hypergamy

{{Short description|Practice of a person marrying a spouse of higher social status}}

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Hypergamy (colloquially referred to as "dating up" or "marrying up"{{cite web|first=Almara|last=Abgarian|date=21 October 2018|url=https://metro.co.uk/2018/10/21/what-is-hypergamy-and-are-some-people-prone-to-it-8041028/|title=What is hypergamy and are some people prone to it?|website=metro.co.uk|access-date=2 July 2019}}) is a term used in social science for the act or practice of a person dating or marrying a spouse of higher social status than themselves.

The antonym "hypogamy"{{Efn|1=Not to be confused with the botanical term "hypogynous".}} refers to the inverse: marrying a person of lower social class or status (colloquially "marrying down").

The term hypergyny can also be used to describe the overall practice of women marrying up, since the men would be marrying down.{{cite journal|date=May 1979|first=Mildred|last=Dickemann|title=The ecology of mating systems in hypergynous dowry societies|journal=Social Science Information|volume=18|issue=2|pages=163–195|doi=10.1177/053901847901800201|s2cid=144749330 |quote=It seemed clear from my materials that, as long ago proposed by Risley (1908) and Rivers (1921), this practice was a product of hypergyny, the upward flow of brides in a society which, being pyramidal, had fewer grooms at the top}}

Concepts such as hypergamy, hypogamy, and hypergyny could be considered as special cases of mésalliance.{{sfn|Eckland|1971|p=233}}

By income

In a 2016 paper that explored the income difference between couples in 1980 and 2012, researcher Yue Qian noted that the tendency for women to marry men with higher incomes than themselves still persists in the modern era.{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/jomf.12372| volume=79 | title=Gender Asymmetry in Educational and Income Assortative Marriage| year=2016| author=Yue Qian| journal=Journal of Marriage and Family | issue=2 | pages=318–336}}

The observed gender cliff in the distribution of women's share to the household income at 50% can be explained by income hypergamy preferences by both men and women, together with gender pay gap.{{cite journal | last=Grow | first=André | last2=Van Bavel | first2=Jan | title=The Gender Cliff in the Relative Contribution to the Household Income: Insights from Modelling Marriage Markets in 27 European Countries | journal=European Journal of Population | volume=36 | issue=4 | date=2020 | issn=0168-6577 | pmid=32994759 | pmc=7492320 | doi=10.1007/s10680-019-09547-8 | doi-access=free | pages=711–733 | url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10680-019-09547-8.pdf | access-date=9 February 2025}}

By education

A study found traditional marriage practices in which men "marry down" and women "marry up" in education do not persist in countries where women have higher educational attainment.{{Cite journal|title=The End of Hypergamy: Global Trends and Implications|journal = Population and Development Review|volume = 42|issue = 4|pages = 615–625|last=Esteve|first=Albert|date=2016-11-21|language=en|pmc = 5421994|pmid = 28490820|doi = 10.1111/padr.12012}}

Differences by sex

Studies of mate selection in dozens of countries around the world have found men and women report prioritizing different traits when it comes to choosing a mate, with both groups favoring attractive partners in general, but men tending to prefer women who are young while women tend to prefer men who are rich, well educated, and ambitious.{{cite journal|title=Women's Mating Strategies |year=1996 |url=http://www.anthro.utah.edu/PDFs/ec_evolanth.pdf |last=Cashdan |first=Elizabeth |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=134–143 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1996)5:4<134::AID-EVAN3>3.0.CO;2-G |s2cid=83722614 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412152104/http://www1.anthro.utah.edu/PDFs/ec_evolanth.pdf |archive-date=2013-04-12 }} They argue that as societies shift towards becoming more gender-equal, women's mate selection preferences shift as well. Some research provides limited support for that theory,{{cite book|title=Men's and Women's Preferences in Marital Partners in the United States, Russia, and Japan|last=Hadfield|first=Elaine|publisher=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |volume=26 |issue=6|year=1995|pages=728–750|url=http://www.elainehatfield.com/97.pdf|access-date=2013-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203072411/http://www.elainehatfield.com/97.pdf|archive-date=2013-12-03|url-status=dead}} while other research strongly contradicts it.{{cite book|last=Buss|first=David M.|author-link=David Buss|year=2016|orig-year=1994|title=The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating|title-link=The Evolution of Desire|place=New York|publisher=Basic Books|edition=3rd|pages=68–71|isbn=978-0465097760}}

One study found that women are more selective in their choice of marriage partners than are men.{{cite journal |last1=Geary |first1=David C. |last2=Vigil |first2=Jacob |last3=Byrd-Craven |first3=Jennifer |year=2003 |title=Evolution of human mate choice |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224490409552211 |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=27–42 |doi=10.1080/00224490409552211 |pmid=15216422 |s2cid=6848381 |access-date=30 December 2020|url-access=subscription }}{{cite web |last1=Geary |first1=David C. |last2=Vigil |first2=Jacob |last3=Byrd-Craven |first3=Jennifer |year=2003 |title=Evolution of Human Mate Choice |url=http://web.simmons.edu/~turnerg/MCC/Matechoice2PDF.pdf |access-date=30 December 2020 |website=web.simmons.edu}}

A study done by the University of Minnesota in 2017 found that females generally prefer dominant males as mates.{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309525008|title=Women's Mate Preferences|page=3|date=January 2017|website=ResearchGate|access-date=16 November 2021}} Research conducted throughout the world strongly supports the position that women prefer marriage with partners who are culturally successful or have high potential to become culturally successful. The most extensive of these studies included 10,000 people in 37 cultures across six continents and five islands. Women rated "good financial prospect" higher than men did in all cultures. In 29 samples, the "ambition and industriousness" of a prospective mate were more important for women than for men. Meta-analysis of research published from 1965 to 1986 revealed the same sex difference (Feingold, 1992). Across studies, 3 out of 4 women rated socioeconomic status as more important in a prospective marriage partner than did the average man.

== Prevalence ==

In Britain, marrying up has decreased significantly since the 1950s. It is becoming less common for women to marry older men, because current socioeconomic dynamics allow women more autonomy. Hypergamy does not necessitate the man being older; rather, it requires him to have higher status. The term 'social equals' typically pertains to shared social circles rather than economic equality.{{cite book |last=Rutter |first=Virginia |title=The Gender of Sexuality: Exploring Sexual Possibilities |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers (Gender Lens Series) |year=2011 |isbn=978-0742570030 |page=19 |author-link=Virginia Rutter}}{{cite book|title=Gender and Families (Gender Lens Series)|last=Coltrane|first=Scott|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2008|isbn=978-0742561519|page=[https://archive.org/details/genderfamilies0000colt/page/94 94]|url=https://archive.org/details/genderfamilies0000colt/page/94}}{{Cite web |last=McVeigh |first=Tracy |date=2012-04-07 |title=Shift in marriage patterns 'has effect on inequality' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/apr/08/marriage-and-class-study |access-date=2018-11-14 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}

A 2012 analysis of a survey of 8,953 people in 37 countries, which found that the more gender-equal a country, the likelier male and female respondents were to report seeking the same qualities in each other rather than different ones.{{cite journal|title = Stepping out of the caveman's shadow: nations' gender gap predicts degree of sex differentiation in mate preferences|date=1 October 2012|last1=Zentner|first1=M.|journal=Psychological Science|doi=10.1177/0956797612441004|pmid=22933455|volume=23|issue=10|pages=1176–85|last2=Mitura|first2=K|s2cid=3099690 }}

An empirical study examined the mate preferences of subscribers to an online dating service in Israel that had a highly skewed sex ratio (646 men for 1,000 women). Despite this skewed sex ratio, they found that "On education and socioeconomic status, women on average express greater hypergamic selectivity; they prefer mates who are superior to them in these traits... while men express a desire for an analogue of hypergamy based on physical attractiveness; they desire a mate who ranks higher on the physical attractiveness scale than they themselves do."{{cite journal |last1=Bokek-Cohen |first1=Y. |last2=Peres |first2=Y. |last3=Kanazawa |first3=S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2007 |title=Rational choice and evolutionary psychology as explanations for mate selectivity |url=http://personal.lse.ac.uk/kanazawa/pdfs/JSEC2008.pdf |journal=Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=42–55 |doi=10.1037/h0099356}}{{rp|51}}

One study did not find a statistical difference in the number of women or men "marrying-up" in a sample of 1,109 first-time married couples in the United States.{{cite journal|last1=Dalmia|first1=Sonia|last2=Sicilian|first2=Paul|year=2008|title=Kids Cause Specialization: Evidence for Becker's Household Division of Labor Hypothesis|journal=International Advances in Economic Research|volume=14|issue=4|pages=448–459|doi=10.1007/s11294-008-9171-x|s2cid=153727934 }}

Mathematical model

Gilles Saint-Paul (2008) proposes a mathematical model that purports to demonstrate that human female hypergamy occurs because women have greater lost mating opportunity costs from monogamous mating (given their slower reproductive rate and limited window of fertility compared to men), and thus must be compensated for this cost of marriage. At the end of his introduction, Saint-Paul states his model is consistent with statistics published by Bertrand et al (2013) but also notes that in US Bureau of Labor and Statistics (BLS) data gathered the same year "aggregate evidence is not so clear-cut."{{cite journal |last=Saint-Paul |first=G. |year=2008 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-demographic-economics/article/genes-legitimacy-and-hypergamy-another-look-at-the-economics-of-marriage/82BADB41DBF5B71F72E4A001F95623C8 |title=Genes, Legitimacy and Hypergamy: Another look at the economics of marriage.] Econstor, IZA Discussion Papers, No. 4456|journal=Journal of Demographic Economics |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=331–377 |doi=10.1017/dem.2015.8 |hdl=10419/36029 |hdl-access=free }}

Historical references

References to Hindu law books from the Indian subcontinent in the 19th century include the Sanskrit terms anuloma and pratiloma, respectively, for the concepts of hypergamy and hypogamy.{{citation|last=Shah|first=A. M.|title=The Structure of Indian Society: Then and Now|date=6 December 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjORKo7maRUC&pg=PA37|pages=37–|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-19770-3}}

Notes

References

Sources

{{cite book |editor-last1=Adams |editor-first1=Bert N. |editor-last2=Weirath |editor-first2=Thomas |title=Readings on the Sociology of the Family |publisher=Markham |publication-place=Chicago |date=1971 |isbn=0-8410-4025-7|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/readingsonsociol0000adam_w6e3/page/233|chapter=Theories of Mate Selection|first=Bruce K.|last=Eckland}}