Login
Login

internment

{{short description|Imprisonment or confinement of groups of people without trial}}

{{hatnote group|{{For|the TV episode|Internment (The Walking Dead)}}

{{distinguish|text=interment (burial) or extermination camp}}

}}

{{pp|small=yes}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}

File:Boercamp1.jpg women and children in a British concentration camp in South Africa (1899–1902)|270x270px]]

{{Discrimination sidebar|state=collapsed}}

Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges{{cite journal|jstor=27879033|title=Human Rights Vol. 5, No. 3 "INTERNMENT: {{sic|hide=n|nolink=y|reason=error in source|DENTENTION}} WITHOUT TRIAL IN NORTHERN IRELAND"|journal=Human Rights|volume=5|issue=3|last=Lowry|first=David|publisher=ABA Publishing|year=1976|location=American Bar Association|pages=261–331|quote=The essence of internment lies in incarceration without charge or trial.}} or intent to file charges.{{cite book |last=Kenney |first=Padraic |author-link=Padraic Kenney |title=Dance in Chains: Political Imprisonment in the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4c0DwAAQBAJ&q=without&pg=PA47 |quote=A formal arrest usually comes with a charge, but many regimes employed internment (that is, detention without intent to file charges |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |page=47 |isbn=978-0-19-937574-5}} The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects".{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/internment|title=the definition of internment|website=www.dictionary.com}} Thus, while it can simply mean imprisonment, it tends to refer to preventive confinement rather than confinement after having been convicted of some crime. Use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities.{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/ombudsman/2012/02/10/146691773/euphemisms-concentration-camps-and-the-japanese-internment|title=Euphemisms, Concentration Camps And The Japanese Internment|website=npr.org|date=10 February 2012 |last1=Schumacher-Matos |first1=Edward |last2=Grisham |first2=Lori}} The word internment is also occasionally used to describe a neutral country's practice of detaining belligerent armed forces and equipment on its territory during times of war, under the Hague Convention of 1907.{{cite web |title=The Second Hague Convention, 1907 |publisher=Yale.edu |url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague05.htm |access-date=1 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019114853/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/lawwar.asp |archive-date=19 October 2012}}

Interned persons may be held in prisons or in facilities known as internment camps or concentration camps. The term concentration camp originates from the Spanish–Cuban Ten Years' War when Spanish forces detained Cuban civilians in camps in order to more easily combat guerrilla forces. Over the following decades the British during the Second Boer War and the Americans during the Philippine–American War also used concentration camps.

The terms concentration camp and internment camp are used to refer to a variety of systems that greatly differ in their severity, mortality rate, and architecture; their defining characteristic is that inmates are held outside the rule of law.{{cite book |last=Stone |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Stone (historian) |title=Concentration Camps: A Very Short Introduction |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-879070-9 |pages=122–123|quote=Concentration camps throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries are by no means all the same, with respect either to the degree of violence that characterizes them or the extent to which their inmates are abandoned by the authorities... The crucial characteristic of a concentration camp is not whether it has barbed wire, fences, or watchtowers; it is, rather, the gathering of civilians, defined by a regime as de facto ‘enemies’, in order to hold them against their will without charge in a place where the rule of law has been suspended.}} Extermination camps or death camps, whose primary purpose is killing, are also imprecisely referred to as concentration camps.{{cite web |title=Nazi Camps |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nazi-camps?series=10 |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date=3 October 2020}}

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights restricts the use of internment, with Article 9 stating, "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile."[https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml#a9 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 9], United Nations

Defining internment and concentration camp

Image:Fort Marr.JPG in preparation for their removal to Indian Territory, months prior the "Trail of Tears".{{cite book |last1=Carter III |first1=Samuel |date=1976 |title=Cherokee Sunset: A Nation Betrayed. A Narrative of Travail and Triumph, Persecution and Exile |url=https://archive.org/details/cherokeesunsetna00cart|location=New York |publisher=Doubleday |page=[https://archive.org/details/cherokeesunsetna00cart/page/232 232] |isbn=978-0385067355}}]]

File:Weyler reconcentrados.png, 1896.]]

The American Heritage Dictionary defines the term concentration camp as: "A camp where persons are confined, usually without hearings and typically under harsh conditions, often as a result of their membership in a group which the government has identified as dangerous or undesirable."{{Cite web |title=Concentration camp |url=http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=concentration+camp&submit.x=-664&submit.y=-210 |access-date=22 July 2014 |publisher=American Heritage Dictionary}}

Although the first example of civilian internment may date as far back as the 1830s,{{Cite book |last=James L. Dickerson |title=Inside America's Concentration Camps: Two Centuries of Internment and Torture |publisher=Chicago Review Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-55652-806-4 |page=29}} the English term concentration camp was first used in order to refer to the reconcentration camps (Spanish:reconcentrados) which were set up by the Spanish military in Cuba during the Ten Years' War (1868–1878).{{Cite book |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia: Concentration Camp |date=2008 |publisher=Columbia University Press |edition=Sixth}}{{Cite news |date=2 November 2017 |title=Concentration Camps Existed Long Before Auschwitz |work=Smithsonian |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/concentration-camps-existed-long-before-Auschwitz-180967049/}} The label was applied yet again to camps set up by the United States during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902).{{Cite book |last1=Storey |first1=Moorfield |url=https://archive.org/stream/secretaryrootsr00codmgoog#page/n8/mode/2up |title=Secretary Root's record. "Marked severities" in Philippine warfare. An analysis of the law and facts bearing on the action and utterances of President Roosevelt and Secretary Root |last2=Codman |first2=Julian |publisher=George H. Ellis Company |year=1902 |location=Boston |pages=89–95 |author-link=Moorfield Storey |author-link2=Julian Codman}} And expanded usage of the concentration camp label continued, when the British set up camps during the Second Boer War (1899–1902) in South Africa for interning Boers during the same time period.{{Cite web |title=Documents re camps in Boer War |url=http://www-sul.stanford.edu/africa/boers.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609212833/http://www-sul.stanford.edu/africa/boers.html |archive-date=9 June 2007 |publisher=sul.stanford.edu}}

During the 20th century, the arbitrary internment of civilians by the state reached its most extreme forms in the Soviet Gulag system of concentration camps (1918–1991){{Cite web |date=2004 |title=Gulag: A History, by Anne Applebaum (Doubleday) |url=https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/anne-applebaum |access-date=2019-11-13 |website=The Pulitzer Prizes}} and the Nazi concentration camps (1933–1945). The Soviet system was the first applied by a government on its own citizens. The Gulag consisted in over 30,000 camps for most of its existence (1918–1991) and detained some 18 million from 1929 until 1953, which is only a third of its 73-year lifespan. The Nazi concentration camp system was extensive, with as many as 15,000 camps{{cite web |title=Concentration Camp Listing |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/cclist.html |publisher=Editions Kritak |location=Belgium |quote=Sourced from Van Eck, Ludo Le livre des Camps}} and {{cite book | author = Gilbert, Martin | title = Atlas of the Holocaust | location = New York | publisher= William Morrow| year = 1993| isbn = 0-688-12364-3}}. In this online site are the names of 149 camps and 814 subcamps, organized by country. and at least 715,000 simultaneous internees.{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Richard J. |title=The Third Reich in Power |publisher=Penguin Group |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-14-303790-3 |location=New York}} The total number of casualties in these camps is difficult to determine, but the deliberate policy of extermination through labor in many of the camps was designed to ensure that the inmates would die of starvation, untreated disease and summary executions within set periods of time.{{cite book |last=Marek Przybyszewski |url=http://www.historia.terramail.pl/opracowania/nowozytna/zamek_centrum_administracji.html |title=IBH Opracowania – Działdowo jako centrum administracyjne ziemi sasińskiej |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101022004220/http://www.historia.terramail.pl/opracowania/nowozytna/zamek_centrum_administracji.html |archive-date=2010-10-22 |language=pl |trans-title=Działdowo as the centre of local administration |via=Internet Archive}} Moreover, Nazi Germany established six extermination camps, specifically designed to kill millions of people, primarily by gassing.{{Cite book |last1=Robert Gellately |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1toqgWg8ROUC&q=forced+labor |title=Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany |last2=Nathan Stoltzfus |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-691-08684-2 |page=216}}{{Cite magazine |author=Anne Applebaum |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2001/oct/18/a-history-of-horror |title=A History of Horror{{!}} Review of Le Siècle des camps by Joël Kotek and Pierre Rigoulot |date=18 October 2001 |magazine=The New York Review of Books}}

File:Buchenwald Slave Laborers Liberation.jpg near Weimar photographed after their liberation by the Allies on 16 April 1945]]

As a result, the term "concentration camp" is sometimes conflated with the concept of an "extermination camp" and historians debate whether the term "concentration camp" or the term "internment camp" should be used to describe other examples of civilian internment.

The "concentration camp" label continues to see expanded use for cases post-World War II, for instance in relation to British camps in Kenya during the Mau Mau rebellion (1952–1960),{{Cite news |date=27 August 2019 |title=Museum of British Colonialism releases online 3D models of British concentration camps in Kenya |work=Morning Star |url=https://morningstaronline.co.uk/article/b/museum-british-colonialism-releases-online-3d-models-british}}{{Cite news |date=31 December 1989 |title=The Mau Mau Rebellion |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1989/12/31/the-mau-mau-rebellion/186d8bdf-1d95-4b63-9147-c67f20d7eb0f/}} and camps set up in Chile during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990).{{Cite news |date=7 September 2013 |title=Chilean coup: 40 years ago I watched Pinochet crush a democratic dream |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/07/chile-coup-pinochet-allende}} According to the United States Department of Defense as many as 3 million Uyghurs and members of other Muslim minority groups are being held in China's re-education camps which are located in the Xinjiang region and which American news reports often label as concentration camps.{{Cite news |date=22 May 2019 |title=As the U.S. Targets China's 'Concentration Camps', Xinjiang's Human Rights Crisis is Only Getting Worse |work=Newsweek |url=https://www.newsweek.com/xinjiang-uyghur-crisis-muslim-china-1398782}}{{Cite news |date=17 November 2019 |title=Uighurs and their supporters decry Chinese 'concentration camps', 'genocide' after Xinjiang documents leaked |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/11/17/uighurs-their-supporters-decry-chinese-concentration-camps-genocide-after-xinjiang-documents-leaked/}} The camps were established in the late 2010s under Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping's administration.{{Cite news |last1=Ramzy |first1=Austin |last2=Buckley |first2=Chris |date=2019-11-16 |title='Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html |access-date=2019-11-16 |issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite news |last=Kate O'Keeffe and Katy Stech Ferek |date=14 November 2019 |title=Stop Calling China's Xi Jinping 'President', U.S. Panel Says |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/stop-calling-chinas-xi-jinping-president-u-s-panel-says-11573740000}}

Impact

Scholars have debated the efficacy of internment as a counterinsurgency tactic. A 2023 study found that internment during the Irish war of independence led to greater grievances among Irish rebels and led them to fight longer in the war.{{Cite journal |last=Huff |first=Connor |date=2023 |title=Counterinsurgency Tactics, Rebel Grievances, and Who Keeps Fighting |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/counterinsurgency-tactics-rebel-grievances-and-who-keeps-fighting/33AE2D679AFED94755E0D6CE5AAAB483 |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=118 |pages=475–480 |language=en |doi=10.1017/S0003055423000059 |issn=0003-0554|url-access=subscription }}

Examples

{{main|List of concentration and internment camps}}

=Active=

File:Xinjiang Internment Map, US-Aus Gov Assessment.jpg in China based on data collected by the US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and the Australian Strategic Policy Institute]]

  • North Korean prison camps (1948–present){{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/north-korea-forced-labour-survivor-camp-15-hermit-kingdom-kim-jong-un-a7971926.html|title=Life inside a North Korea labour camp: 'We were forced to throw rocks at a man being hanged'|date=28 September 2017|work=The Independent}}{{cite web|url=http://nkdb.org/bbs1/data/publication/Political_Prison_Camp_in_North_Korea_Today.pdf|title=Political Prison Camps in North Korea Today|date=2013-10-19|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019141624/http://nkdb.org/bbs1/data/publication/Political_Prison_Camp_in_North_Korea_Today.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2013|access-date=2019-12-18}}
  • Guantanamo Bay detention camp (2002–present){{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/25/guantanamo-files-qahtani-salahi-torture|title=Guantánamo Bay files: Torture gets results, US military insists|last=Leigh|first=David|date=2011-04-25|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-12-18|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}{{Cite web|url=https://ama.com.au/sites/default/files/Prof_David_Isaacs_Speech.pdf|title=Professor David Isaacs Speech}}
  • Refugee detention centres in Libya (2011–present){{citation|title=EXCLUSIVE: Italian doctor laments Libya's 'concentration camps' for migrants| date=15 November 2017 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTgAdth2jmk&list=PLSyY1udCyYqCACdN9kIuTYlcsJhVqf2At&index=29|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/aTgAdth2jmk| archive-date=2021-10-30|access-date=2019-12-18}}{{cbignore}}{{cite web|url=https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/13832/europe-s-apathy-toward-humanitarian-rescue-outrages-ngos|title=Europe's apathy toward humanitarian rescue outrages NGOs|date=2018-12-11|website=InfoMigrants|access-date=2019-12-18}}{{cite web|url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2019/11/25/what-the-danish-lawrence-learned-in-libya/|title=What the 'Danish Lawrence' Learned in Libya (5th paragraph from the last one)|last=Wehrey|first=Frederic|date=2019-11-25|website=The New York Review of Books|access-date=2019-12-18}}{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-wednesday-edition-1.5198437/detained-migrants-killed-in-libya-airstrike-used-as-human-shields-doctors-without-borders-1.5198498|title=Detained migrants killed in Libya airstrike used as 'human shields'}}{{cite web|url=https://www.mediapart.fr/en/journal/international/021219/france-cancels-speedboats-delivery-libyan-coastguard|title=France cancels speedboats delivery to Libyan coastguard|last=Mediapart|first=La Rédaction De|website=Mediapart|date=2 December 2019 |access-date=2019-12-18}}
  • Uyghur re-education camps in China (2017–present){{cite news |author= |title=China is creating concentration camps in Xinjiang. Here's how we hold it accountable |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/china-is-creating-concentration-camps-in-xinjiang-heres-how-we-hold-it-accountable/2018/11/23/93dd8c34-e9d6-11e8-bbdb-72fdbf9d4fed_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=24 November 2018 }}{{cite news |title=Saudi crown prince defends China's right to put Uighur Muslims in concentration camps |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/02/22/saudi-crown-prince-defends-chinas-right-put-uighur-muslims-concentration/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/02/22/saudi-crown-prince-defends-chinas-right-put-uighur-muslims-concentration/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=22 February 2019}}{{cbignore}}
  • Anti-gay detention camps in Chechnya (2017–present){{cite web|url=https://www.news.com.au/world/europe/at-least-100-gay-men-have-been-rounded-up-and-thrown-in-concentration-camps-in-chechnya/news-story/89553c2517a227ff20c57bef35cd78b3|title=The persecution of gay men in Chechnya has chilling similarities to the Third Reich|date=2017-04-19|website=NewsComAu|access-date=2019-12-17}}{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/01/15/russian-lgbt-network-reports-arrests-torture-and-deaths-part-chechnya-gay-purge-accusation|title=Is there a 'gay purge' in Chechnya? Rights group fears the worst|last=Stefanello|first=Viola|date=2019-01-15|website=euronews|access-date=2019-12-17}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.snopes.com/news/2017/04/11/chechnya-concentration-camp-homosexuals/|title=Report: Chechnya Opens 'Concentration Camp for Homosexuals'|website=Snopes.com|date=11 April 2017 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-17}}{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-8-2017-003094_EN.pdf|title=Question to the EU Commission by Matt Carthy}}
  • Migrant detentions as part of immigration detention in the United States (2018–present){{Cite news |title=Movement to call migrant detention centers 'concentration camps' swells online |url=https://www.chron.com/news/politics/article/migrant-detention-centers-concentration-camps-tx-12994549.php |last=Ramirez |first=Fernando |date=2018-06-14 |work=Chron |quote=The practice of separating migrant families began in April when Attorney General Jeff Sessions announced a new "zero-tolerance" policy prosecuting 100 percent of illegal border crossings.}}{{cite web |last1=Hignett |first1=Katherine |title=Academics rally behind Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez over concentration camp comments: 'She is completely historically accurate' |url=https://www.newsweek.com/alexandria-ocasio-cortez-concentration-camps-immigrants-detention-centers-southern-border-experts-1445483 |website=Newsweek |access-date=23 August 2019 |date=24 June 2019}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.esquire.com/news-politics/a27813648/concentration-camps-southern-border-migrant-detention-facilities-trump/|title=An Expert on Concentration Camps Says That's Exactly What the U.S. Is Running at the Border|last=Holmes|first=Jack|date=2019-06-13|website=Esquire|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-03}}{{cite news |last1=Beorn |first1=Waitman Wade |title=Yes, you can call the border centers 'concentration camps,' but apply the history with care |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/posteverything/wp/2018/06/20/yes-you-can-call-the-border-detention-centers-concentration-camps-but-apply-the-history-with-care |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=30 August 2019 |date=20 June 2018}}
  • Internment camps in Ethiopia during the Tigray War and the War in Amhara (2020–present).{{cite Q|Q125771844|url-status=live}}{{cite Q|Q125771289|url-status=live}}{{cite news | last1= Clark | first1= Helen |author1-link=Helen Clark (British politician) | last2= Lapsley | first2= Michael |author2-link=Michael Lapsley|last3=Alton |first3=David |author3-link=David Alton | title= The warning signs are there for genocide in Ethiopia – the world must act to prevent it | date= 2021-11-26 |newspaper= The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/26/ethiopia-genocide-warning-signs-abiy-ahmed |access-date=2021-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127031651/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/26/ethiopia-genocide-warning-signs-abiy-ahmed |archive-date= 2021-11-27 |url-status=live}}{{cite Q|Q125791341|url-status=live}}
  • Russian filtration camps in Ukraine during the Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present){{cite web | url=https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/world/thousands-of-mariupol-survivors-being-detained-and-e2-80-98tortured-e2-80-99-in-russia-controlled-prisons-in-occupied-ukraine/ar-AAXrRjm | title=Thousands of Mariupol survivors being detained and 'tortured' in Russian-controlled prisons | website=MSN | publisher=The i Paper }}{{Cite news |date=2022-04-25 |title='You can't imagine the conditions' - Accounts emerge of Russian detention camps |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61208404 |access-date=2024-05-29 |language=en-GB}}{{cite web | url=https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/831791.html | title=Ukraine calls on UNSC, UN Secretary General to ensure evacuation of wounded from Azovstal }}
  • Sde Teiman detention camp in Israel during the Gaza war (2024–present)
  • Italian migrant detention camps in Albania (2024–present)[https://edition.cnn.com/2024/10/09/europe/italy-migrants-albania-centers-intl-cmd/index.html Italy’s hard-right government set to send sea migrants to Albania in bid to curb arrivals]. CNN[https://www.politico.eu/article/italy-offshore-detention-centers-albania-migration-asylum-processing-giorgia-meloni/ Italy’s offshore detention centers in Albania open for business]. Politico

=Closed=

File:Armrefugees.jpg|Armenian refugees collected near the body of a dead horse at Deir ez-Zor, during the Armenian genocide

File:Tampere prison camp women.jpg|Women at the Kalevankangas concentration camp of Tampere in 1918, several months after the Finnish Civil War

File:Vorkuta a.jpg|Aerial view of the Vorkutlag, a major Russian gulag

File:Al-Magroon Concentration Camp.jpg|Inmates at El Agheila, one of the Italian concentration camps during the Italian colonization of Libya

File:Boven-Digoel.jpg|Indonesian prisoners being exiled to the Dutch camp of Boven-Digoel, 1927

File:"Persons of Japanese ancestry arrive at the Santa Anita Assembly Center from San Pedro. Evacuees lived at this center at - NARA - 539960.jpg|Manzanar internment camp for Japanese-Americans in 1942

File:New Village in Malaya, 1950s.jpg|A British model new village, designed as part of the Briggs Plan to separate the largely Chinese Malaysian rural populace from communist guerrillas during the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960)

File:Photo de l'infirmerie et des locaux disiplinaire du camp de Thol.jpg|Camp de Thol, one of the French concentration camps for Algerians used during the Algerian War{{cite journal |language=fr |author=Arthur Grosjean |title=Internement, emprisonnement et guerre d'indépendance algérienne en métropole : l'exemple du camp de Thol (1958-1965) |journal=Criminocorpus. Revue d'Histoire de la justice, des crimes et des peines |date=10 March 2014 |doi=10.4000/criminocorpus.2676 |s2cid=162123460 |url=http://journals.openedition.org/criminocorpus/2676 |access-date=7 November 2022 |archive-date=7 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107072404/https://journals.openedition.org/criminocorpus/2676 |url-status=live }}

See also

{{col div|colwidth=30em}}

{{colend}}

References

{{reflist}}

Further reading

  • {{cite book |last=Pitzer |first=Andrea |title=One Long Night: A Global History of Concentration Camps |year=2017 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |isbn=978-0-316-30359-0}}
  • {{cite book |last=Stone |first=Dan |title=Concentration Camps: A Very Short Introduction |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-879070-9}}
  • {{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Iain R. |last2=Stucki |first2=Andreas |title=The Colonial Development of Concentration Camps (1868–1902) |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/44298/1/WRAP_Smith_Andreas%27s_and_Iain%27s_revised_version_of_JICH_article_%28completed%29.pdf |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |date=September 2011 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=417–437 |s2cid=159576119 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2011.598746}}
  • {{cite book|title=Le siècle des camps|last=Kotek|first=Joël|year=2000|isbn=978-2-7096-1884-7|pages=805|publisher=Lattès |language=fr}} Exhaustive history of the internment camps. Also available in German ({{cite book|title=Das Jahrhundert der Lager|isbn=978-3-549-07143-4|last1=Kotek |first1=Joël |last2=Rigoulot |first2=Pierre |year=2001|publisher=Propyläen }})

External links

  • {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Incarceration}}

{{Segregation by type}}{{Discrimination}}{{Authority control}}

Category:Total institutions