intellect

File:Paris - Playing chess at the Jardins du Luxembourg - 2966.jpg and the logical aspects of the human mind.]]

Intellect is a faculty of the human mind that enables reasoning, abstraction, conceptualization, and judgment.{{sfnp|Corsini|2016|p=494}} It enables the discernment of truth and falsehood, as well as higher-order thinking beyond immediate perception.{{sfnp|Aquinas|1947}} Intellect is distinct from intelligence, which refers to the general ability to learn, adapt, and solve problems, whereas intellect concerns the application of reason to abstract or philosophical thought.{{sfnmp|1a1=Honderich|1y=2005|2a1=Colman|2y=2008}}

In philosophy, intellect ({{langx|grc|dianoia}}) has often been contrasted with {{lang|grc|nous}}, a term referring to the faculty of direct intuitive knowledge.{{sfnp|Hendrix|2015|p=114}} While intellect engages in discursive reasoning, breaking down concepts into logical sequences, nous is considered a higher cognitive faculty that allows for direct perception of truth,{{sfnp|Hendrix|2015|p=114}} especially in Platonism and Neoplatonism.{{sfnp|Plotinus|1991}} Aristotle{{sfnp|Aristotle|1907}} distinguished between the active intellect ({{lang|la|intellectus agens}}), which abstracts universal concepts, and the passive intellect, which receives sensory input.{{sfnmp|1a1=Davidson|1y=1992|1p=6|2a1=Gutas|2y=2001}}

During late antiquity and the Middle Ages, the intellect was considered the bridge between the human soul and divine knowledge, particularly in religious and metaphysical contexts.{{sfnmp|1a1=Davidson|1y=1992|1p=6|2a1=Gutas|2y=2001}} Thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas and Averroes explored intellect as the means by which humans engage in higher reasoning and theological contemplation. This intellectual tradition influenced both Christian Scholasticism and Islamic philosophy, where intellect was linked to the understanding of divine truth.{{sfnp|Davidson|1992}}

In modern psychology and neuroscience, the term "intellect" is sometimes used to describe higher cognitive functions related to abstract thought and logical reasoning. However, contemporary research primarily focuses on general intelligence (g-factor) and cognitive abilities rather than intellect as a separate faculty.{{sfnp|Deary|2020}} While theories such as Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences address diverse ways of processing information, they do not equate directly to historical or philosophical notions of intellect.{{sfnmp|1a1=Gardner|1y=1999|2a1=Collier|2y=2012}}

Etymology and meanings

In Platonism, dianoia (Greek: διάνοια) is the human cognitive capacity for, process of, or result of discursive reasoning, specifically about mathematical and technical subjects. It stands in contrast to the immediate, cognitive process of intuitive apprehension or noesis (noesis).{{sfnp|Hendrix|2015|p=114}}{{efn|In pharmacology, the term dianoia refers to a rare side effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors where a significant disruption occurs simultaneously in the psychological state (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia) and the lower digestive tract.}}

= Intellect and intelligence =

As a branch of intelligence, intellect primarily concerns the logical and rational functions of the human mind, emphasizing factual knowledge and analytical reasoning.{{sfnmp|1a1=Bergson|1y=1911|2a1=Guilford|2y=1967|3a1=Gardner|3y=1983|4a1=Damasio|4y=1994}} Additional to the functions of linear logic and the patterns of formal logic the intellect also processes the non-linear functions of fuzzy logic and dialectical logic.{{sfnp|Rowan|1989}}

Intellect and intelligence are contrasted by etymology; derived from the Latin present active participle {{Lang|la|intelligere}}, the term intelligence denotes "to gather in between", whereas the term intellect, derived from the past participle of {{Lang|la|intelligere}}, denotes "what has been gathered". Therefore, intelligence relates to the creation of new categories of understanding, based upon similarities and differences, while intellect relates to understanding existing categories.{{sfnp|Bohm|Peat|1987|p=114}}

In psychology

File:Guilford model.jpg

A person's intellectual understanding of reality derives from a conceptual model of reality based upon the perception and the cognition of the material world of reality. The conceptual model of mind is composed of the mental and emotional processes by which a person seeks, finds, and applies logical solutions to the problems of life. The full potential of the intellect is achieved when a person acquires a factually accurate understanding of the real world, which is mirrored in the mind. The mature intellect is identified by the person's possessing the capability of emotional self-management, wherein they can encounter, face, and resolve problems of life without being overwhelmed by emotion.{{sfnp|VandenBos|2006}}

Real-world experience is necessary to and for the development of a person's intellect, because, in resolving the problems of life, a person can intellectually comprehend a social circumstance (a time and a place) and so adjust their social behavior in order to act appropriately in the society of other people. Intellect develops when a person seeks an emotionally satisfactory solution to a problem; mental development occurs from the person's search for satisfactory solutions to the problems of life. Only experience of the real world can provide understanding of reality, which contributes to the person's intellectual development.{{Cite web|title =Psychology of Knowledge: Development of the Intellect|url =http://augustinianparadigm.com/psychology_of_knowledge.htm|website=augustinianparadigm.com|access-date=2015-11-01}}

= Jung and the four cognitive functions =

Carl Gustav Jung, the Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology, offered a nuanced view of intellect and intuition within the human psyche. He acknowledged the importance of intellectual faculties for logical reasoning and understanding but cautioned against overreliance on intellect at the expense of other vital aspects of the psyche, such as intuition and emotion.{{sfnp|Singer|1994}}

In Psychological Types (1923), Jung explored different modes of consciousness, including the role of intellect. He identified thinking as one of the primary psychological functions, which, when extraverted, is oriented by objective data and often recognized as the dominant mode in scientific and philosophical endeavors. He stated:{{sfnp|Jung|1923|p=430}}

{{quote|In this sense it might be said that the extraverted intellect, i.e. the mind that is orientated by objective data, is actually the only one recognized.}}

Jung also associated intellect with the thinking function in his model of psychological types. In contrast to feeling, sensation, and intuition, thinking relies on structured, rational cognition. While necessary for problem-solving and scientific inquiry, intellect alone cannot fully grasp the depths of the psyche or facilitate individuation—the process of becoming a whole and integrated self. He noted:{{sfnp|Jung|1923|p=611}}

{{quote|The faculty of directed thinking, I term intellect: the faculty of passive, or undirected, thinking, I term intellectual intuition.}}

This distinction reflects an influence from Platonic thought, where dianoia (discursive reasoning) is differentiated from noesis (direct apprehension or intuition). Jung expanded upon this by integrating these concepts into his psychological framework, emphasizing that both intellect and intuition are essential for a comprehensive understanding of the self and the world. For Jung, intellect had its place but needed to be balanced with intuitive and symbolic thought.{{sfnp|Bishop|2022}}

= Guilford and the structure of intellect =

In 1956, the psychologist Joy Paul Guilford (1897–1987) proposed a Structural Intellect (SI) model in three dimensions: (i) Operations, (ii) Contents, and (iii) Products. Each parameter contains specific, discrete elements that are individually measured as autonomous units of the human mind.{{sfnp|Guilford|1956}} Intellectual operations are represented by cognition and memory, production (by divergent thinking and convergent thinking), and evaluation. Contents are figurative and symbolic, semantic and behavioral. Products are in units, classes, and relations, systems, transformations, and implications.{{sfnp|Guilford|1967}}

Notes

References

=Works cited=

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{{cite book |last=Aristotle |author-link=Aristotle |title=On the Soul |translator=J. A. Smith |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1907 }}
{{cite book |last=Bergson |first=Henri |author-link=Henri Bergson |title=Creative Evolution |translator=Arthur Mitchell |publisher=Macmillan |year=1911 }}
{{cite book |last=Bishop |first=Paul |year=2022 |title=Reading Plato Through Jung: Why Must the Third Become the Fourth? |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-3031168130}}
{{cite book |last1=Bohm |first1=David |author1-link=David Bohm |last2=Peat |first2=F. David |title=Science, Order, and Creativity |publisher=Bantam Books |year=1987}}
{{cite magazine |last=Collier |first=Graham |date=May 2, 2012 |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-consciousness-question/201205/intellect-and-intelligence|title=Intellect and Intelligence|website=Psychology Today}}
{{cite book |last1=Colman |first1=Andrew M. |title=A Dictionary of Psychology |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0191726828 |edition=3rd}}
{{cite book |last=Corsini |first=Raymond J. |date=2016 |title=The Dictionary of Psychology |location=London |publisher=Routledge }}
{{cite book |last=Damasio |first=Antonio |title=Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain |publisher=Putnam |year=1994 }}
{{cite book |title=Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes, on Intellect |last=Davidson |first=Herbert |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992}}
{{cite book |last=Deary |first=Ian J. |title=Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020}}
{{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Howard |author-link=Howard Gardner |title=Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences |publisher=Basic Books |year=1983 }}
{{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Howard |title=Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century |publisher=Basic Books |year=1999}}
{{cite journal |last=Guilford |first=J. P. |author-link=J. P. Guilford |year=1956 |title=The Structure of Intellect |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=53 |number=4 |pages=267–293 |doi=10.1037/h0040755|pmid=13336196 }}
{{cite book |last=Guilford |first=J. P. |title=The Nature of Human Intelligence |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=1967 }}
{{cite book |last=Gutas |first=Dimitri |title=Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition |publisher=Brill |year=2001 }}
{{cite book |last=Hendrix |first=J. S. |year=2015 |title=Unconscious Thought in Philosophy and Psychoanalysis |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-53813-0}}
{{cite book |last=Honderich |first=Ted |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0199264797}}
{{cite book | last=Jung | first=Carl Gustav | author-link=Carl Jung | title=Psychological Types | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1923}}
{{cite book |last=Plotinus |author-link=Plotinus |title=The Enneads |translator=Stephen MacKenna |publisher=Penguin Classics |year=1991 }}
{{cite book |last=Rowan |first=John |year=1989 |title=The Intellect |publisher=SAGE Social Science Collections}}
{{cite book | last=Singer | first=June | title=Boundaries of the Soul: The Practice of Jung's Psychology | publisher=Anchor Books | year=1994 | orig-year=1972 | edition=Rev. and updated | location=New York}}
{{cite book|last1=VandenBos|first1=Gary R.|title=APA Dictionary of Psychology|date=2006|publisher=American Psychological Association|location=Washington, DC.|isbn=978-1-59147-380-0|edition=1st|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/apadictionaryofp00vand}}