hydroelectricity in Turkey

{{Excerpt|Climate_change_in_Turkey#Water resources|paragraph=1,2}}

File:Atatürk_Dam.jpg, part of the Southeastern Anatolia Project, is the largest in the country.|alt=Long dam seen from below with 8 large pipes on the left and gently sloping spillway on the right: in a brown landscape with patches of dark green trees.]]

File:Arch_dam_Oymapinar_(Manavgat_River,_Turkey).JPG in Antalya is typical for narrow rocky gorges.|alt=Almost vertical high smooth concrete curving dam in rocky landscape, seen from one side: holding back dark blue water with small waves]]

File:Electricity Turkey.svg

In 2021, hydropower was the cheapest source of electricity in Turkey, but the IEA expects only a small increase in hydropower by 2026, partly due to the competitive prices of wind and solar.{{Cite web |title=Renewables 2021 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2021 |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}{{Rp|pages=62,63}} Some academics, such as those at the Shura Energy Transition Center, say that there is limited potential for more hydropower.{{Cite journal |last1=Saygin |first1=D. |last2=Tör |first2=O. B. |last3=Cebeci |first3=M. E. |last4=Teimourzadeh |first4=S. |last5=Godron |first5=P. |date=2021-03-01 |title=Increasing Turkey's power system flexibility for grid integration of 50% renewable energy share |journal=Energy Strategy Reviews |language=en |volume=34 |pages=100625 |doi=10.1016/j.esr.2021.100625 |s2cid=233798310 |issn=2211-467X |doi-access=free }} In 2022, Turkey's energy ministry stated that there is "hydroelectricity potential of 433 billion kWh, while the technically usable potential is 216 billion kWh, and the economic hydroelectricity potential is 160 billion kWh/year."{{Cite web |title=Hydraulics |publisher=Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey) |url=https://enerji.gov.tr/bilgi-merkezi-enerji-hidrolik-en |access-date=2022-03-12 |archive-date=2021-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501101336/https://enerji.gov.tr/bilgi-merkezi-enerji-hidrolik-en |url-status=live }} In 2021, in comparison, 56 billion kWh was generated.

Due to climate change in the Tigris and Euphrates river basins, reduced precipitation is forecast, such as happened with the 2020 drought,{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2021-02-08|title=Drought ramps up power output from gas in Turkey in 2020|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/energy/drought-ramps-up-power-output-from-gas-in-turkey-in-2020|url-status=live|access-date=2021-02-19|website=Daily Sabah|language=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208103223/https://www.dailysabah.com/business/energy/drought-ramps-up-power-output-from-gas-in-turkey-in-2020 |archive-date=2021-02-08 }}{{Cite web|url=http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/increasing-droughts-in-turkey-are-likely-to-put-pressure-on-its-hydropower-sector/|title=Increasing Droughts in Turkey are likely to put Pressure on its Hydropower Sector|date=2019-07-03|website=Future Directions International|language=en-AU|access-date=2019-07-11|archive-date=2019-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711191933/http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/increasing-droughts-in-turkey-are-likely-to-put-pressure-on-its-hydropower-sector/|url-status=usurped}}{{Citation|last1=Turkes|first1=Murat|title=Impacts of Climate Change on Precipitation Climatology and Variability in Turkey|date=2020|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_14|work=Water Resources of Turkey|pages=467–491|editor-last=Harmancioglu|editor-first=Nilgun B.|series=World Water Resources|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_14|isbn=978-3-030-11729-0|access-date=2020-10-24|last2=Turp|first2=M. Tufan|last3=An|first3=Nazan|last4=Ozturk|first4=Tugba|last5=Kurnaz|first5=M. Levent|volume=2 |s2cid=198403431|editor2-last=Altinbilek|editor2-first=Dogan|url-access=subscription|hdl=11729/2241|hdl-access=free}} which caused a generation drop of over 10% compared to the previous year.{{Cite news|date=2021-01-06|title=Hydro plants' electricity generation down 12 pct|newspaper=Hürriyet Daily News|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/hydro-plants-electricity-generation-down-12-pct-161412|access-date=2021-01-07|archive-date=2021-01-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106230821/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/hydro-plants-electricity-generation-down-12-pct-161412|url-status=live}} In 2021, partly due to the drought, generation by non-hydro renewables overtook hydro for the first time.{{Cite web|title=Turkey Electricity Review 2022|url=https://ember-climate.org/project/turkey-electricity-review-2022/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Ember| date=20 January 2022 |language=en-GB|archive-date=2022-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120073531/https://ember-climate.org/project/turkey-electricity-review-2022/|url-status=live}} To conserve hydropower, solar power is being added next to existing hydropower,{{Cite web |date=2021-02-08 |title=Turkey expands renewables capacity in gigawatts rather than megawatts |url=https://balkangreenenergynews.com/turkey-expands-renewables-capacity-in-gigawatts-rather-than-megawatts/ |access-date=2021-04-24 |website=Balkan Green Energy News |language=en-US}} such as at the Lower Kaleköy Dam.{{Cite web |last=Todorović |first=Igor |date=2022-03-08 |title=Hybrid power plants dominate Turkey's new 2.8 GW grid capacity allocation |url=https://balkangreenenergynews.com/hybrid-power-plants-dominate-turkeys-new-2-8-gw-grid-capacity-allocation/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308220824/https://balkangreenenergynews.com/hybrid-power-plants-dominate-turkeys-new-2-8-gw-grid-capacity-allocation/ |archive-date=2022-03-08 |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Balkan Green Energy News |language=en-US}} Adding hydropower to existing irrigation dams may also be feasible.{{Cite book |last1=Al Bayatı |first1=Omar |last2=Kucukali |first2=Serhat |last3=Maraş |first3=Hakan |title=Sustainable Energy Development and Innovation |series=Innovative Renewable Energy |date=2022 |chapter=Finding the Most Suitable Irrigation Dams for Hydropower Development in Turkey Using Multi-Criteria Scoring and GIS Spatial Analysis Tool |url=https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/finding-the-most-suitable-irrigation-dams-for-hydropower-develop/20166496 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041838/https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/finding-the-most-suitable-irrigation-dams-for-hydropower-develop/20166496 |archive-date=2022-03-17 |access-date=2022-03-11 |publisher=Springer|pages=709–715|isbn=978-3-030-76221-6|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-76221-6_78|editor-last1=Sayigh|editor-first1=Ali|language=en}}

Hydropower usually peaks in April or May.{{Cite web |date=2021-02-23 |title=Turkish coal plants to widen their cost advantage in 2Q |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2189680-turkish-coal-plants-to-widen-their-cost-advantage-in-2q |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223203610/https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2189680-turkish-coal-plants-to-widen-their-cost-advantage-in-2q |archive-date=2021-02-23 |access-date=2021-03-01 |website=Argus Media |language=en}} Adding pumps to existing dams, to store wind and solar power as hydropower, has been suggested as more feasible than building new dams with pumps.{{Cite journal|last1=Barbaros|first1=Efe|last2=Aydin|first2=Ismail|last3=Celebioglu|first3=Kutay|date=2021-02-01|title=Feasibility of pumped storage hydropower with existing pricing policy in Turkey|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136403212030736X|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|language=en|volume=136|pages=110449|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2020.110449|s2cid=225161166|issn=1364-0321|access-date=2021-01-07|archive-date=2022-03-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310122320/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S136403212030736X|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Although dammed hydro can be dispatched within 3 to 5 minutes,{{Cite web|last=Birpınar|first=Mehmet Emin|date=2021-08-31|title=Does hydroelectricity help or damage Turkey? {{!}} Opinion|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/opinion/op-ed/does-hydroelectricity-help-or-damage-turkey|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Daily Sabah|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-08-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831040147/https://www.dailysabah.com/opinion/op-ed/does-hydroelectricity-help-or-damage-turkey|url-status=live}} according to analysts at S&P Global, such generation instructions from the Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation can be countermanded by the State Hydraulic Works, which may have contributed to blackouts in August 2021.{{Cite web |last=O'Byrne |first=David |date=2021-08-09 |title=Turkey faces double whammy as low hydro aligns with gas contract expiries |url=https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/electric-power/080921-turkey-faces-double-whammy-as-low-hydro-aligns-with-gas-contract-expiries |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822165339/https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/electric-power/080921-turkey-faces-double-whammy-as-low-hydro-aligns-with-gas-contract-expiries |archive-date=2021-08-22 |access-date=2021-08-31 |website=S&P Global Commodity Insights |language=en}}

File:KebanDam.JPG: the first and uppermost of several big dams built on the Euphrates.|alt=In the background brown mountains sprinkled with snow and a few clumps of dark green trees. Big pipes descend a thick concrete dam with electrical equipment at the base.]]

File:Zeynel_Bey_Mausoleum,_Hasankeyf.jpg of Zeynel Bey at Hasankeyf, before it was moved to higher ground to avoid being submerged by the controversial Ilısu Dam in the early 2020s.|alt=Stubby cylindrical structure with faded and partly ruined patterns, topped with an ornate dome. Yellow flowers in foreground and steep cliffs with grass among the crags in the background.]]

The first power plant of any kind in Turkey was a 60 kW hydro plant constructed in Tarsus, which started operation on 15 September 1902.{{Cite web |date=2 September 2021 |title=Turkey's hydropower capacity grows despite drought lowering output |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/hydropower-capacity-grows-despite-drought-lowering-output-167560 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218113606/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/hydropower-capacity-grows-despite-drought-lowering-output-167560 |archive-date=2022-02-18 |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |language=en}}{{cite web |title=Dünden Bugüne Türkiye' nin Elektrik Serüveni – 1. Bölüm |trans-title=Turkey's Electric Adventure from Past to Present – Part 1 |url=http://www.elektrikport.com/teknik-kutuphane/dunden-bugune-turkiye-nin-elektrik-seruveni--1/18501#ad-image-0 |department=Technical on-line library |publisher=Elektrikport |language=tr |access-date=2 December 2022}} Feasibility studies for more dams were done in the 1920s and 1930s. After the State Hydraulic Works (DSI) was established in 1954, major projects (such as the first large dams, the Seyhan Dam and the Sarıyar Dam) had better funding, and significant quantities of hydroelectricity were generated for the first time.{{cite journal|last1=Dursun|first1=Bahtiyar |last2=Gokcol|first2=Cihan|title=The role of hydroelectric power and contribution of small hydropower plants for sustainable development in Turkey|journal=Renewable Energy|date=2011|volume=36|issue=4 |pages=1227–1235 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2010.10.001}} Turkey built dams to meet its growing energy demand from rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population growth. Between 1970 and 2019, generation increased by almost 10% per year,{{Cite journal |last1=Gökçin Özuyar |first1=Pınar |last2=Gürcan |first2=Efe Can |last3=Bayhantopçu |first3=Esra |date=2021 |title=The Policy Orientation of Turkey's Current Climate Change Strategy |url=https://briqjournal.com/en/the-policy-orientation-turkeys-current-climate-change-strategy |url-status=live |journal=Belt & Road Initiative Quarterly |language=en |volume=2|issue=3 |pages=31–46 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041808/https://briqjournal.com/en/the-policy-orientation-turkeys-current-climate-change-strategy |archive-date=2022-03-17 |access-date=2022-03-12}} and 2.5 GW was added during 2020. In 2021, generation from other renewables exceeded hydro for the first time.

Following the 1973 oil crisis, the government began the Southeastern Anatolia Project, both for energy security and to help the poorer southeastern part of Anatolia catch up with the growing economy. Amongst other developments, such as irrigation projects, several hydropower plants were built. By 1988, hydropower comprised over 60% of total electrical generation. Before that, coal had been the only other substantial source. Around the same time, natural gas also began to play an important role. The Southeastern Anatolia project cost 190.8 billion lira (US$ {{To USD round|190.8|TUR|2020|sf=2}} billion, at 2020 prices).{{Cite web |title=GAP Regional Development Administration |url=http://www.gap.gov.tr/en/latest-state-in-gap-page-47.html |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=gap.gov.tr |archive-date=2022-02-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206093752/http://www.gap.gov.tr/en/latest-state-in-gap-page-47.html |url-status=live }} According to the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, by 2021 this cost was recovered in the value of the electricity alone.{{Cite web |last=Kılıçlı |first=Şeref |date=25 March 2021 |title=Southeastern Anatolia Project as a global model |url=https://www.itohaber.com/haber/english/215601/southeastern_anatolia_project_as_a_global_model.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041814/https://www.itohaber.com/haber/english/215601/southeastern_anatolia_project_as_a_global_model.html |archive-date=2022-03-17 |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Istanbul Chamber of Commerce}} Almost 25% of the country's hydroelectricity is now produced by the project.{{Cite web |title=GAP Regional Development Administration |url=http://www.gap.gov.tr/en/latest-state-in-gap-page-47.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206093752/http://www.gap.gov.tr/en/latest-state-in-gap-page-47.html |archive-date=2022-02-06 |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=gap.gov.tr}}

However, some Kurds have called the project "mass cultural destruction". Most of the project has been completed, but at least one dam (Silvan Dam) and hydroelectric power plant are still under construction.{{Cite web |last=Westcott |first=Tom |date=30 January 2022 |title=Iraq: Fishermen fear shrinking Lake Razzaza spells end to their livelihoods |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/iraq-lake-razzaza-milh-shrinking-dying-fishing-trade |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210172804/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/iraq-lake-razzaza-milh-shrinking-dying-fishing-trade |archive-date=2022-02-10 |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}} The project is controversial with the downstream countries of Iraq and Syria.{{Cite web |last=Al-Sulami |first=Mohammed |date=2021-11-29 |title=Region at risk due to divisive water policies |url=https://arab.news/nfbrx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041815/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1977746 |archive-date=2022-03-17 |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=Arab News |language=en}} According to Dr. Arda Bilgen, the reduced flow of the Euphrates was one reason Syria supported PKK attacks on Turkey in the 1980s. Since the Syrian Civil War started in 2011, international water cooperation has been very difficult.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, private companies have been able to get long leases on rivers,{{Cite web |last=Terzi |first=Melis |date=2021 |title=Environmental governance and legitimacy of hydropower development in Turkey |url=https://nmbu.brage.unit.no/nmbu-xmlui/handle/11250/2836044 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210165913/https://nmbu.brage.unit.no/nmbu-xmlui/handle/11250/2836044 |archive-date=2022-02-10 |access-date=2022-02-10 |publisher=Norwegian University of Life Sciences |journal=}} and DSI has mainly coordinated and supervised, rather than constructing its own power plants. Particularly in the north-east of Turkey, small-scale projects were developed. Contrary to expectations, these did not bring about more consensus and local acceptance than large dams.

The geography of Turkey includes 25 river basins, and generally those with the most potential for hydropower are the least populated. The private sector has generally invested in run-of-river hydroelectricity, and the public sector in dammed hydro. Private-sector water-use agreements are usually for 49 years, with minimum discharge flow of 10% of the previous ten-year average. As of 2022 there are 730 hydropower plants{{cite web | url=https://balkangreenenergynews.com/erdogan-inaugurates-34-hydropower-plants/ | title=Erdogan inaugurates 34 hydropower plants | date=12 August 2022 }} making up 31 GW of the country's 100 GW generating capacity. The state electricity company owns 14 GW, while the only private companies with over 1 GW are Cengiz, EnerjiSA, and Limak. In spring, water flow is greatest, but electricity demand is low and its price may consequently also be low. Another 4 GW is planned for after 2023.

The province with the most hydroelectricity capacity is Şanliurfa, with over 3 GW, followed by Elazığ and Diyarbakır, each with over 2 GW. The highest dam is Yusufeli.{{Cite web |title=Yusufeli Dam & HEPP |url=https://www.suyapi.com.tr/en/38045/Yusufeli-Dam-HEPP |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318202855/https://www.suyapi.com.tr/en/38045/Yusufeli-Dam-HEPP |archive-date=2022-03-18 |access-date=2022-03-17 |website=Su-Yapı Engineering & Consulting Inc.}}

{{main|List of hydroelectric power stations in Turkey}}

The three longest rivers in Turkey also have the highest capacity hydropower plants, the largest being Atatürk Dam on the Euphrates. On the same river are the second and third largest. Ilısu on the Tigris is the newest large dam. In contrast, the Kızılırmak River, which flows north into the Black Sea, has smaller projects. Its hydro plants are less than 1 GW, the largest being Altınkaya.{{Cite book |last1=Akbulut |first1=Nuray (Emir) |chapter= Rivers of Turkey |date=2022-01-01 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081026120000171 |title=Rivers of Europe |edition=2nd |pages=851–880 |editor-last=Tockner |editor-first=Klement |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |isbn=978-0-08-102612-0 |access-date=2022-03-11 |last2=Bayarı |first2=Serdar |last3=Akbulut |first3=Aydın |last4=Özyurt |first4=Naciye Nur |last5=Sahin |first5=Yalcın |editor2-last=Zarfl |editor2-first=Christiane |editor3-last=Robinson |editor3-first=Christopher T. |archive-date=2022-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311123209/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081026120000171 |url-status=live|doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102612-0.00017-1 |s2cid=245976522 }}

The dams and their hydroelectric power plants have had positive and negative impacts on the environment. One of the most useful features of hydroelectric power plants is that generation can be quickly ramped up and down, to meet demand and balance wind and solar. Compared to fossil-fuel power plants, the country's hydroelectricity emits much less greenhouse gas. Being a local source, it improves the balance of payments, since Turkey imports around three-quarters of its energy.{{Cite web |title=Turkey 2021 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/turkey-2021 |access-date=2022-03-17 |website=International Energy Agency |language=en-GB |archive-date=2022-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307105600/https://www.iea.org/reports/turkey-2021 |url-status=live }}

As well as environmental impact assessment reports before construction, there are also water-usage studies and ecological evaluation; but according to a 2021 study by Melis Terzi, stipulations in the reports are sometimes ignored during construction.{{Rp|page=74}} The study also says that the legal requirement to provide fish passages has often been ignored. Large hydropower plants may be bad for sturgeon, as in neighbouring Georgia.{{Cite web |last=Jacob |first=Pearly |date=11 August 2021 |title=Hydropower dams threaten Georgia's haven for endangered sturgeon |url=https://www.dw.com/en/hydropower-dams-threaten-georgias-haven-for-endangered-sturgeon/a-58731210 |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Deutsche Welle |language=en-GB |archive-date=2022-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311124434/https://www.dw.com/en/hydropower-dams-threaten-georgias-haven-for-endangered-sturgeon/a-58731210 |url-status=live }} In 2021, the Turkish company contracted to build the Namakhvani hydropower plant in Georgia pulled out after protests.{{Cite web |last=Mandaria |first=Tornike |date=24 September 2021 |title=Turkish company pulls out of controversial Georgian hydropower project |url=https://eurasianet.org/turkish-company-pulls-out-of-controversial-georgian-hydropower-project |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311124751/https://eurasianet.org/turkish-company-pulls-out-of-controversial-georgian-hydropower-project |archive-date=2022-03-11 |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Eurasianet |language=en}} According to the Bianet newspaper, sometimes small rivers have completely dried out in summer due to hydropower requirements.{{Cite web |date=13 August 2021 |title=There are 246 active hydroelectric power plants in Turkey's Black Sea region |url=https://bianet.org/english/environment/248701-there-are-246-active-hydroelectric-power-plants-in-turkey-s-black-sea-region |website=Bianet |access-date=11 March 2022 |archive-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813053815/https://bianet.org/english/environment/248701-there-are-246-active-hydroelectric-power-plants-in-turkey-s-black-sea-region |url-status=live }} Fish, such as the kisslip himri, may be threatened with extinction; but this is unclear, as there have been no studies since 2014.{{Cite web |last1=Freyhof |first1=Jörg |last2=Bergner |first2=Laura |last3=Ford |first3=Matthew |date=2020 |title=Threatened Freshwater Fishes of the Mediterranean Basin Biodiversity Hotspot |url=https://balkanrivers.net/Threatened_Fish_MedBasin.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215015413/https://balkanrivers.net/Threatened_Fish_MedBasin.pdf |archive-date=2022-02-15 |access-date=2022-03-17 |publisher=EuroNatur & RiverWatch}} Sediment management is sometimes not up to the EU Water Framework Directive standard.{{Cite book |last1=Kucukali |first1=Serhat |chapter=Environmental Sustainability Assessment of Small Hydropower Plants: A Case Study from Ceyhan River Basin in Turkey |date=2022 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76221-6_77 |pages=699–706 |editor-last1=Sayigh |editor-first1=Ali |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-76221-6_77 |isbn=978-3-030-76221-6 |access-date=2022-03-11 |last2=Alp |first2=Ahmet |last3=Akyüz |first3=Adil |last4=Al Bayatı |first4=Omar |title=Sustainable Energy Development and Innovation |series=Innovative Renewable Energy |archive-date=2022-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041812/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-76221-6_77 |url-status=live }} Turkey has not yet adopted the sustainability certification devised by the International Hydropower Association in 2021.{{Cite web |last=Pittock |first=Jamie |date=27 September 2021 |title=The hydropower industry is talking the talk. But fine words won't save our last wild rivers |url=http://theconversation.com/the-hydropower-industry-is-talking-the-talk-but-fine-words-wont-save-our-last-wild-rivers-168252 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311171846/https://theconversation.com/the-hydropower-industry-is-talking-the-talk-but-fine-words-wont-save-our-last-wild-rivers-168252 |archive-date=2022-03-11 |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}

In some areas locals are concerned that dams result in a decrease in nature tourism. Like national energy policy as a whole,{{Cite web |last1=Özkaynak |first1=Begüm |last2=Turhan |first2=Ethemcan |last3=Aydın |first3=Cem İskender |editor1-first=Güneş Murat |editor1-last=Tezcür |date=2022-04-25 |title=The Politics of Energy in Turkey |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190064891.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190064891-e-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041835/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190064891.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190064891-e-29 |archive-date=2022-03-17 |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=The Oxford Handbook of Turkish Politics |pages=224–248 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190064891.013.29|isbn=978-0-19-006489-1 }} decision-making for dam construction is centralized and not always transparent, which can lead to complaints by local people. Tens of thousands of people have been displaced by reservoirs.{{Cite web |last=Harte |first=Julia |date=9 October 2018 |title=Turkish hydroelectric dam will leave hundreds homeless |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-dam-idUSKCN1MJ1SR |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210182727/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-dam-idUSKCN1MJ1SR |archive-date=2022-02-10 |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=Reuters}} Archaeologists, such as Nevin Soyukaya, say that there has been disregard for the damage to ancient settlements, such as at Hasankeyf.{{Cite news |last=Tastekin |first=Fehim |date=2017-08-24 |title=Turkish dam project would wipe out ancient town |language=en-us |work=Al-Monitor |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/08/turkey-anger-simmers-over-destruction-in-ancient-town.html |url-status=live |access-date=2017-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930052337/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/08/turkey-anger-simmers-over-destruction-in-ancient-town.html |archive-date=2017-09-30}}

Dams on international rivers, such as the controversial Ilısu Dam on the Tigris completed in 2021, can cause water shortages in downstream countries; to wit, Iraq and Syria.{{Cite web |last=Hockenos |first=Paul |date=3 October 2019 |title=Turkey's Dam-Building Spree Continues, At Steep Ecological Cost |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/turkeys-dam-building-spree-continues-at-steep-ecological-cost |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191005232414/https://e360.yale.edu/features/turkeys-dam-building-spree-continues-at-steep-ecological-cost |archive-date=2019-10-05 |access-date=2019-11-01 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}} Although international protests stopped foreign funding of the dam, Iraqi protests could not prevent it being built with domestic funding.{{Cite journal |journal=Development and Change|last1=Güneş |first1=Murat Tezcür |last2=Schiel |first2=Rebecca |last3=Wilson |first3=Bruce M. |date=2021 |title=The Effectiveness of Harnessing Human Rights: The Struggle over the Ilısu Dam in Turkey |url=https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/8082-the-effectiveness-of-harnessing-human-rights-the-struggle-over-the-ilsu-dam-in-turkey.pdf |doi=10.1111/dech.12690 |access-date=2022-03-12 |archive-date=2022-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041758/https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/8082-the-effectiveness-of-harnessing-human-rights-the-struggle-over-the-ilsu-dam-in-turkey.pdf |url-status=live |volume=52|issue=6|pages=1343–1369|s2cid=240199587 }} There are also 14 Turkish dams on the Euphrates. The Tigris and Euphrates are the main source of water for much of Iraq, and Iraqi academics say that Turkish dams on those rivers are damaging the environment of Iraq. Although a 1987 Euphrates water-sharing agreement assured that at least 500 cubic metres per second would leave Turkey, for Syria and Iraq,{{Cite web |last=Glynn |first=Sarah |date=14 June 2021 |title=Turkey is reportedly depriving hundreds of thousands of people of water |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/turkey-reportedly-depriving-hundreds-thousands-people-water/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312144729/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/turkey-reportedly-depriving-hundreds-thousands-people-water/ |archive-date=2022-03-12 |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=openDemocracy |language=en}} this assumed that the water flow would not be reduced. However, natural flow has been reduced due to climate change in Turkey, leading to real flow being less than Iraq's allocations in the agreement.{{Cite web |last1=Sottimano |first1=Aurora |last2=Samman |first2=Nabil |date=2022-02-24 |title=Syria has a water crisis. And it's not going away. |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309000108/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/syria-has-a-water-crisis-and-its-not-going-away/ |archive-date=2022-03-09 |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Atlantic Council |language=en-US}} Hydropower projects on the transboundary rivers Kura and Aras have been criticised by local environmental activists and have also caused tensions between Turkey and downstream Caucasian countries, such as Azerbaijan.{{Cite web |last=Kuyumjian |first=Nareg |date=28 December 2021 |title=Dam building on the Kura-Aras and water tensions in the Caucasus |url=https://eurasianet.org/perspectives-dam-building-on-the-kura-aras-and-water-tensions-in-the-caucasus |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313145814/https://eurasianet.org/perspectives-dam-building-on-the-kura-aras-and-water-tensions-in-the-caucasus |archive-date=2022-03-13 |access-date=2022-03-13 |website=Eurasianet |language=en}}

{{As of|2022|February}}, the feed-in tariff (FiT – excluding domestic components incentive) was 400 Turkish lira (TL)/MWh (about US$29), more than solar and wind but less than geothermal.{{Cite web |last=Kyrylo |date=2022-02-17 |title=(2022) Turkey's Feed-in Tariff For Renewable Energy Sources Support And YEKDEM 2022 Outlook |url=https://futureenergygo.com/turkeys-feed-in-tariff-for-renewable-energy-sources-support-and-yekdem-2022-outlook/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041811/https://futureenergygo.com/turkeys-feed-in-tariff-for-renewable-energy-sources-support-and-yekdem-2022-outlook/ |archive-date=2022-03-17 |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=Future Energy Go |language=en-US}} However, in late 2021 the government and private-sector energy analysts had already predicted that the day-ahead price on the electricity market throughout 2022 would be higher than the FiT for the first year, thus resulting in a negative contract for difference. By late March 2022, the spot price of electricity had reached the ceiling (thrice the average price over the past 12 months) of 1745 TL (more than US$115),{{Cite web |title=Spot Electricity Market |url=https://www.epias.com.tr/en/spot-electricity-market}} and the energy ministry was reported to be considering different ceiling prices for different sources of electricity.{{Cite web |last=Kozok |first=Firat |date=17 March 2022 |title=Turkey Plans Variable Prices for Power Plants to Tame Inflation |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-17/turkey-plans-variable-prices-for-power-plants-to-tame-inflation |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=www.bloomberg.com}} It is not yet known what the ceiling price of hydroelectricity will be, or even if such a scheme will actually be legislated. Because transmission congestion of run-of-river can cause price imbalances, zonal pricing has been proposed.{{Cite journal |last1=Selcuk |first1=O. |last2=Acar |first2=B. |last3=Dastan |first3=S. A. |date=2022 |title=System integration costs of wind and hydropower generations in Turkey |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/rensus/v156y2022ics1364032121012466.html |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=156 |access-date=2022-03-11 |archive-date=2022-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317041817/https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/rensus/v156y2022ics1364032121012466.html |url-status=live |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.111982|s2cid=245415291 |at=Article 111982|url-access=subscription }} {{As of|2022|11}} 10 hydropower stations are eligible for capacity mechanism payments.{{Cite web |date=2022-11-03 |title=2023'de 50 santral kapasite mekanizmasından yararlanacak |trans-title=TEİAŞ announces the 50 power plants to benefit from the capacity mechanism in 2023 |url=https://www.enerjigunlugu.net/teias-2023te-desteklenecek-santralleri-belirledi-51109h.htm |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=Enerji Günlüğü |language=tr}}

Many dams were built by Republican People's Party governments in the 20th century. However, the party's current stance on hydropower is unclear. Its 2018 general election manifesto did not mention it, and the party has opposed many recent dam projects, mostly due to environmental concerns.{{Cite web |date=11 February 2022 |title=Enerji santrallerini durdurmak için kırk takla atan CHP bugün "elektrik faturası" üzerinden sokak hareketleri planlıyor |trans-title=Republic Peoples Party, which went all out to stop power plants, plans street actions today on the "electricity bill" |url=https://www.takvim.com.tr/video/ekonomi-videolari/enerji-santrallerini-durdurmak-icin-kirk-takla-atan-chp-bugun-elektrik-faturasi-uzerinden-sokak-hareketleri-planliyor |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211092836/http://www.takvim.com.tr/video/ekonomi-videolari/enerji-santrallerini-durdurmak-icin-kirk-takla-atan-chp-bugun-elektrik-faturasi-uzerinden-sokak-hareketleri-planliyor |archive-date=2022-02-11 |access-date=2022-03-17 |website=Takvim |language=tr}} The Justice and Development Party, which has been in power nationwide since 2002 (in coalition with the Nationalist Movement Party since 2016), has also built many dams and encouraged private companies to build run-of-river hydro. According to its party platform, the Good Party "supports the utilization of local and renewable resources to their fullest extent", which includes hydropower.{{Cite web |title=Good Party Platform |url=https://iyiparti.org.tr/storage/img/doc/iyi-parti-guncel-parti-program.pdf |access-date=2022-03-14 |language=tr|publisher=Good Party |archive-date=2021-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613023841/https://iyiparti.org.tr/storage/img/doc/iyi-parti-guncel-parti-program.pdf |url-status=live }} The Peoples' Democratic Party, in contrast, is more opposed to hydroelectric plants due to their impact on communities and environments.{{Cite web |date=2022-03-14 |title=HDP's Stance on Hydroelectricity |url=https://hdp.org.tr/en/peoples-democratic-party/8760/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314171234/https://hdp.org.tr/en/peoples-democratic-party/8760/ |archive-date=2022-03-14 |access-date=2022-03-14 |publisher=Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)}} Arda Bilgen, a Turkish academic, says that since the 1960s the central government (inspired primarily by the United States Bureau of Reclamation) has used dam building to strengthen the central government's hold over Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia, to help grow these regions' economies, using a top-down approach.{{Cite web |last=Lombardo |first=Joseph |date=December 2020 |title=Power and Politics of Turkey's Ongoing Hydroelectric Projects --an interview with Dr Arda Bilgen |url=https://www.turkheritage.org/en/publications/analysis-by-tho-contributors-and-liaisons/the-power-and-politics-of-turkeys-ongoing-hydroelectric-projects--an-interview-with-dr-arda-bilgen-9175 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410111150/https://www.turkheritage.org/en/publications/analysis-by-tho-contributors-and-liaisons/the-power-and-politics-of-turkeys-ongoing-hydroelectric-projects--an-interview-with-dr-arda-bilgen-9175 |archive-date=2021-04-10 |access-date=2022-03-13 |website=Turkish Heritage Organization |language=en}}

Turkey was one of three countries that voted against the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention, which is the main international freshwater law. According to Nareg Kuyumjian at the Environmental Law Institute, this was because Turkey benefited from "hydroanarchy".

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{{Portal|Turkey|Water|Renewable energy}}

• [https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/946301468309844309/sample-guidelines-cumulative-environmental-impact-assessment-for-hydropower-projects-in-turkey Sample guidelines : cumulative environmental impact assessment for hydropower projects in Turkey]
• [https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-54664816 Hydropower in Turkey's Black Sea region (in Turkish)]

{{Asia topic|Hydroelectricity in}}

{{Europe topic|Hydroelectricity in}}