannes C. |last5=Fagot |first5=Joël |date=2012-04-13 |title=Orthographic Processing in Baboons (Papio papio) |url=http://gsite.univ-provence.fr/gsite/Local/lpc/dir/user-556/Science-2012-Grainger-245-8.pdf |journal=Science |language=en |volume=336 |issue=6078 |pages=245–248 |doi=10.1126/science.1218152 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=22499949 |bibcode=2012Sci...336..245G |s2cid=16902074 |access-date=2017-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229113149/http://gsite.univ-provence.fr/gsite/Local/lpc/dir/user-556/Science-2012-Grainger-245-8.pdf |archive-date=2017-12-29 |url-status=dead }}

Primates have also been trained to use touch screens to tell a researcher their musical preferences. In Toronto, for hundreds of songs in random order, orangutans were given one 30-second segment of a song, and then chose between repeating that segment or 30 seconds of silence.{{Cite journal |last1=Ritvo |first1=Sarah E. |last2=MacDonald |first2=Suzanne E. |date=2016-08-02 |title=Music as enrichment for Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) |url=https://jzar.org/jzar/article/view/231 |access-date=2023-08-28 |journal=Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=156–163 |language=en |doi=10.19227/jzar.v4i3.231}} Different orangutans chose to replay from 8% to 48% of the segments, and all exhibited stress throughout the trials. There was no pattern of selections by genre, and the researchers did not look for other attributes that were shared by the orangutans' chosen segments. No comparison was available as to how many 30-second segments humans would repeat in the same situation. In another experiment, the orangutans did not distinguish between music played in its original order and music sliced into half-second intervals, which were played in random order. Chimpanzees can hear higher frequencies than humans. If orangutans can too, and if these overtones are present in the recordings, the overtones would affect their choices.

In the 1960s, neuroscientist John C. Lilly sponsored English lessons for one bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). The teacher, Margaret Howe Lovatt, lived with the dolphin for {{frac|2|1|2}} months in a house on the shore of the Virgin Islands. The house was partially flooded and allowed them to be together for meals, play, language lessons, and sleep.{{Cite book |title=The mind of the dolphin : a nonhuman intelligence |last=Lilly |first=John Cunningham |publisher=Doubleday |year=1967 |isbn=978-0385025430 |edition=1st |location=Garden City, New York |oclc=851669}}{{Cite book |title=Communication between man and dolphin : the possibilities of talking with other species |last=Lilly |first=John Cunningham |date=1978 |publisher=Crown Publishers |isbn=978-0517530368 |location=New York |oclc=4036849 |url=https://archive.org/details/communicationbet00lill }}{{Cite book |title=Man and Dolphin |last=Lilly |first=John |publisher=Gollancz |year=1962}}{{Cite book |title=Lilly on Dolphins |last=Lilly |first=John |publisher=Anchor Press |year=1975}} Lilly thought of this as a mother-child dyad, though the dolphin was five to six years old.{{Cite book |title=Lilly on Dolphins |pages=177}} Lilly said that he had heard other dolphins repeating his own English words,{{Cite journal |last=Lilly |first=John C. |date=1962 |title=Vocal Behavior of the Bottlenose Dolphin |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=520–529 |jstor=985258}} and believed that an intelligent animal would want to mimic the language of its captors, to communicate.{{Cite book |title=Mind of the Dolphin |pages=218}}{{Cite book |title=Mind of the Dolphin |pages=196}} The experiment ended in the third month and did not restart, because Howe found the two-room lab and constant bumping from the dolphin too constricting.{{Cite book |title=Mind of the Dolphin |pages=299–300}}

After several weeks, a concerted effort by the dolphin to imitate the instructor's speech was evident, and human-like sounds were apparent, and recorded. It was able to perform tasks such as retrieval of aurally indicated objects without fail. Later in the project the dolphin's ability to process linguistic syntax was made apparent, in that it could distinguish between commands such as "Bring the ball to the doll," and "Bring the doll to the ball."{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} This ability not only demonstrates the bottlenose dolphin's grasp of basic grammar, but also implies the dolphins' own language might include syntactical rules. The correlation between length and 'syllables' (bursts of the dolphin's sound) with the instructor's speech also went from essentially zero at the beginning of the session to almost a perfect correlation by its completion. So that when the human spoke five or ten syllables, the dolphin also spoke five or ten 'syllables' or bursts of sound.{{Cite book |title=Mind of the Dolphin |pages=288–295}}

Two experiments of this sort are explained in detail in Lilly's book, Mind of the Dolphin. The first experiment was more of a test run to check psychological and other strains on the human and cetacean participants. Its goal was to determine the extent of the need for other human contact, dry clothing, time alone, and so on. Despite tensions after several weeks, Howe Lovatt agreed to the {{frac|2|1|2}} months isolated with the dolphin.

Experiments by the research team of Louis Herman, a former collaborator and student of Lilly's, demonstrated that dolphins could understand human communication in whistles and respond with the same whistles.

A female bottlenose dolphin, Phoenix, understood at least 34 whistles.{{refn|{{blist| 34 whistles with meanings are listed in Herman, "Cognition and Language Competencies of Bottlenosed Dolphins", in Schusterman et al., Dolphin Cognition and Behavior,1986, [http://smad.homestead.com/p230-Schusterman-Dolphin-Cognition-and-Behavior.pdf p.230]

| 33 are listed in {{Cite journal |last1=Herman |first1=Louis M. |last2=Richards |first2=Douglas G. |last3=Wolz |first3=James P. |title=Comprehension of sentences by bottlenosed dolphins |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0010027784900039 |journal=Cognition |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=129–219 |doi=10.1016/0010-0277(84)90003-9 |pmid=6540652 |year=1984|s2cid=43237011 }}, p. 144

| 23 are listed in {{Cite book |title=Cetacean Behavior |last=Herman |first=Louis |publisher=Wiley |year=1980 |pages=413–418}} [http://smad.homestead.com/p415-416-Herman-Cetacean-Behavior.pdf p.415]}}}} Whistles created a system of two-way communication. By having separate whistles for object and action, Herman could reorder commands without fresh teaching (take hoop to ball). Successful communication was shown when Herman used new combinations, and the dolphin understood and did what he asked without further training 80–90% of the time.{{Cite journal |last1=Herman |first1=Louis M. |last2=Richards |first2=Douglas G. |last3=Wolz |first3=James P. |title=Comprehension of sentences by bottlenosed dolphins |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0010027784900039 |journal=Cognition |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=129–219 |doi=10.1016/0010-0277(84)90003-9 |pmid=6540652 |year=1984|s2cid=43237011 }}

In 1980, Herman had taught six whistles to a female bottle-nose dolphin, Kea, to refer to three objects and three actions, and the dolphin followed his instructions. He wrote, "In addition to mouthing the three familiar training objects in the presence of the mouth name, Kea correctly mouthed on their first appearance a plastic water pipe, a wooden disc, and the experimenter's open hand. The same type of immediate response generalization occurred for touch and fetch."{{Cite book |title=Cetacean Behavior |last=Herman |first=Louis |publisher=Wiley |year=1980 |pages=413–418}}

Richards, Wolz and Herman{{Cite journal |last1=Richards |first1=D. G. |last2=Wolz |first2=J. P. |last3=Herman |first3=L. M. |date=March 1984 |title=Vocal mimicry of computer-generated sounds and vocal labeling of objects by a bottlenosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=10–28 |issn=0735-7036 |pmid=6705501 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.98.1.10}} (1984) trained a dolphin to make distinct whistles for objects, "so that, in effect, the dolphin gave unique vocal labels to those objects."

Herman's later publications do not discuss the whistle communication. Herman started getting US Navy funding in 1985,{{Cite web |url=https://www.whales.org.au/published/levasseur/levass2b.html |title=Dolphin Mental Abilities Paper |last=LeVasseur |first=Kenneth |website=whales.org.au |access-date=2017-08-21}} so further expansion of the two-way whistle language would have been in the classified United States Navy Marine Mammal Program, a black project.

Herman also studied the crossmodal perceptual ability of dolphins. Dolphins typically perceive their environment through sound waves generated in the melon of their skulls, through a process known as echolocation (similar to that seen in bats, though the mechanism of production is different). The dolphin's eyesight however is also fairly good, even by human standards. Herman's research found that any object, even of complex and arbitrary shape, identified either by sight or sound by the dolphin, could later be correctly identified by the dolphin with the alternate sense modality with almost 100 per cent accuracy, in what is classically known in psychology and behaviorism as a match-to-sample test. The only errors noted were presumed to have been a misunderstanding of the task during the first few trials, and not an inability of the dolphin's perceptual apparatus. This capacity is strong evidence for abstract and conceptual thought in the dolphin's brain, wherein an idea of the object is stored and understood not merely by its sensory properties; such abstraction may be argued to be of the same kind as complex language, mathematics, and art, and implies a potentially very great intelligence and conceptual understanding within the brains of tursiops and possibly many other cetaceans. Accordingly, Lilly's interest later shifted to whale song and the possibility of high intelligence in the brains of large whales, and Louis Herman's research at the now misnomered Dolphin Institute in Honolulu, Hawaii, focuses exclusively on the Humpback whale.

• Batteau (1964, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vw0wM2KdZE0#t=12m10s video]) developed machines for the US Navy, which translated human voices to higher frequencies for dolphins to hear and translated dolphin voices to lower frequencies for humans to hear.{{Cite web |last=Einhorn |first=Richard N. |date=1967-12-06 |title=Special Report - Dolphins challenge the designer |url=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Electronic-Design/1967/Electronic-Design-V15-N25-1967-1206.pdf |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Electronic Design 25}}{{Cite web |last=Moshier |first=Stephen L. |date=1967-12-13 |title=Technical Manual MDT-5. Final Report, Appendix A, U. S. Navy Contract N00123-67-C-1103. |url=http://www.moshier.net/catalogues/man_dolphin_translator.pdf |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=US Navy}} The work continued at least until 1967 when the Navy classified its dolphin research.{{Cite web |last=Batteau |first=Dwight W., and Peter R. Markey |date=1967-12-13 |title=Man/Dolphin Communication. Final Report, U. S. Navy Contract N00123-67-C-1103. |url=http://www.moshier.net/catalogues/Batteau_Markey.pdf |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=US Navy}} Batteau died, also in 1967, before he published results.
• Soviet icebreaker (1985) experimented with different kinds of music to signal to 1,000 to 3,000 belugas that they could follow the ship to open water. They responded to classical music.{{Cite web |last=Remili |first=Anaïs |date=2024-05-19 |title=Russian ship played classical music to rescue entrapped belugas |url=https://whalescientists.com/russian-ship-entrapped-belugas/ |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=Whale Scientists |language=en-US}}{{Cite news |last=Schmemann |first=Serge |date=1985-03-12 |title=RUSSIANS TELL SAGA OF WHALES RESCUED BY AN ICEBREAKER |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/03/12/science/russians-tell-saga-of-whales-rescued-by-an-icebreaker.html |access-date=2024-05-22 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite news |date=1985-02-22 |title=Soviet Ship Cracks Wall of Ice to Free Trapped Whales |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-02-22-mn-572-story.html |access-date=2024-05-22 |work=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}
• Reiss and McCowan (1993) taught dolphins three whistles (ball, ring, rub), which the two dolphins produced, and even combined, when playing with the ball and/or ring, or getting a rub.{{Cite journal |last1=Reiss |first1=Diana |last2=McCowan |first2=Brenda |date=1993 |title=Spontaneous Vocal Mimicry and Production by Bottlenose Dolphins: Tursiops truncatus: Evidence for Vocal Learning |url=https://aqua.org/care/a-blue-view/~/media/Files/blue-view/Reiss%20%20McCowan%20%20Spontaneous%20Vocal%20Mimicry%20and%20Prod.pdf |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=301–312 |access-date=2017-08-21 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.107.3.301 |pmid=8375147 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822100835/https://aqua.org/care/a-blue-view/~/media/Files/blue-view/Reiss%20%20McCowan%20%20Spontaneous%20Vocal%20Mimicry%20and%20Prod.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-22 |url-status=dead }}
• Delfour and Marten (2005) gave dolphins a touchscreen to show they recognized a musical note{{Cite journal |last1=Delfour |first1=Fabienne |last2=Marten |first2=Ken |title=Inter-modal learning task in bottlenosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): a preliminary study showed that social factors might influence learning strategies |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227117797 |journal=Acta Ethologica |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=57–64 |doi=10.1007/s10211-005-0110-z |year=2005|s2cid=43412127 }}
• Kuczaj (2006) used an underwater keyboard, which humans and dolphins can touch to signal an action.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pf78r-F4FjIC&q=Kuczaj+dolphins+keyboard&pg=PA586 |title=Problem Solving and Behavioral Flexibility, in: Comparative Cognition: Experimental Explorations of Animal Intelligence edited by Edward A. Wasserman, Thomas R. Zentall |last=Kuczaj |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2017-08-22|isbn=9780195167658 }}
• Amundin et al. (2008) had dolphins point narrow echolocation beams onto an array of hydrophones which acted like a touchscreen to communicate with the researchers{{Cite journal |last1=Amundin |first1=Mats |last2=Starkhammar |first2=Josefin |last3=Evander |first3=Mikael |last4=Almqvist |first4=Monica |last5=Lindström |first5=Kjell |last6=Persson |first6=Hans W. |date=2008-02-01 |title=An echolocation visualization and interface system for dolphin research |url=https://www.ifm.liu.se/biology/zoology/animal-biology/publications/Amundin-et-al-2008-ELVIS-JASA.pdf |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=123 |issue=2 |pages=1188–1194 |doi=10.1121/1.2828213 |pmid=18247918 |bibcode=2008ASAJ..123.1188A |issn=0001-4966 |access-date=2017-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809080414/http://www.ifm.liu.se/biology/zoology/animal-biology/publications/Amundin-et-al-2008-ELVIS-JASA.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-09 |url-status=dead }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KMZ7oOCXfP8 video])
• Reiss (2011) used an underwater keyboard which dolphins could press.{{Cite web |url=http://www.hmhbooks.com/dolphinmirror/#keyboard |title=Dolphin in the Mirror website |last=Reiss |first=Diana |date=2011 |website=Houghton Mifflin |access-date=2017-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115222907/http://www.hmhbooks.com/dolphinmirror/#keyboard |archive-date=2012-01-15 |url-status=dead }} A dolphin defined a key as "I want a small fish".{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6yNdisKLJAkC&q=%22communicate+with+me+in+a+very+innovative%22 |title=Dolphin in the Mirror book |last=Reiss |first=Diana |date=2011 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |access-date=2017-08-22|isbn=978-0547445724 }}
• Herzing (2013) used an underwater keyboard in the open ocean which dolphins and humans could press to choose a plaything.{{Cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/denise_herzing_could_we_speak_the_language_of_dolphins/transcript?language=en |title=Could We Speak the Language of Dolphins? |last=Herzing |first=Denise |date=February 2013 |access-date=2017-08-22}}
• Herzing (2014) created 3 whistles for "play objects (Sargassum... scarf, and rope)", and found that wild dolphins understand them, but has not found if dolphins produce the whistles.{{Cite web |url=http://www.wilddolphinproject.org/chat-is-it-a-dolphin-translator-or-an-interface/ |title=CHAT: Is It A Dolphin Translator Or An Interface? |last=Herzing |first=Denise |date=March 31, 2014 |website=wilddolphinproject.org |access-date=2017-08-21}}

From Roman times to modern Brazil, dolphins have been known to drive fish toward fishermen waiting on shore, and signal to the fishermen when to throw their nets, even when water is too murky for the fishermen to see the arrival of the fish. The dolphins catch unnetted fish disoriented by the net.{{Cite journal |last1=Pryor |first1=Karen |last2=Lindbergh |first2=Jon |date=1990-01-01 |title=A Dolphin-Human Fishing Cooperative in Brazil |journal=Marine Mammal Science |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=77–82 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.1990.tb00228.x |issn=1748-7692}}{{Cite journal |last1=Zappes |first1=Camilah Antunes |last2=Andriolo |first2=Artur |last3=Simões-Lopes |first3=Paulo César |last4=Beneditto |first4=Ana Paula Madeira Di |date=2011-02-22 |title='Human-dolphin (Tursiops truncatus Montagu, 1821) cooperative fishery' and its influence on cast net fishing activities in Barra de Imbé/Tramandaí, Southern Brazil |journal=Ocean & Coastal Management |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=427–432 |doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2011.02.003|bibcode=2011OCM....54..427Z }}

From about 1840 to 1920, orcas smacked the water off Twofold Bay in New South Wales to signal to human whalers that the orcas were herding large baleen whales nearby, so the humans would send boats to harpoon the whales, killing them faster and more assuredly than the orcas could. The orcas ate the tongues and lips, leaving the blubber and bones for the humans.{{Cite book |title=Killers in Eden : the true story of killer whales and their remarkable partnership with the whalers of Twofold Bay |last=Clode |first=Danielle |date=2002 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1865086521 |location=Crows Nest, N.S.W. |oclc=52250051}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/australias-whaling-industry-and-whales |title=Australia's whaling industry and whales, Twofold Bay – unique teamwork with killer whales |website=www.australia.gov.au |language=en |access-date=2017-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907123548/http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/australias-whaling-industry-and-whales |archive-date=2017-09-07 |url-status=dead }}

It has been widely theorized that human-animal communication began with the domestication of dogs.{{Cite book |last=Shipman |first=Pat |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4159/9780674425385 |title=The Invaders |date=2015-03-10 |publisher=Harvard University Press |doi=10.4159/9780674425385 |isbn=978-0-674-42538-5}} Humans began communicating with wolves before the end of the late pleistocene,{{Cite journal |last1=Botigué |first1=Laura R. |last2=Song |first2=Shiya |last3=Scheu |first3=Amelie |last4=Gopalan |first4=Shyamalika |last5=Pendleton |first5=Amanda L. |last6=Oetjens |first6=Matthew |last7=Taravella |first7=Angela M. |last8=Seregély |first8=Timo |last9=Zeeb-Lanz |first9=Andrea |last10=Arbogast |first10=Rose-Marie |last11=Bobo |first11=Dean |date=2017-07-18 |title=Ancient European dog genomes reveal continuity since the Early Neolithic |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms16082 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=16082 |bibcode=2017NatCo...816082B |doi=10.1038/ncomms16082 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=5520058 |pmid=28719574 |s2cid=297141}} and the two species eventually created a wide scale symbiotic relationship with one another. Modern biologists and anthropologists theorize that humans and wolves met near hunting grounds, and as the Homo sapiens diet began relying more and more on meat for development, they would often encounter and compete with wolves.

File:Neolithic Dog.jpg

Humans' relationship with wolves garnered a mutual benefit, obtaining food and protection. Humans likely began attempting to cooperate with wolves through commands, which eventually led to a more familiar species of dogs that we know today. These commands were likely the first instances of obedience training upon canines, as dogs maintained a pack mentality that humans fit into as a pack member.

Neolithic humans developed, seemingly unintentionally, a system of artificial selection with both livestock and animal companions,{{Cite journal |last1=Driscoll |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Macdonald |first2=David W. |last3=O'Brien |first3=Stephen J. |date=2009-06-16 |title=From wild animals to domestic pets, an evolutionary view of domestication |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |issue=supplement_1 |pages=9971–9978 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0901586106 |pmid=19528637 |pmc=2702791 |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.9971D }} ushering in a widespread sustenance based foundation of humans communicating with animals. New theories within academic discussion of scientific data refer to this as both prezygotic and postzygotic “strong” artificial selection. Humans began controlling the offspring of livestock during the agricultural revolution through the mating of high yielding animals.

Theories from anthropologists suggest that humans began differing relationships with canines during the Neolithic age. This is possibly when humans began keeping dogs as pets, creating a new form of communication with domesticated animals, pet talk.

In a Scientific American article from May 1884, John Lubbock described experiments teaching a dog to read text commands on cardboard cards.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M9AQAAIAAJ|title=Scientific American|date=1884-05-24|publisher=Munn & Company|pages=325|language=en}}

Bonnie Bergin trained dogs to go to specific text on the wall to ask clearly for "water, treat or pet me." Dogs were able to learn English or Japanese text. She says service dogs can learn to find EXIT signs, bathroom gender signs, and report what disease they smell in a urine sample by going to a sign on the wall naming that disease.

Police dogs and private dogs can be trained to "alert" when they find certain scents, including drugs, explosives, mines, scent of a suspect, fire accelerants, and bed bugs. The alert can be a specific bark or position, and can be accepted as evidence in courts of law.{{Cite book |title=Police and military dogs : criminal detection, forensic evidence, and judicial admissibility |last=Ensminger |first=John |date=2012 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-7240-6 |location=Boca Raton |oclc=756484228|url=http://www.perrosdebusqueda.es/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Libro-Police-dogs.pdf}}

Stanley Coren identifies 56 signals which untrained dogs make and people can understand, including ten barks, five growls, eight other vocalizations, 11 tail signals, five ear and eye positions, five mouth signals and 12 body positions. Faragó et al. describe research that humans can accurately categorize barks from unseen dogs as aggressive, playful, or stressed, even if they do not own a dog.{{Cite book |last1=Faragó |first1=Tamás |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-007-7414-8 |title=Biocommunication of animals |last2=Townsend |first2=Simon |last3=Range |first3=Friederike |date=2013-11-18 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789400774131 |editor-last=Guenther |editor-first=Witzany |location=Dordrecht |chapter=The information content of wolf (and dog) social communication |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-7414-8 |oclc=865545997 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-7414-8_4}}{{Cite book | last1 = Meegahapola | first1 = L. |last2 = Constantinides | first2 = M. | last3 = Radivojevic | first3 = Z.| last4 = Li | first4 =H. | last5 = Quercia |first5 = D. | last6 = Eggleston |first6 = M. S. | title = Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems | chapter = Quantified Canine: Inferring Dog Personality from Wearables | date = 2023| pages = 1–19 | doi= 10.1145/3544548.3581088| arxiv = 2301.06964 | isbn = 9781450394215 | s2cid = 255942162 }} This recognizability has led to machine learning algorithms to categorize barks,{{Cite journal |last1=Molnár |first1=Csaba |last2=Kaplan |first2=Frédéric |last3=Roy |first3=Pierre |last4=Pachet |first4=François |last5=Pongrácz |first5=Péter |last6=Dóka |first6=Antal |last7=Miklósi |first7=Ádám |date=2008-07-01 |title=Classification of dog barks: a machine learning approach |url=https://www.academia.edu/1542217 |journal=Animal Cognition |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=389–400 |doi=10.1007/s10071-007-0129-9 |pmid=18197442 |issn=1435-9448|citeseerx=10.1.1.140.9111 |s2cid=8577163 }} and commercial products and apps such as BowLingual.

{{also|Baby talk#Pet-directed speech}}

Dogs can be trained to understand hundreds of spoken words, including Chaser (1,022 words),{{Cite journal |last1=Pilley |first1=John W. |last2=Reid |first2=Alliston K. |title=Border collie comprehends object names as verbal referents |url=http://webs.wofford.edu/reidak/Pubs/Pilley%20and%20Reid%202011.pdf |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=184–195 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2010.11.007 |pmid=21145379 |year=2011 |s2cid=18753940 |access-date=1 December 2017 |archive-date=31 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831174307/https://webs.wofford.edu/reidak/Pubs/Pilley%20and%20Reid%202011.pdf |url-status=dead }} Betsy (340 words),{{Cite journal |last1=Grassmann |first1=Susanne |last2=Kaminski |first2=Juliane |last3=Tomasello |first3=Michael |date=2012-07-01 |title=How two word-trained dogs integrate pointing and naming |journal=Animal Cognition |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=657–665 |doi=10.1007/s10071-012-0494-x |pmid=22526689 |issn=1435-9448|pmc=3377900 }} Rico (200 words),{{cite journal|last=Kaminski|first=Juliane|author2=Josep Call|author3=Julia Fischer|date=11 June 2004|title=Word Learning in a Domestic Dog: Evidence for "Fast Mapping"|pages=1682–3|journal=Science|volume=304|issue=5677|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.1097859|url=http://www.eva.mpg.de/psycho/pdf/Publications_2004_PDF/Kaminski-Dog_fast_mapping-Science2004.pdf|access-date=January 2, 2013|pmid=15192233|bibcode=2004Sci...304.1682K|s2cid=31901162|author2-link=Josep Call|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130108061429/http://www.eva.mpg.de/psycho/pdf/Publications_2004_PDF/Kaminski-Dog_fast_mapping-Science2004.pdf|archive-date=8 January 2013|url-status=dead}} and others.{{Cite book |title=The intelligence of dogs : canine consciousness and capabilities |last=Coren |first=Stanley |date=1994 |publisher=Free Press |isbn=978-0029066836 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/intelligenceofd00core/page/93 93–97, 100–109] |oclc=29703107 |url=https://archive.org/details/intelligenceofd00core/page/93 }} They can react appropriately when a human uses verbs and nouns in new combinations, such as "fetch ball" or "paw frisbee."

Canine researcher Bonnie Bergin trained dogs to obey 20 written commands on flashcards, in Roman or Japanese characters, including 🚫 to keep them away from an area.{{Cite book |title=Teach your dog to read : a unique step-by-step program to expand your dog's mind and strengthen the bond between you |last=Bergin |first=Bonnie |date=2006 |publisher=Broadway Books |isbn=978-0767922456 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/teachyourdogtore00berg/page/2 2, 3, 8, 139, 182–5] |oclc=61211431 |url=https://archive.org/details/teachyourdogtore00berg/page/2 }}

Shepherds and others have developed detailed commands to tell herding dogs when to move, stop, collect or separate herd animals.{{Cite book |title=Herding dogs : progressive training |last=Holland |first=Vergil |date=1994 |publisher=Howell Book House |isbn=978-0876056448 |location=New York |oclc=29844283}}{{Cite book |title=Stockdog savvy |last=Hartnagle-Taylor |first=Jeanne Joy |date=2010 |publisher=Alpine Publications |isbn=978-1577791065 |location=Crawford, CO |oclc=456420606}}

Claims of interspecies communication between dogs and humans, with the use of sound buttons, have prompted researchers at the University of California, San Diego to begin an ongoing research effort (as of 2025) into potential canine linguistic capabilities.{{Cite web|last=Sanchez|first=Kait|date=2020-11-11|title=How Bunny the dog is pushing scientists' buttons|url=https://www.theverge.com/21557375/bunny-the-dog-talks-researchers-animal-cognition-language-tiktok|access-date=2021-06-02|website=The Verge|language=en}}{{Cite news |last=West-Knights |first=Imogen |date=2025-01-03 |title=Will you ever be able to chat with your dog? |url=https://www.economist.com/1843/2025/01/03/will-you-ever-be-able-to-chat-with-your-dog |access-date=2025-01-04 |work=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}

Human-Feline communication is dated to at least 9500–10000 B.C. according to archeological evidence from the Neolithic village of Shillourokambos on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus.{{Cite web |date=2004-04-08 |title=Oldest Known Pet Cat? 9,500-Year-Old Burial Found on Cyprus |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/oldest-known-pet-cat-9500-year-old-burial-found-on-cyprus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223000737/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/oldest-known-pet-cat-9500-year-old-burial-found-on-cyprus |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 February 2021 |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=Animals |language=en}} Human and cat remains were found buried together along with ceremonial seashells, polished stones, and other decorative artifacts. This burial between a human and feline companion suggests that the two species had begun building a relationship with one another. Feline companions began with the establishment of organized wide-scale agriculture, as humans needed a way to exterminate vermin which inhabited food stores.{{Cite journal |last1=Driscoll |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Clutton-Brock |first2=Juliet |last3=Kitchener |first3=Andrew C. |last4=O'Brien |first4=Stephen J. |date=June 2009 |title=The Taming of the Cat |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-taming-of-the-cat-2009-06 |journal=Scientific American |volume=300 |issue=6 |pages=68–75 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0609-68 |doi-broken-date=2 November 2024 |bibcode=2009SciAm.300f..68D |s2cid=73704872 |issn=0036-8733 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

Evidence of the regular domestication of felines started around 5000 B.C. in Ancient Egypt with cats becoming a tool which humans kept near food surpluses as agriculture became more widespread and regulated.

Cats are known to possess a commensal relationship with humans, and are treated as housepets. Modern felines often perform no real duties and are housetrained. Human owners communicate with these felines through pet talk. There is mixed evidence that felines can understand humans or are capable of consistent training.{{Cite journal |last=Kogan |first=Lori, Cheryl Kolus, and Regina Schoenfeld-Tacher |date=2017 |title=Assessment of Clicker Training for Shelter Cats |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/7/10/73/pdf |journal=Animals |via=MDPI}}{{Cite journal |last=Grant |first=Rachel A., Jennifer Rose Warrior |date=2019 |title=Clicker training increases exploratory behaviour and time spent at the front of the enclosure in shelter cats; Implications for welfare and adoption rates |url=https://pure.northampton.ac.uk/files/31087924/Grant_Warrior_AABS_2018_Clicker_training_increases_exploratory_behaviour_and_time_spent_at_the_front_of_the_enclosure_in_shelter_cats.pdf |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |via=Elsevier}}{{Cite web |last=Todd |first=Zazie |date=2022-05-12 |title=How to train a cat |url=https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/how-train-cat |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241216024413/https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/how-train-cat |archive-date=2024-12-16 |access-date=2025-01-04 |website=British Psychological Society |language=en}}

Algorithms can distinguish 21 types of meows with different meanings, and consumer software distinguishes these meows.

{{Main|Animal training}}

Humans teach animals specific responses for specific conditions or stimuli. Training may be for purposes such as companionship, detection, protection, research and entertainment. During training humans communicate their wishes with positive or negative reinforcement. After training is finished the human communicates by giving signals with words, whistles, gestures, body language, etc.{{Cite book |title=Animal training : successful animal management through positive reinforcement |last=Ramirez |first=Ken |publisher=Shedd Aquarium |year=1999 |isbn=978-0961107499 |location=Chicago, IL |oclc=45076489}}

Captive elephants can remember tone, melody, and recognise more than 20 command words.{{Cite book |last=Lim |first=Teckwyn |url=https://www.editions.ird.fr/produit/696/9782709929943/composing-worlds-with-elephants |title=Composing Worlds with Elephants: Interdisciplinary Dialogues |publisher=IRD Éditions |year=2023 |isbn=978-2-7099-2993-6 |editor-last=Lainé |editor-first=De Nicolas |location=Marseille |pages=137-155 |chapter=From the mouth of the mahout: a review of elephant command words |editor-last2=Keil |editor-first2=P. G. |editor-last3=Khatijah Rahmat |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387795167_From_the_mouth_of_the_mahout_a_review_of_elephant_command_words}}

APOPO has trained Southern giant pouched rats to communicate to humans the presence of land mines, by scratching the ground, and tuberculosis in medical samples. They identify 40% more cases of tuberculosis than clinics do, an extra 12,000 cases from 2007 to 2017. They have identified 100,000 mines from 2003 to 2017, certifying {{convert|2,200|ha}} as mine-free. They are accurate enough that the human trainers run on the land after removing the mines which rats have identified.{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/dec/26/giant-rats-tanzania-tb-tuberculosis-african-pouched |title= The giant rats that love avocado – and can diagnose deadly TB |last= Lyons |first=Kate |date= 2017-12-26 |website= The Guardian |language= en-GB |access-date= 2017-12-26}}

Brown rats (specifically Rattus norvegicus var. Wistar) have been taught to distinguish and respond differently to different human faces.{{Cite journal |last1=Otsuka |first1=Y. |last2=Yanagi |first2=J. |last3=Watanabe |first3=S. |date=2009-02-01 |title=Discriminative and reinforcing stimulus properties of music for rats |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=121–127 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2008.10.009 |issn=0376-6357 |pmid=19022358 |s2cid=24708690}}

Patricia McConnell found that handlers around the world, speaking 16 languages, working with camels, dogs, donkeys, horses and water buffalo, all use long sounds with a steady pitch to tell animals to go more slowly (whoa, euuuuuu), and they use short repeated sounds, often rising in pitch, to speed them up or bring them to the handler (Go, Go, Go, claps, clicks). Chimpanzees, dogs, gulls, horses, rats, roosters, sheep and sparrows all use similar short repeated sounds to tell others of the same species to come closer.{{Cite book |title=The other end of the leash : why we do what we do around dogs |last=McConnell |first=Patricia |date=2002 |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0345446794 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=57–58, 63 |oclc=49870666}}

Even fish, which lack a neocortex, have been taught to distinguish and respond differently to different human faces (archerfish{{Cite journal |last1=Newport |first1=Cait |last2=Wallis |first2=Guy |last3=Reshitnyk |first3=Yarema |last4=Siebeck |first4=Ulrike E. |date=2016-06-07 |title=Discrimination of human faces by archerfish (Toxotes chatareus) |journal=Scientific Reports |language=En |volume=6 |issue=1 |doi=10.1038/srep27523 |pmid=27272551 |pmc=4895153 |issn=2045-2322 |page=27523|bibcode=2016NatSR...627523N }}) or styles of music (goldfish{{Cite journal |last1=Shinozuka |first1=Kazutaka |last2=Ono |first2=Haruka |last3=Watanabe |first3=Shigeru |title=Reinforcing and discriminative stimulus properties of music in goldfish |journal=Behavioural Processes |volume=99 |pages=26–33 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2013.06.009 |pmid=23796771 |year=2013|s2cid=439990 }} and koi{{Cite journal |last=Chase |first=Ava R. |date=2001-11-01 |title=Music discriminations by carp (Cyprinus carpio) |journal=Animal Learning & Behavior |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=336–353 |doi=10.3758/bf03192900 |issn=0090-4996|doi-access=free }}).

Molluscs, with totally different brain designs, have been taught to distinguish and respond to symbols (cuttlefish{{Cite journal |last1=Hough |first1=Alexander |last2=Boal |first2=Jean |date=2014-01-01 |title=Automation of Discrimination Training for Cuttlefish (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317386105 |journal=Keystone Journal of Undergraduate Research |volume=2 |pages=15–21 |via=Shippensburg University}} and octopus{{Cite journal |last1=Bublitz |first1=Alexander |last2=Weinhold |first2=Severine R. |last3=Strobel |first3=Sophia |last4=Dehnhardt |first4=Guido |last5=Hanke |first5=Frederike D. |date=2017 |title=Reconsideration of Serial Visual Reversal Learning in Octopus (Octopus vulgaris) from a Methodological Perspective |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=en |volume=8 |pages=54 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2017.00054 |pmid=28223940 |pmc=5294351 |issn=1664-042X|doi-access=free }}), and have been taught that food behind a clear barrier cannot be eaten (squid{{Cite journal |last1=Zepeda |first1=Emily A. |last2=Veline |first2=Robert J. |last3=Crook |first3=Robyn J. |date=2017-06-01 |title=Rapid Associative Learning and Stable Long-Term Memory in the Squid Euprymna scolopes |journal=The Biological Bulletin |volume=232 |issue=3 |pages=212–218 |doi=10.1086/693461 |pmid=28898600 |s2cid=19337578 |issn=0006-3185}}).

A harbor seal, Hoover learned to speak several phrases in understandable English as a pup from his human foster parent and used these in appropriate circumstances during his later life at the New England Aquarium until he died in 1985.{{Cite magazine |last=Hiss |first=Anthony |date=January 3, 1983 |title=Talk of the Town HOOVER |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1983/01/03/hoover |access-date=2017-12-20 |magazine=The New Yorker}} Other talking animals have been studied, though they did not always use their phrases in meaningful contexts.

{{unsourced|section|date=November 2023}}

File:Toby the sapient pig.jpg

Though animal communication has always been a topic of public comment and attention, for a period in history it surpassed this and became sensational popular entertainment. From the late 18th century through the mid 19th century, a succession of "learned pigs" and various other animals were displayed to the public in for-profit performances, boasting the ability to communicate with their owners (often in more than one language), write, solve math problems, and the like. One poster, dated 1817, shows a group of "Java sparrows" who are advertised as knowing seven languages, including Chinese and Russian.

• {{annotated link|Alex (parrot)}}
• {{annotated link|Animal cognition}}
• {{annotated link|Animal communication}}
• {{annotated link|Animal consciousness}}
• {{annotated link|Animal intelligence}}
• {{annotated link|Anna Breytenbach}}
• {{annotated link|Clever Hans}}
• {{annotated link|Great ape language}}
• {{annotated link|Interspecies communication}}
• {{annotated link|Pet humanization}}
• {{annotated link|Talking animal}}

• Sebeok, Thomas. Essays in Zoosemiotics (1990) {{ISSN|0838-5858}}
• Myers, Arthur. Communicating With Animals: The Spiritual Connection Between People and Animals (1997) {{ISBN|0-8092-3149-2}}
• Boehner, Bruce Thomas. Parrot Culture: Our 2,500-Year-Long Fascination with the World's Most Talkative Bird (2004) {{ISBN|0-8122-3793-5}}
• Summers, Patty. Talking With the Animals (1998) {{ISBN|1-57174-108-9}}
• Jay, Ricky. Learned Pigs and Fireproof Women (1987) {{ISBN|0-446-38590-5}}
• Gurney, Carol. The Language of Animals: 7 Steps to Communicating with Animals (2001) {{ISBN|0-440-50912-2}}
• Grandin, Temple. Animals in Translation: Using the Mysteries of Autism to Decode Animal Behavior (2004) {{ISBN|0-7432-4769-8}}
• Ruesch, Jurgen, and Weldon Kees. Nonverbal Communication : Notes on the Visual Perception of Human Relations. University of California Press, 1956
• Hurn, Samantha. Humans and Other Animals : Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Human-Animal Interactions. Pluto Press, 2012. Accessed 24 Feb. 2022
• Bradshaw, G. A. “You See Me, but Do You Hear Me? The Science and Sensibility of Trans-Species Dialogue.” Feminism & Psychology, vol. 20, no. 3, Aug. 2010, pp. 407–419. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353510368285
• Brown, Peter. “Talking Points.” Natural History, vol. 113, no. 9, Nov. 2004, p. 8. EBSCOhost, https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=14772118&site=ehost-live
• Perconti, Pietro. “Context-Dependence in Human and Animal Communication.” Foundations of Science, vol. 7, no. 3, Sept. 2002, pp. 341–62. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019613210814

{{Reflist}}

• [http://acp.eugraph.com/ Animal Communication Project]

{{Animal communication}}

{{Great ape language}}

{{Evolutionary psychology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Human-animal communication}}