Israel

{{Further |Israel (name) |Names of the Levant#Israel and Judea}}

File:Merneptah Steli (cropped).jpg (13th century BCE). The majority of biblical archaeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as Israel, the first instance of the name in the record.]]

Under the British Mandate (1920–1948), the entire region was known as Palestine.{{cite magazine |url=https://time.com/3445003/mandatory-palestine/ |title=Mandatory Palestine: What It Was and Why It Matters |author=Noah Rayman |magazine=Time |date=29 September 2014 |access-date=5 December 2015 |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518140257/http://time.com/3445003/mandatory-palestine/ |url-status=live }} Upon establishment in 1948, the country formally adopted the name State of Israel ({{langx|he|מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל}}, {{Audio|He-Medinat Israel2.ogg|{{transliteration|he|Medīnat Yisrā'el}}|help=no}} {{IPA|he|mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel|}}; {{langx|ar|دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|Dawlat Isrāʼīl}}, {{IPA|ar|dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl|}}) after other proposed names including Land of Israel ({{lang|he-Latn|Eretz Israel}}), Ever (from ancestor Eber), Zion, and Judea, were considered but rejected.{{cite news |work=The Palestine Post |date=7 December 1947 |page=1 |title=Popular Opinion |url=http://www.jpress.org.il/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_TAUEN&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=PLS/1947/12/07&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar00105&PageLabel=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815030044/http://www.jpress.org.il/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib%3ALowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_TAUEN&Type=text%2Fhtml&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=PLS%2F1947%2F12%2F07&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar00105&PageLabel=1 |archive-date=15 August 2012}} The name Israel was suggested by David Ben-Gurion and passed by a vote of 6–3.{{cite news |url=http://info.jpost.com/1998/Supplements/Jubilee/2.html |title=One Day that Shook the world |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112220409/http://info.jpost.com/1998/Supplements/Jubilee/2.html |archive-date=12 January 2012 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=30 April 1998 |author=Elli Wohlgelernter }} In the early weeks after establishment, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of the Israeli state.{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798687-2,00.html |magazine=Time |date=31 May 1948 |title=On the Move |access-date=6 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016074447/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C798687-2%2C00.html |archive-date=16 October 2007}}

The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically been used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel and the entire Jewish people respectively. The name Israel (Hebrew: {{lang|he-Latn|Yīsrāʾēl}}; Septuagint {{langx|grc|Ἰσραήλ}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Israēl}}, "El (God) persists/rules") refers to the patriarch Jacob who, according to the Hebrew Bible, was given the name after he successfully wrestled with the Angel of the Lord.{{cite encyclopedia |author=Geoffrey W. Bromiley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA907 |title=Israel |encyclopedia=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |date=1995 |page=907 | isbn=978-0-8028-3782-0 }} The earliest known archaeological artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt (dated to the late 13th century BCE).{{harvnb|Barton|Bowden|2004|p=126}}. "The Merneptah Stele ... is arguably the oldest evidence outside the Bible for the existence of Israel as early as the 13th century BCE."K.L. Noll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hMeRK7B1EsMC&pg=PA139 Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion,] A&C Black, 2012, rev.ed. pp. 137ff.Thomas L. Thompson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA275 Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources,] Brill, 2000 pp. 275–276{{refn|group=fn |The personal name "Israel" appears much earlier, in material from Ebla.{{Cite journal |last=Hasel |first=Michael G. |date=1 January 1994 |title=Israel in the Merneptah Stela |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=296 |issue=296 |pages=45–61 |doi=10.2307/1357179 |jstor=1357179 |s2cid=164052192}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bertman |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC&q=ebla%20israel%20ishmael%20abraham&pg=PA317 |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia |date=14 July 2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518364-1}}
* {{cite book |author1=Meindert Dijkstra |title=Between Evidence and Ideology Essays on the History of Ancient Israel read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln Nebraska, July 2009 |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-18737-5 |editor1-last=Becking |editor1-first=Bob |page=47 |chapter=Origins of Israel between history and ideology |quote=As a West Semitic personal name it existed long before it became a tribal or a geographical name. This is not without significance, though is it rarely mentioned. We learn of a maryanu named ysr"il (*Yi¡sr—a"ilu) from Ugarit living in the same period, but the name was already used a thousand years before in Ebla. The word Israel originated as a West Semitic personal name. One of the many names that developed into the name of the ancestor of a clan, of a tribe and finally of a people and a nation. |editor2-last=Grabbe |editor2-first=Lester}}}}{{cite book |last1=Lemche |first1=Niels Peter |year=1998 |title=The Israelites in History and Tradition |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |url={{Google books |JIoY7PagAOAC |page=PA35 |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |page=35|isbn=978-0-664-22727-2}}

{{Main|History of Israel}}

{{For timeline|Timeline of Israeli history}}

{{further|Prehistory of the Levant}}

Early hominin presence in the Levant, where Israel is located, dates back at least 1.5 million years based on the Ubeidiya prehistoric site.{{cite journal |last=Tchernov |first=Eitan |author-link=Eitan Tchernov |date=1988 |title=The Age of 'Ubeidiya Formation (Jordan Valley, Israel) and the Earliest Hominids in the Levant |journal=Paléorient |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=63–65 |doi=10.3406/paleo.1988.4455 }} The Skhul and Qafzeh hominins, dating back 120,000 years, are some of the earliest traces of anatomically modern humans outside of Africa.{{cite news |last=Rincon |first=Paul |date=14 October 2015 |title=Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34531861 |work=BBC News |access-date=4 January 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817113912/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34531861 |url-status=live }} The Natufian culture, which may have been linked to Proto-Afroasiatic language,{{cite book |author=Winfried Nöth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4_It_sAuMYC&pg=PA293 |title=Origins of Semiosis: Sign Evolution in Nature and Culture |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1994 |isbn=978-3-11-087750-2 |page=293}}{{cite book |author=Roger Blench, Matthew Spriggs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NUvnqjutFmoC&pg=PT70 |title=Archaeology and Language IV: Language Change and Cultural Transformation |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-134-81623-1 |page=70}} emerged by the 10th millennium BCE,{{cite journal |last=Bar-Yosef |first=Ofer |author-link=Ofer Bar-Yosef |date=7 December 1998 |title=The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/anthropology/v1007/baryo.pdf |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=159–177 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::AID-EVAN4>3.0.CO;2-7 |s2cid=35814375 |access-date=4 January 2017 |archive-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716132937/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/anthropology/v1007/baryo.pdf |url-status=live }} followed by the Ghassulian culture by around 4,500 BCE.{{cite journal |last1=Steiglitz |first1=Robert |title=Migrations in the Ancient Near East |journal=Anthropological Science |date=1992 |volume=3 |issue=101 |page=263 |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase1993/101/3/101_3_263/_pdf |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034549/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase1993/101/3/101_3_263/_pdf |url-status=live }}

{{Main|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}

Early references to "Canaanites" and "Canaan" appear in Near Eastern and Egyptian texts ({{Circa}} 2000 BCE); these populations were structured as politically independent city-states.{{Cite web |title=Canaanites |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0216.xml |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=obo |language=en |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403082451/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0216.xml |url-status=live }}{{Citation |last=Glassman |first=Ronald M. |title=The Political Structure of the Canaanite City-States: Monarchy and Merchant Oligarchy |date=2017 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_49 |work=The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States |pages=473–477 |editor-last=Glassman |editor-first=Ronald M. |access-date=2023-12-01 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_49 |isbn=978-3-319-51695-0 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429061941/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_49 |url-status=live }} During the Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BCE), large parts of Canaan formed vassal states of the New Kingdom of Egypt.{{Cite journal |last1=Braunstein |first1=Susan L. |year=2011 |title=The Meaning of Egyptian-Style Objects in the Late Bronze Cemeteries of Tell el-Farʿah (South) |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=364 |issue=364 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001 |jstor=10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001 |s2cid=164054005}} As a result of the Late Bronze Age collapse, Canaan fell into chaos, and Egyptian control over the region collapsed.Dever, William G. Beyond the Texts, Society of Biblical Literature Press, 2017, pp. 89–93S. Richard, "Archaeological sources for the history of Palestine: The Early Bronze Age: The rise and collapse of urbanism", The Biblical Archaeologist (1987) Ancestors of the Israelites are thought to have included ancient Semitic-speaking peoples native to this area.{{Cite book |last1=Miller |first1=James Maxwell |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill |title=A History of Ancient Israel and Judah |last2=Hayes |first2=John Haralson |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-664-21262-9}}{{rp|78–79}} Modern archaeological accounts suggest that the Israelites and their culture branched out of the Canaanite peoples through the development of a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion centered on Yahweh.Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=978-1-85075-657-6 |pages=28, 31}} They spoke an archaic form of Hebrew, known as Biblical Hebrew.Steiner, Richard C. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), The Semitic Languages, Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}} Around the same time, the Philistines settled on the southern coastal plain.{{sfn|Killebrew|2005|p=230}}{{sfn|Shahin|2005|p=6}}

Most modern scholars agree that the Exodus narrative in the Torah and Old Testament did not take place as depicted; however, some elements of these traditions do have historical roots.{{harvnb|Faust|2015|p=476}}: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt."{{harvnb|Redmount|2001|p=61}}: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative." There is debate about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power. While it is unclear if there was a United Kingdom of Israel,{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |language=en |chapter=The History of Israel in the Biblical Period |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amiele |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438 |title=The Ancient Near East |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-16762-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438 438]}} historians and archaeologists agree that the northern Kingdom of Israel existed by {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 900 BCE{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone}}{{rp|169–195}} and the Kingdom of Judah by {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 850 BCE.Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). [https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem"], in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: "...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229 |date=9 April 2023 }} Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date." The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two and soon developed into a regional power, with a capital at Samaria;{{harvnb|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146–147}}: Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power.{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 74; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=1 November 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117}} during the Omride dynasty, it controlled Samaria, Galilee, the upper Jordan Valley, the plain of Sharon and large parts of Transjordan.

The Kingdom of Israel was conquered around 720 BCE by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174 |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203455/https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PAPA174 |url-status=live }} The Kingdom of Judah, under Davidic rule with its capital in Jerusalem, later became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then the Neo-Babylonian Empire. It is estimated that the region's population was around 400,000 in the Iron Age II.Broshi, M., & Finkelstein, I. (1992). [https://www.academia.edu/40790691/M_Broshi_and_I_Finkelstein_The_Population_of_Palestine_in_Iron_Age_II_BASOR_287_1992_pp_47_60 "The Population of Palestine in Iron Age II"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305224039/https://www.academia.edu/40790691/M_Broshi_and_I_Finkelstein_The_Population_of_Palestine_in_Iron_Age_II_BASOR_287_1992_pp_47_60 |date=5 March 2023 }}. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 287(1), 47–60. In 587/6 BCE, following a revolt in Judah, King Nebuchadnezzar II besieged and destroyed Jerusalem and Solomon's Temple,{{harvnb|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=307}}: "Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied."{{Cite journal |last=Lipschits |first=Oded |date=1999 |title=The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=155–190 |doi=10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155 |issn=0334-4355}} dissolved the kingdom and exiled much of the Judean elite to Babylon.{{cite journal |last=Wheeler |first=P. |date=2017 |title=Review of the book Song of Exile: The Enduring Mystery of Psalm 137, by David W. Stowe |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=696–697 |doi=10.1353/cbq.2017.0092 |s2cid=171830838}}

{{Main|Second Temple period}}

After capturing Babylon in 539 BCE, Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire, issued a proclamation allowing the exiled Judean population to return.{{cite web |title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule |url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990116222939/http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html |archive-date=16 January 1999 |access-date=15 March 2014 |publisher=Biu.ac.il}}Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103 The construction of the Second Temple was completed {{Circa|520 BCE}}. The Achaemenids ruled the region as the province of Yehud Medinata.{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&dq=%22gave%2Bthe%2BJews%2Bpermission%2Bto%2Breturn%2Bto%2BYehud%2Bprovince%2Band%2Bto%2Brebuild%2Bthe%22&pg=PAPA355 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1 |publisher=T & T Clark |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-567-08998-4 |page=355 |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219070639/https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&pg=PAPA355&dq=%22gave%2Bthe%2BJews%2Bpermission%2Bto%2Breturn%2Bto%2BYehud%2Bprovince%2Band%2Bto%2Brebuild%2Bthe%22 |url-status=live }} In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region as part of his campaign against the Achaemenid Empire. After his death, the area was controlled by the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires as a part of Coele-Syria. Over the ensuing centuries, the Hellenisation of the region led to cultural tensions that came to a head during the reign of Antiochus IV, giving rise to the Maccabean Revolt of 167 BCE. The civil unrest weakened Seleucid rule, and in the late 2nd century the semi-autonomous Hasmonean Kingdom of Judea arose, eventually attaining full independence and expanding into neighboring regions.{{Cite book |last1=Helyer |first1=Larry R. |title=The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts |last2=McDonald |first2=Lee Martin |publisher=Baker Academic |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8010-9861-1 |editor-last=Green |editor-first=Joel B. |pages=45–47 |chapter=The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era |oclc=961153992 |quote=The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty... Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus') primary accomplishment was annexing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains |editor-last2=McDonald |editor-first2=Lee Martin}}{{Cite book |last=Ben-Sasson |first=H.H. |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PA226 |page=226 |quote=The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain... The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus... it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border... and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there.}}{{Cite book |last=Ben-Eliyahu |first=Eyal |title=Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity |date=30 April 2019 |isbn=978-0-520-29360-1 |page=13 |publisher=Univ of California Press |oclc=1103519319 |quote=From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus's prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSyDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 }}

File:Israel-2013-Aerial 21-Masada.jpg fortress overlooking the Dead Sea, which is the location of a 1st-century Roman siege]]

The Roman Republic invaded the region in 63 BCE, first taking control of Syria, and then intervening in the Hasmonean civil war. The struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian factions in Judea led to the installation of Herod the Great as a dynastic vassal of Rome. In 6 CE, the area was annexed as the Roman province of Judaea; tensions with Roman rule led to a series of Jewish–Roman wars, resulting in widespread destruction. The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple and a sizable portion of the population being killed or displaced.{{Cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Seth |title=The ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6pkAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-107-04127-1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=85–86 |oclc=863044259 |quote=The year 70 ce marked transformations in demography, politics, Jewish civic status, Palestinian and more general Jewish economic and social structures, Jewish religious life beyond the sacrificial cult, and even Roman politics and the topography of the city of Rome itself. [...] The Revolt's failure had, to begin with, a demographic impact on the Jews of Palestine; many died in battle and as a result of siege conditions, not only in Jerusalem. [...] As indicated above, the figures for captives are conceivably more reliable. If 97,000 is roughly correct as a total for the war, it would mean that a huge percentage of the population was removed from the country, or at the very least displaced from their homes. |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=3 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403134300/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6pkAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 |url-status=live }}

A second uprising known as the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) initially allowed the Jews to form an independent state, but the Romans brutally crushed the rebellion, devastating and depopulating Judea's countryside.Werner Eck, "Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen", Novum Testamentum 55 (2013): 1–21{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=Ben David |first2=Chaim |date=2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |s2cid=245512193 |s2cid-access=free |issn=1047-7594 |quote=Scholars have long doubted the historical accuracy of Cassius Dio's account of the consequences of the Bar Kokhba War (Roman History 69.14). According to this text, considered the most reliable literary source for the Second Jewish Revolt, the war encompassed all of Judea: the Romans destroyed 985 villages and 50 fortresses, and killed 580,000 rebels. This article reassesses Cassius Dio's figures by drawing on new evidence from excavations and surveys in Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. Three research methods are combined: an ethno-archaeological comparison with the settlement picture in the Ottoman Period, comparison with similar settlement studies in the Galilee, and an evaluation of settled sites from the Middle Roman Period (70–136 CE). The study demonstrates the potential contribution of the archaeological record to this issue and supports the view of Cassius Dio's demographic data as a reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation.|doi-access=free }}{{Cite book |last=Mor |first=Menahem |title=The Second Jewish Revolt |date=18 April 2016 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-31463-4 |pages=483–484 |doi=10.1163/9789004314634 |quote=Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the sikarikon laws were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.}}Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2. Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony (Aelia Capitolina), and the province of Judea was renamed Syria Palaestina.H.H. Ben-Sasson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PA334 A History of the Jewish People], Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|978-0-674-39731-6}}, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."Ariel Lewin. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zlToSqE0k_cC&pg=PA33 The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine]. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." {{ISBN|978-0-89236-800-6}} Jews were expelled from the districts surrounding Jerusalem.Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History. 4:6.3-4 Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence, and Galilee became its religious center.{{cite book |last=Cohn-Sherbok |first=Dan |title=Atlas of Jewish History |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-08800-8 |page=58}}{{cite web |last=Lehmann |first=Clayton Miles |date=18 January 2007 |title=Palestine |url=http://sunburst.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/palestin.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130407005423/http://sunburst.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/palestin.htm |archive-date=7 April 2013 |access-date=9 February 2013 |website=Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces |publisher=University of South Dakota}}

{{further|Diocese of the East|Bilad al-Sham|Kingdom of Jerusalem}}

File:Ruins of the Ancient Synagogue at Bar'am.jpg in the GalileeJudaism in late antiquity, Jacob Neusner, Bertold Spuler, Hady R Idris, Brill, 2001, p. 155]]

Early Christianity displaced Roman paganism in the 4th century CE, with Constantine embracing and promoting the Christian religion and Theodosius I making it the state religion. A series of laws were passed that discriminated against Jews and Judaism, and Jews were persecuted by both the church and the authorities.{{Cite book |last=הר |first=משה דוד |title=ארץ-ישראל בשלהי העת העתיקה: מבואות ומחקרים |publisher=יד יצחק בן-צבי |year=2022 |isbn=978-965-217-444-4 |editor-link=Moshe David Herr |volume=1 |publication-place=ירושלים |pages=210–212 |language=he |trans-title=Eretz Israel in Late Antiquity: Introductions and Studies |chapter=היהודים בארץ-ישראל בימי האימפריה הרומית הנוצרית |trans-chapter=The Jews in the Land of Israel in the Days of the Christian Roman Empire}} Many Jews had emigrated to flourishing diaspora communities,{{Cite book |last=Ehrlich |first=Michael |title=The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800 |publisher=Arc Humanities Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-64189-222-3 |pages=3–4 |oclc=1302180905 |quote=The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.}} while locally there was both Christian immigration and local conversion. By the middle of the 5th century, there was a Christian majority.{{cite book |author=David Goodblatt |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor=Steven Katz |volume=IV |pages=404–430 |chapter=The Political and Social History of the Jewish Community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |quote=Few would disagree that, in the century and a half before our period begins, the Jewish population of Judah () suffered a serious blow from which it never recovered. The destruction of the Jewish metropolis of Jerusalem and its environs and the eventual refounding of the city... had lasting repercussions. [...] However, in other parts of Palestine the Jewish population remained strong [...] What does seem clear is a different kind of change. Immigration of Christians and the conversion of pagans, Samaritans and Jews eventually produced a Christian majority}}{{Cite journal |last=Bar |first=Doron |date=2003 |title=The Christianisation of Rural Palestine during Late Antiquity |journal=The Journal of Ecclesiastical History |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=401–421 |doi=10.1017/s0022046903007309 |issn=0022-0469 |quote=The dominant view of the history of Palestine during the Byzantine period links the early phases of the consecration of the land during the fourth century and the substantial external financial investment that accompanied the building of churches on holy sites on the one hand with the Christianisation of the population on the other. Churches were erected primarily at the holy sites, 12 while at the same time Palestine's position and unique status as the Christian 'Holy Land' became more firmly rooted. All this, coupled with immigration and conversion, allegedly meant that the Christianisation of Palestine took place much more rapidly than that of other areas of the Roman empire, brought in its wake the annihilation of the pagan cults and meant that by the middle of the fifth century there was a clear Christian majority.}} Towards the end of the 5th century, Samaritan revolts erupted, continuing until the late 6th century and resulting in a large decrease in the Samaritan population.{{cite book |last=Kohen |first=Elli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r-9qJRP20MIC&pg=PA26 |title=History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire |publisher=University Press of America |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7618-3623-0 |pages=26–31 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219070638/https://books.google.com/books?id=r-9qJRP20MIC&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} After the Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem and the short-lived Jewish revolt against Heraclius in 614 CE, the Byzantine Empire reconsolidated control of the area in 628.{{cite web |title=Roman Palestine |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine/Roman-Palestine |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=30 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030111546/https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine/Roman-Palestine |url-status=live }}

In 634–641 CE, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered the Levant.{{Cite journal |last1=לוי-רובין |first1=מילכה |last2=Levy-Rubin |first2=Milka |date=2006 |title=The Influence of the Muslim Conquest on the Settlement Pattern of Palestine during the Early Muslim Period / הכיבוש כמעצב מפת היישוב של ארץ-ישראל בתקופה המוסלמית הקדומה |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה |issue=121 |pages=53–78 |jstor=23407269 |issn=0334-4657}}{{Cite book |last=Ellenblum |first=Ronnie |title=Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-58534-0 |oclc=958547332 |quote=From the data given above it can be concluded that the Muslim population of Central Samaria, during the early Muslim period, was not an autochthonous population which had converted to Christianity. They arrived there either by way of migration or as a result of a process of sedentarization of the nomads who had filled the vacuum created by the departing Samaritans at the end of the Byzantine period [...] To sum up: in the only rural region in Palestine in which, according to all the written and archeological sources, the process of Islamization was completed already in the twelfth century, there occurred events consistent with the model propounded by Levtzion and Vryonis: the region was abandoned by its original sedentary population and the vacuum was apparently filled by nomads who, at a later stage, gradually became sedentarized}} Over the next six centuries, control of the region transferred between the Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid caliphates, and subsequently the Seljuk and Ayyubid dynasties.{{cite book |last=Gil |first=Moshe |title=A History of Palestine, 634–1099 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-59984-9}} The population drastically decreased during the following several centuries, dropping from an estimated 1 million during Roman and Byzantine periods to about 300,000 by the early Ottoman period, and there was steady Arabisation and Islamisation.{{cite book |last=Gil |first=Moshe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0wUKoMJeccC&dq=history+of+palestine+two+people&pg=PR13 |title=A History of Palestine, 634–1099 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-59984-9 |pages=14 |access-date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240517102802/https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=M0wUKoMJeccC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=history+of+palestine+two+people&ots=CMV1-8kJav&sig=C1Eh2oIUdicDWgg_Clo6yJgumUQ#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20palestine%20two%20people&f=false |archive-date=17 May 2024 |url-status=live}}{{Cite journal |last=Broshi |first=Magen |date=1979 |title=The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=236 |issue=236 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.2307/1356664 |issn=0003-097X |jstor=1356664 |s2cid=24341643}} The end of the 11th century brought the Crusades, papally-sanctioned incursions of Christian crusaders intent on wresting Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim control and establishing crusader states.{{OED|crusades}} The Ayyubids pushed back the crusaders before Muslim rule was fully restored by the Mamluk sultans of Egypt in 1291.{{cite book |last=Kramer |first=Gudrun |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpalesti00krea/page/376 |title=A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-691-11897-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpalesti00krea/page/376 376]}}

{{main|Jerusalem Sanjak|Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem}}

{{further|Old Yishuv|Zionism}}

File:Jews at Western Wall by Felix Bonfils, 1870s.jpg in the 1870s]]

In 1516, the Ottoman Empire conquered the region and ruled it as part of Ottoman Syria.Joel Rappel, History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), vol. 2, p. 531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned...." Two violent incidents took place against Jews, the 1517 Safed attacks and the 1517 Hebron attacks, after the Turkish Ottomans ousted the Mamluks during the Ottoman–Mamluk War.D. Tamar, "On the Jews of Safed in the Days of the Ottoman Conquest" Cathedra 11 (1979), cited Dan Ben Amos, Dov Noy (eds.),[https://books.google.com/books?id=aMI4DzpymSIC&pg=PA61 Folktales of the Jews, V. 3 (Tales from Arab Lands),] Jewish Publication Society 2011 p.61, n.3: Tamar . .challenges David's conclusion concerning the severity of the riots against the Jews, arguing that the support of the Egyptian Jews saved the community of Safed from destruction'.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FZERAQAAIAAJ |title=The Solomon Goldman lectures |publisher=Spertus College of Judaica Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-935982-57-2 |page=56 |quote=The Turks' conquest of the city in 1517, was marked by a violent pogrom of murder, rape, and plunder of Jewish homes. The surviving Jews fled to the "land of Beirut", not to return until 1533.}} Under the Ottoman Empire, the Levant was fairly cosmopolitan, with religious freedoms for Christians, Muslims, and Jews. In 1561 the Ottoman sultan invited Sephardi Jews escaping the Spanish Inquisition to settle in and rebuild the city of Tiberias.Toby Green (2007). Inquisition; The Reign of Fear. Macmillan Press {{ISBN|978-1-4050-8873-2}} pp. xv–xix.{{cite web |last= Alfassá |first= Shelomo |title= Sephardic Contributions to the Development of the State of Israel |date= 17 August 2007 |website= Alfassa.com |url= http://www.alfassa.com/contributions.pdf |access-date= 14 January 2015 |url-status= usurped |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071012042245/http://www.alfassa.com/contributions.pdf |archive-date= 2007-10-12}}

Under the Ottoman Empire's millet system, Christians and Jews were considered dhimmi ("protected") under Ottoman law in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the jizya tax.{{Cite book |last1=Cane |first1=Peter |title=Millet system – Oxford Reference |last2=Conaghan |first2=Joanne |author2-link=Joanne Conaghan |year=2008 |isbn=9780199290543 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199290543.001.0001}}{{Cite book |last=Kieser |first=Hans-Lukas |title=Turkey Beyond Nationalism: Towards Post-Nationalist Identities |date=2006-10-27 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-0-85771-757-3}} Non-Muslim Ottoman subjects faced geographic and lifestyle restrictions, though these were not always enforced.H. Inalcik; The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600, Phoenix Press, (2001){{Cite web |title=EARLY MODERN JEWISH HISTORY: Overview » 5. Ottoman Empire |url=http://jewishhistory.research.wesleyan.edu/i-jewish-population/5-ottoman-empire/ |access-date=2018-11-24 |website=jewishhistory.research.wesleyan.edu |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928204445/http://jewishhistory.research.wesleyan.edu/i-jewish-population/5-ottoman-empire/ |url-status=live }}{{Citation |last=Akbar |first=M. J. |title=The shade of swords: jihad and the conflict between Islam and Christianity |page=89 |year=2003}} The millet system organised non-Muslims into autonomous communities on the basis of religion.L. Stavrianos; The Balkans since 1453, NYU Press (2000)

File:THEODOR HERZL AT THE FIRST ZIONIST CONGRESS IN BASEL ON 25.8.1897. תאודור הרצל בקונגרס הציוני הראשון - 1897.8.25.jpg (1897) in Basel, Switzerland]]

The concept of the "return" remained a symbol within religious Jewish belief which emphasised that their return should be determined by Divine Providence rather than human action.{{sfn|Avineri|2017}} Leading Zionist historian Shlomo Avineri describes this connection: "Jews did not relate to the vision of the Return in a more active way than most Christians viewed the Second Coming." The religious Judaic notion of being a nation was distinct from the modern European notion of nationalism.{{sfn|Shimoni|1995}} The Jewish population of Palestine from the Ottoman rule to the beginning of the Zionist movement, known as the Old Yishuv, comprised a minority and fluctuated in size. During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in the Four Holy Cities—Jerusalem, Tiberias, Hebron, and Safed—and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem.{{cite book |last=Eisen |first=Yosef |title=Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present |publisher=Targum Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-56871-323-6 |page=700}} A 1660 Druze revolt against the Ottomans destroyed Safed and Tiberias. In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European Jews who were opponents of Hasidism, known as the Perushim, settled in Palestine.{{cite book |last=Morgenstern |first=Arie |title=Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-530578-4 |page=304}}{{cite book |last=Barnai |first=Jacob |title=The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: Under the Patronage of the Istanbul committee of Officials for Palestine |publisher=University Alabama Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8173-0572-7 |page=320}}

In the late 18th century, local Arab Sheikh Zahir al-Umar created a de facto independent emirate in the Galilee. Ottoman attempts to subdue the sheikh failed. After Zahir's death the Ottomans regained control of the area. In 1799, governor Jazzar Pasha repelled an assault on Acre by Napoleon's troops, prompting the French to abandon the Syrian campaign.{{cite web |title=Palestine – Ottoman rule |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine#ref45065 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204202215/https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine#ref45065 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |access-date=27 November 2018 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}} In 1834, a revolt by Palestinian Arab peasants against Egyptian conscription and taxation policies under Muhammad Ali was suppressed; Muhammad Ali's army retreated and Ottoman rule was restored with British support in 1840.{{cite journal |last1=Macalister |first1=R. A. Stewart |last2=Masterman |first2=E. W. G. |year=1906 |title=The Modern Inhabitants of Palestine |url=https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme38pale#page |journal=Quarterly Statement – Palestine Exploration Fund |page=[https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme38pale#page/40/mode/1up 40]}} The Tanzimat reforms were implemented across the Ottoman Empire.

The first wave of modern Jewish migration to Ottoman-ruled Palestine, known as the First Aliyah, began in 1881, as Jews fled pogroms in Eastern Europe.{{Cite book|last=Halpern|first=Ben|title=Zionism and the creation of a new society |url=https://archive.org/details/zionismcreationn00halp|url-access=limited|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Reinharz, Jehuda |year=1998|isbn=978-0-585-18273-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/zionismcreationn00halp/page/n61 53]–54|oclc=44960036}} The 1882 May Laws increased economic discrimination against Jews, and restricted where they could live.{{Cite journal |last=Mandel |first=Neville J. |date=1974 |title=Ottoman Policy and Restrictions on Jewish Settlement in Palestine: 1881–1908: Part I |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=10 |issue=3 |url=https://ismi.emory.edu/documents/Readings/Mandel,%20Neville%20J.%20Ottoman%20Policy.pdf |pages=312–332 |doi=10.1080/00263207408700278 |issn=0026-3206 |access-date=1 December 2023 |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203103201/https://ismi.emory.edu/documents/Readings/Mandel,%20Neville%20J.%20Ottoman%20Policy.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Cite book|last=Levine|first=Aaron|date=2014|title=Russian Jews and the 1917 Revolution|url=https://psource.sitehost.iu.edu/PDF/Archive%20Articles/Spring2014/2014%20-%20Spring%20-%203%20-%20Levine%20Aaron.pdf|page=14|access-date=7 December 2023|archive-date=8 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308091831/https://psource.sitehost.iu.edu/PDF/Archive%20Articles/Spring2014/2014%20-%20Spring%20-%203%20-%20Levine%20Aaron.pdf|url-status=live}} In response, political Zionism took form, a movement that sought to establish a Jewish state in Palestine, thus offering a solution to the Jewish question of the European states.{{sfn|Herzl|1946|p=11}}{{better source needed|date=September 2024}} Antisemitism, pogroms and official policies in tsarist Russia led to the emigration of three million Jews in the years between 1882 and 1914, only 1% of whom went to Palestine. Those who went to Palestine were driven primarily by ideas of self-determination and Jewish identity, rather than as a response to pogroms or economic insecurity.{{sfn|Avineri|2017}}

The Second Aliyah (1904–1914) began after the Kishinev pogrom; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half left eventually. Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly Orthodox Jews.{{harvnb|Stein|2003|p=88}}. "As with the First Aliyah, most Second Aliyah migrants were non-Zionist orthodox Jews ..." The Second Aliyah included Zionist socialist groups who established the kibbutz movement based on the idea of establishing a separate Jewish economy based exclusively on Jewish labour.{{cite book |last1=Moris |first1=Beni |title=Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 |date=2001 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780679744757 |edition=1. Vintage Books |quote=Many of these newcomers possessed a mixture of socialist and nationalist values, and they eventually succeeded in setting up a separate Jewish economy, based wholly on Jewish labor.}}{{sfn|Romano|2003|p=30}} Those of the Second Aliyah who became leaders of the Yishuv in the coming decades believed that the Jewish settler economy should not depend on Arab labour. This would be a dominant source of antagonism with the Arab population, with the new Yishuv's nationalist ideology overpowering its socialist one.{{cite book |last1=Moris |first1=Beni |title=Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 |date=2001 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780679744757 |edition=1. Vintage Books |quote=Another major cause of antagonism was the labor controversy. The hard core of Second Aliyah socialists, who were to become the Yishuv's leaders in the 1920s and 1930s, believed that the settler economy must not depend on or exploit Arab labor... But, in reality, rather than "meshing," the nationalist ethos had simply overpowered and driven out the socialist ethos... There were other reasons for the "conquest of labor." The socialists of the Second Aliyah used the term to denote three things: overcoming the Jews' traditional remove from agricultural labor and helping them transform into the "new Jews"; struggling against employers for better conditions; and replacing Arabs with Jews in manual jobs.}} Though the immigrants of the Second Aliyah largely sought to create communal Jewish agricultural settlements, Tel Aviv was established as the first planned Jewish town in 1909. Jewish armed militias emerged during this period, the first being Bar-Giora in 1907. Two years later, the larger Hashomer organisation was founded as its replacement.

{{main|Mandatory Palestine}}

{{further|Yishuv|Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine|1948 Palestine war}}

{{see also|Jewish land purchase in Palestine}}

Chaim Weizmann's efforts to garner British support for the Zionist movement eventually secured the Balfour Declaration of 1917,{{Cite book |first=James |last=Gelvin |author-link=James L. Gelvin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wfIFVze1MqQC&pg=PA81 |title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-year=2002 |edition=3 |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-521-85289-0 |access-date=9 November 2020 |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009012922/https://books.google.com/books?id=wfIFVze1MqQC&pg=PA81#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} stating Britain's support for the creation of a Jewish "national home" in Palestine.{{cite news |last=Macintyre |first=Donald |title=The birth of modern Israel: A scrap of paper that changed history |work=The Independent |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=26 May 2005 |url=http://maof.rjews.net/english/37-english/19351-the-birth-of-modern-israel-a-scrap-of-paper-that-changed-history |archive-date=14 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114031304/http://maof.rjews.net/english/37-english/19351-the-birth-of-modern-israel-a-scrap-of-paper-that-changed-history |url-status=live }}{{cite book|title=The Making of the Modern Near East 1792–1923 |last=Yapp |first=M.E. |author-link=Malcolm Yapp |year=1987 |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-49380-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/makingofmodern00yapp/page/290 290] |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofmodern00yapp/page/290 }} Weizmann's interpretation of the declaration was that negotiations on the future of the country were to happen directly between Britain and the Jews, excluding Arabs. Jewish-Arab relations in Palestine deteriorated dramatically in the following years.{{cite book |author=Avi Shlaim |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBBbY9rMxSAC&pg=PA |title=The Iron Wall |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-393-32112-8 |pages= |chapter=PROLOGUE: THE ZIONIST FOUNDATIONS |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=3 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403134300/https://books.google.com/books?id=HBBbY9rMxSAC&pg=PA |url-status=live }}

In 1918, the Jewish Legion, primarily Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British conquest of Palestine.{{Cite encyclopedia|title = Jewish Legion|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Judaica|url = http://go.galegroup.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CCX2587510141|year = 2007|publisher = Macmillan Reference|access-date = 6 August 2014|first = Joseph B.|last = Schechtman|page = 304|volume = 11|archive-date = 8 March 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210308102952/https://go.galegroup.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CCX2587510141|url-status = live}} In 1920, the territory was divided between Britain and France under the mandate system, and the British-administered area (including modern Israel) was named Mandatory Palestine.{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22 |title=The Covenant of the League of Nations |website=Article 22 |access-date=18 October 2012 |archive-date=26 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726080156/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22 |url-status=live }}"Mandate for Palestine," Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972 Arab opposition to British rule and Jewish immigration led to the 1920 Palestine riots and the formation of a Jewish militia known as the Haganah as an outgrowth of Hashomer, from which the Irgun and Lehi paramilitaries later split.{{harvnb|Scharfstein|1996|p=269}}. "During the First and Second Aliyot, there were many Arab attacks against Jewish settlements ... In 1920, Hashomer was disbanded and Haganah ("The Defense") was established." In 1922, the League of Nations granted Britain the Mandate for Palestine under terms which included the Balfour Declaration with its promise to the Jews and with similar provisions regarding the Arab Palestinians.{{cite journal |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1922mandate.html |title=League of Nations: The Mandate for Palestine, July 24, 1922 |journal=Modern History Sourcebook |date=24 July 1922 |access-date=27 August 2007 |archive-date=4 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804221156/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1922mandate.html |url-status=dead }} The population of the area was predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11%{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=J. V. W. |title=A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry |edition=Reprint |volume=I |year=1991 |orig-date=1946 |publisher=Institute for Palestine Studies |isbn=978-0-88728-213-3 |oclc=311797790 |page=148 |chapter=Chapter VI: Population |url=http://www.palestine-studies.org/books.aspx?id=543&href=details |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827011258/http://www.palestine-studies.org/books.aspx?id=543&href=details |archive-date=2013-08-27}} and Arab Christians about 9.5% of the population.{{cite web|title=Report to the League of Nations on Palestine and Transjordan, 1937 |publisher=British Government |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/7BDD2C11C15B54C2052565D10057251E |access-date=14 July 2013 |year=1937 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923061547/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/7BDD2C11C15B54C2052565D10057251E |archive-date=23 September 2013}}

File:"Jews and Arabs in Grim Struggle for Holy Land" article (1938).jpg

The Third (1919–1923) and Fourth Aliyahs (1924–1929) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine. The rise of Nazism and the increasing persecution of Jews in 1930s Europe led to the Fifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This was a major cause of the Arab revolt of 1936–39, which was suppressed by British security forces and Zionist militias. Several hundred British security personnel and Jews were killed; 5,032 Arabs were killed, 14,760 wounded, and 12,622 detained.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEt5PWCTMJMC&q=irgun%2520and%2520haganah%2520in%2520the%25201936+riots&pg=PAPA374|title=A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel|access-date=15 October 2015|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|author=Walter Laqueur|year=2009|isbn=978-0-307-53085-1|archive-date=19 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219070659/https://books.google.com/books?id=hEt5PWCTMJMC&pg=PAPA374&dq=%22irgun%2Band%2Bhaganah%2Bin%2Bthe%2B1936%2Briots%22&q=irgun%2520and%2520haganah%2520in%2520the%25201936+riots#v=onepage&q=irgun%2520and%2520haganah%2520in%2520the%25201936%20riots&f=false|url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=M |year=2009 |title=The banality of brutality: British armed forces and the repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39 |url=http://v-scheiner.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/7251/4/The%20banality%20of%20brutality.pdf |journal=English Historical Review |volume=CXXIV |issue=507 |pages=314–354 |doi=10.1093/ehr/cep002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221163210/http://v-scheiner.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/7251/4/The%20banality%20of%20brutality.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2016}}Levenberg, Haim (1993). Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine: 1945–1948. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-3439-5, pp. 74–76 An estimated ten percent of the adult male Palestinian Arab population was killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled.Khalidi, Walid (1987). From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948. Institute for Palestine Studies. {{ISBN|978-0-88728-155-6}}

The British introduced restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine with the White Paper of 1939. With countries around the world turning away Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust, a clandestine movement known as Aliyah Bet was organised to bring Jews to Palestine. By the end of World War II, 31% of the population of Palestine was Jewish.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, Village Statistics, 1945. The UK found itself facing a Jewish insurgency over immigration restrictions and continued conflict with the Arab community over limit levels. The Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in an armed struggle against British rule.{{sfn|Fraser|2004|p=27}} The Haganah attempted to bring tens of thousands of Jewish refugees and Holocaust survivors to Palestine by ship. Most of the ships were intercepted by the Royal Navy and the refugees placed in detention camps in Atlit and Cyprus.{{cite book |author=Motti Golani |title=Palestine Between Politics and Terror, 1945–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mp7BAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA130 |year=2013 |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-1-61168-388-2 |page=130 |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219073858/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mp7BAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA130#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Michael J |title=Britain's Moment in Palestine:Retrospect and Perspectives, 1917–1948 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-72985-7 |page=474 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLPpAgAAQBAJ&q=British%2520detention%2520camps%2520at%2520atlit%2520and+cyprus&pg=PAPA474 |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219070640/https://books.google.com/books?id=DLPpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA474&dq=%22British%2Bdetention%2Bcamps%2Bat%2Batlit%2Band%2Bcyprus%22&q=British%2520detention%2520camps%2520at%2520atlit%2520and+cyprus#v=onepage&q=British%2520detention%2520camps%2520at%2520atlit%2520and%20cyprus&f=false |url-status=live }}

File:UN Palestine Partition Versions 1947.jpg, "Palestine plan of partition with economic union"]]

On 22 July 1946, Irgun bombed the British administrative headquarters for Palestine, killing 91.{{bulleted list|

|{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Paul J. |date=2007 |title=The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |page=27}}

|{{cite book |last=Louis |first=William Roger |date=1986 |title=The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=430}}

|{{cite book |last=Kushner |first=Harvey W. |author-link=Harvey W. Kushner |date=2003 |title=Encyclopedia of Terrorism |publisher=SAGE Publications |page=181}}

}}[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293947/Irgun-Zvai-Leumi#ref112521 Encyclopædia Britannica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417201023/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293947/Irgun-Zvai-Leumi#ref112521 |date=17 April 2015 }} article on the Irgun Zvai LeumiClarke, Thurston. By Blood and Fire, G.P. Puttnam's Sons, 1981{{Cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Bethell|title=The Palestine Triangle|publisher=Andre Deutsch|year=1979}} The attack was a response to Operation Agatha (a series of raids, including one on the Jewish Agency, by the British) and was the deadliest directed at the British during the Mandate era. The Jewish insurgency continued throughout 1946 and 1947 despite concerted efforts by the British military and Palestine Police Force to suppress it. British efforts to mediate with Jewish and Arab representatives also failed as the Jews were unwilling to accept any solution that did not involve a Jewish state and suggested a partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, while the Arabs were adamant that a Jewish state in any part of Palestine was unacceptable and that the only solution was a unified Palestine under Arab rule. In February 1947, the British referred the Palestine issue to the newly formed United Nations. On 15 May 1947, the UN General Assembly resolved that a Special Committee be created "to prepare ... a report on the question of Palestine".{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F5A49E57095C35B685256BCF0075D9C2 |title=A/RES/106 (S-1) |date=15 May 1947 |website=General Assembly resolution |publisher=United Nations |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806072438/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F5A49E57095C35B685256BCF0075D9C2 |archive-date=6 August 2012 }} The Report of the Committee{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/07175DE9FA2DE563852568D3006E10F3 |title=A/364 |date=3 September 1947 |website=Special Committee on Palestine |publisher=United Nations |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610173759/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/07175DE9FA2DE563852568D3006E10F3 |archive-date=10 June 2012 }} proposed a plan to replace the British Mandate with "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem [...] the last to be under an International Trusteeship System".{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/2248AF9A92B498718525694B007239C6 |publisher=United Nations |date=20 April 1949 |access-date=31 July 2007 |title=Background Paper No. 47 (ST/DPI/SER.A/47) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103014616/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/2248AF9A92B498718525694B007239C6 |archive-date=3 January 2011 }} Meanwhile, the Jewish insurgency continued and peaked in July 1947, with a series of widespread guerrilla raids culminating in the Sergeants affair, in which the Irgun took two British sergeants hostage as attempted leverage against the planned execution of three Irgun operatives. After the executions were carried out, the Irgun killed the two British soldiers, hanged their bodies from trees, and left a booby trap at the scene which injured a British soldier. The incident caused widespread outrage in the UK.Hoffman, Bruce: Anonymous Soldiers (2015) In September 1947, the British cabinet decided to evacuate Palestine as the Mandate was no longer tenable.{{Cite web |title=British Colonial Office Statement upon Termination of the Mandate for Palestine – English (1948) |url=https://ecf.org.il/media_items/943 |access-date=2024-06-20 |website=ecf.org.il |page=10 |language=en}}

On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 (II).{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/7F0AF2BD897689B785256C330061D253 |title=Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine |date=29 November 1947 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=21 March 2017 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010090147/https://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/7F0AF2BD897689B785256C330061D253 }} The plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed in the report of 3 September. The Jewish Agency, the recognised representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan, which assigned 55–56% of Mandatory Palestine to the Jews. At the time, the Jews were about a third of the population and owned around 6–7% of the land. Arabs constituted the majority and owned about 20% of the land, with the remainder held by the Mandate authorities or foreign landowners.{{bulleted list|

|Avneri, Aryeh L. (1984). The Claim of Dispossession: Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs, 1878–1948. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87855-964-0. Retrieved 2 May 2009, p. 224.

|Stein, Kenneth W. (1987) [Original in 1984]. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4178-5. pp. 3–4, 247

|Nathan Thrall, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1oXZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA227 The Only Language They Understand: Forcing Compromise in Israel and Palestine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219070639/https://books.google.com/books?id=1oXZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA227#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=19 December 2023 }}, Henry Holt and Company 2017 {{isbn|978-1-627-79710-8}} pp. 41,227 n.9.

|{{harvnb|Imseis|2021|pp=13–14}}: "As to territorial boundaries, under the plan the Jewish State was allotted approximately 57 percent of the total area of Palestine even though the Jewish population comprised only 33 percent of the country. In addition, according to British records relied upon by the ad hoc committee, the Jewish population possessed registered ownership of only 5.6 percent of Palestine, and was eclipsed by the Arabs in land ownership in every one of Palestine's 16 sub-districts. Moreover, the quality of the land granted to the proposed Jewish state was highly skewed in its favour. UNSCOP reported that under its majority plan "[t]he Jews will have the more economically developed part of the country embracing practically the whole of the citrus-producing area"—Palestine's staple export crop—even though approximately half of the citrus-bearing land was owned by the Arabs. In addition, according to updated British records submitted to the ad hoc committee's two sub-committees, "of the irrigated, cultivable areas" of the country, 84 per cent would be in the Jewish State and 16 per cent would be in the Arab State"."

|{{harvnb|Morris|2008|p=75}}: "The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv's settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community."

}}{{harvnb|Morris|2008|p=396}}: "The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal."Matthews, John: [http://booksand-ebooks.com/political-commentary/israel-palestine-land-division Israel-Palestine land division] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005145922/http://booksand-ebooks.com/political-commentary/israel-palestine-land-division |date=5 October 2023 }} The Arab League and Arab Higher Committee of Palestine rejected it on the basis that the partition plan privileged European interests over those of the Palestinians,{{harvnb|Imseis|2021|pp=14–15}}: 'Although the Zionists had coveted the whole of Palestine, the Jewish Agency leadership pragmatically, if grudgingly, accepted Resolution 181(II). Although they were of the view that the Jewish national home promised in the Mandate was equivalent to a Jewish state, they well understood that such a claim could not be maintained under prevailing international law..Based on its own terms, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that the partition plan privileged European interests over those of Palestine's indigenous people and, as such, was an embodiment of the Eurocentricity of the international system that was allegedly a thing of the past. For this reason, the Arabs took a more principled position in line with prevailing international law, rejecting partition outright . .This rejection has disingenuously been presented in some of the literature as indicative of political intransigence,69 and even hostility towards the Jews as Jews' and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition.{{harvnb|Morris|2008}}, p. 66: at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews.", p. 67: at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression," "without mercy." The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition.", p. 72: at December 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.""{{sfn|Bregman|2002|pp=40–41}} On 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, and riots broke out in Jerusalem.{{cite book |title=Palestine 1948 |last=Gelber |first=Yoav |year=2006 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-902210-67-4 |page=17}} The situation spiraled into a civil war. Colonial Secretary Arthur Creech Jones announced that the British Mandate would end on 15 May 1948, at which point the British would evacuate. As Arab militias and gangs attacked Jewish areas, they were faced mainly by the Haganah as well as the smaller Irgun and Lehi. In April 1948, the Haganah moved onto the offensive.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=77–78}}{{cite book |title=War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy |last=Tal |first=David |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7146-5275-7 |page=471}}

{{main|History of Israel (1948–present)}}

{{further|Israeli Declaration of Independence}}

File:Declaration of State of Israel 1948.jpg declaring the establishment of Israel on 14 May 1948]]

On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel".Clifford, Clark, "Counsel to the President: A Memoir", 1991, p. 20. The following day, the armies of four Arab countries—Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, and Iraq—entered what had been Mandatory Palestine, launching the 1948 Arab–Israeli War;{{sfn|Ben-Sasson|1985|p=1058}} contingents from Yemen, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan joined the war.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=205}}{{cite book |title=Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present |last=Rabinovich |first=Itamar |author2=Reinharz, Jehuda |year=2007 |publisher=Brandeis |isbn=978-0-87451-962-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 74] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74}} The purpose of the invasion was to prevent the establishment of the Jewish state.{{cite book |title=War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs2PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPR4 |author=David Tal |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-77513-1 |page=469 |quote=some of the Arab armies invaded Palestine in order to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state, Transjordan... |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219070640/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs2PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}{{harvnb|Morris|2008|p=187}}: "A week before the armies marched, Azzam told Kirkbride: "It does not matter how many [Jews] there are. We will sweep them into the sea." ... Ahmed Shukeiry, one of Haj Amin al-Husseini's aides (and, later, the founding chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization), simply described the aim as "the elimination of the Jewish state." ... al-Quwwatli told his people: "Our army has entered ... we shall win and we shall eradicate Zionism"" The Arab League stated the invasion was to restore order and prevent further bloodshed.{{cite web |url=https://undocs.org/S/745 |title=PDF copy of Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations: S/745: 15 May 1948 |publisher=un.org |date=9 September 2002 |access-date=15 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112030519/https://undocs.org/S/745 |archive-date=12 November 2020}}

After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established.{{cite book |title=The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948 |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-372-9}} Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip. Over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled by Zionist militias and the Israeli military—what would become known in Arabic as the {{lang|ar-Latn|nakba}} ('catastrophe').{{cite book |last=Morris|first=Benny|author-link=Benny Morris|title=The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited|isbn=978-0-521-00967-6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=602 |year=2004}} The events also led to the destruction of most of Palestine's Arab culture, identity, and national aspirations. Some 156,000 Arabs remained and became Arab citizens of Israel.{{cite web|url=https://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=13336|title=עיצוב יחסי יהודים – ערבים בעשור הראשון |website=lib.cet.ac.il |access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=8 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008065301/https://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=13336|url-status=live}}

File:Raising the Ink Flag at Umm Rashrash (Eilat) (3x4).jpg on 10 March 1949, marking the end of the 1948 war]]

By United Nations General Assembly Resolution 273, Israel was admitted as a member of the UN on 11 May 1949.{{cite web |url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/1ce874ab1832a53e852570bb006dfaf6/0b3ab8d2a7c0273d8525694b00726d1b |publisher=The United Nations |title=Two Hundred and Seventh Plenary Meeting |date=11 May 1949 |access-date=13 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912101430/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/1ce874ab1832a53e852570bb006dfaf6/0b3ab8d2a7c0273d8525694b00726d1b |archive-date=12 September 2007 }} In the early years of the state, the Labour Zionist movement led by Prime Minister Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics.{{sfn|Lustick|1988|pp=37–39}}{{cite journal |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/iltoc.html |title=Israel (Labor Zionism) |journal=Country Studies |access-date=12 February 2010 |archive-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710212220/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/iltoc.html |url-status=live }} Immigration to Israel during the late 1940s and early 1950s was aided by the Israeli Immigration Department and the non-government sponsored Mossad LeAliyah Bet ({{Abbr|lit.|literally|class=small}} "Institute for Immigration B").{{cite book | author = Anita Shapira | title = Land and Power | pages = 416, 419 | publisher = Stanford University Press | year = 1992}} The latter engaged in clandestine operations in countries, particularly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, where the lives of Jews were in danger and exit was difficult. Mossad LeAliyah Bet was disbanded in 1953.Segev, Tom. 1949: The First Israelis. "The First Million". Trans. Arlen N. Weinstein. New York: The Free Press, 1986. Print. pp. 105–107 The immigration was in accordance with the One Million Plan. Some immigrants held Zionist beliefs or came for the promise of a better life, while others moved to escape persecution or were expelled from their homes.{{cite book |title=The Forgotten Millions: The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands |last=Shulewitz |first=Malka Hillel |year=2001 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-4764-7}}Laskier, Michael "Egyptian Jewry under the Nasser Regime, 1956–70" pp. 573–619 from Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 31, Issue #3, July 1995 p. 579.

An influx of Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab and Muslim countries to Israel during the first three years increased the number of Jews from 700,000 to 1,400,000. By 1958, the population had risen to two million.{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_02&CYear=2016 |title=Population, by Religion |date=2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=4 September 2016 |archive-date=18 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918223343/http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_02&CYear=2016 |url-status=live }} Between 1948 and 1970, approximately 1,150,000 Jewish refugees relocated to Israel.{{cite book |last=Bard |first=Mitchell |title=The Founding of the State of Israel |year=2003 |publisher=Greenhaven Press |page=15}} Some immigrants arrived as refugees and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot; by 1952, over 200,000 people were living in these tent cities.{{cite book |title=Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After |last=Hakohen |first=Devorah |year=2003 |publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-2969-6}}; for ma'abarot population, see p. 269. Jews of European background were often treated more favourably than Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries—housing units reserved for the latter were often re-designated for the former, so Jews newly arrived from Arab lands generally ended up staying longer in transit camps.Clive Jones, Emma Murphy, [https://books.google.com/books?id=A144y7qwRJMC&pg=PA37 Israel: Challenges to Identity, Democracy, and the State,] Routledge 2002 p. 37: "Housing units earmarked for the Oriental Jews were often reallocated to European Jewish immigrants; Consigning Oriental Jews to the privations of ma'aborot (transit camps) for longer periods."{{sfn|Segev|2007|pp=155–157}} During this period, food, clothes and furniture were rationed in what became known as the austerity period. The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea that Israel could accept monetary compensation for the Holocaust.{{sfn|Shindler|2002|pp=49–50}}

{{main|Arab–Israeli conflict}}

During the 1950s, Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, nearly always against civilians,{{cite book |author=Kameel B. Nasr|title=Arab and Israeli Terrorism: The Causes and Effects of Political Violence, 1936–1993|url={{Google books|QRXURzwdXS4C|page=PA40|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=1996|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-3105-2|pages=40– |quote=Fedayeen to attack...almost always against civilians}} mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip,{{sfn|Gilbert|2005|p=58}} leading to several Israeli reprisal operations. In 1956, the UK and France aimed at regaining control of the Suez Canal, which Egypt had nationalised. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, together with increasing fedayeen attacks against Israel's southern population and recent Arab threatening statements, prompted Israel to attack Egypt.{{cite book|author=Isaac Alteras|title=Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli Relations, 1953–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ydRHCPWngioC&pg=PAPA192|year=1993|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-1205-6|pages=192–|quote=the removal of the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran at the entrance of the Gulf of Aqaba. The blockade closed Israel's sea lane to East Africa and the Far East, hindering the development of Israel's southern port of Eilat and its hinterland, the Nege. Another important objective of the Israeli war plan was the elimination of the terrorist bases in the Gaza Strip, from which daily fedayeen incursions into Israel made life unbearable for its southern population. And last but not least, the concentration of the Egyptian forces in the Sinai Peninsula, armed with the newly acquired weapons from the Soviet bloc, prepared for an attack on Israel. Here, Ben-Gurion believed, was a time bomb that had to be defused before it was too late. Reaching the Suez Canal did not figure at all in Israel's war objectives.|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=19 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219071150/https://books.google.com/books?id=ydRHCPWngioC&pg=PAPA192|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author=Dominic Joseph Caraccilo|title=Beyond Guns and Steel: A War Termination Strategy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FDA8dQyaQ9MC&pg=PAPA113|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-39149-1|pages=113–|quote=The escalation continued with the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran, and Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal in July 1956. On October 14, Nasser made clear his intent:"I am not solely fighting against Israel itself. My task is to deliver the Arab world from destruction through Israel's intrigue, which has its roots abroad. Our hatred is very strong. There is no sense in talking about peace with Israel. There is not even the smallest place for negotiations." Less than two weeks later, on October 25, Egypt signed a tripartite agreement with Syria and Jordan placing Nasser in command of all three armies. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, combined with the increased fedayeen attacks and the bellicosity of recent Arab statements, prompted Israel, with the backing of Britain and France, to attack Egypt on October 29, 1956.|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=19 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219071150/https://books.google.com/books?id=FDA8dQyaQ9MC&pg=PAPA113|url-status=live}}{{cite book|author=Alan Dowty|title=Israel/Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9iFxq6NPPgEC&pg=PAPA102|year=2005|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3202-5|pages=102–|quote=Gamal Abdel Nasser, who declared in one speech that "Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the land of Palestine....There will be no peace on Israel's border because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death."...The level of violence against Israelis, soldiers and civilians alike, seemed to be rising inexorably.|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=19 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219071150/https://books.google.com/books?id=9iFxq6NPPgEC&pg=PAPA102#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} Israel joined a secret alliance with the UK and France and overran the Sinai Peninsula in the Suez Crisis but was pressured to withdraw by the UN in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights.{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/5195582.stm|title=Suez Crisis: Key players|date=21 July 2006|access-date=19 July 2018|language=en-GB|archive-date=26 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026234223/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/5195582.stm|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=http://sunnycv.com/steve/20th/suez.html |title=The Suez Crisis |last=Schoenherr |first=Steven |date=15 December 2005 |access-date=31 May 2013 |archive-date=30 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430091614/http://sunnycv.com/steve/20th/suez.html |url-status=live }}{{cite book |title=The Suez Crisis |last=Gorst |first=Anthony |author2=Johnman, Lewis |year=1997 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-11449-3}} The war resulted in significant reduction of Israeli border infiltration.{{cite book|author=Benny Morris|title=Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–1998|url={{Google books|jGtVsBne7PgC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=25 May 2011|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-78805-4|pages=300, 301|quote=[p. 300] In exchange (for Israeli withdrawal) the United states had indirectly promised to guarantee Israel's right of passage through the straits (to the Red sea) and its right to self defense if the Egyptian closed them....(p 301) The 1956 war resulted in a significant reduction of...Israeli border tension. Egypt refrained from reactivating the Fedaeen, and...Egypt and Jordan made great effort to curb infiltration}}

File:1961-04-13 Tale Of Century - Eichmann Tried For War Crimes.ogv]]

In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Argentina and brought him to Israel for trial.{{sfn|Bascomb|2009|p=219–229}} Eichmann remains the only person executed in Israel by conviction in an Israeli civilian court.{{cite journal |author=Shlomo Shpiro |title=No place to hide: Intelligence and civil liberties in Israel |journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs |volume=19 |issue=44 |pages=629–648 |year=2006 |s2cid=144734253 |doi=10.1080/09557570601003361}} In 1963, Israel was engaged in a diplomatic standoff with the United States in relation to the Israeli nuclear programme.{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-how-a-standoff-with-the-u-s-almost-blew-up-israel-s-nuclear-program-1.7193419|title=How a Standoff with the U.S. Almost Blew up Israel's Nuclear Program|newspaper=Haaretz|date=3 May 2019|last1=Cohen|first1=Avner|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202173023/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-how-a-standoff-with-the-u-s-almost-blew-up-israel-s-nuclear-program-1.7193419|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2019-05-02/battle-letters-1963-john-f-kennedy-david-ben-gurion-levi-eshkol-us-inspections-dimona |title=The Battle of the Letters, 1963: John F. Kennedy, David Ben-Gurion, Levi Eshkol, and the U.S. Inspections of Dimona {{pipe}} National Security Archive |date=29 April 2019 |access-date=11 November 2019 |archive-date=11 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111141328/https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2019-05-02/battle-letters-1963-john-f-kennedy-david-ben-gurion-levi-eshkol-us-inspections-dimona |url-status=live }}

Since 1964 Arab countries, concerned over Israeli plans to divert waters of the Jordan River into the coastal plain,"The Politics of Miscalculation in the Middle East", by Richard B. Parker (1993 Indiana University Press) p. 38 had been trying to divert the headwaters to deprive Israel of water resources, provoking tensions between Israel on the one hand, and Syria and Lebanon on the other. Arab nationalists led by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser refused to recognise Israel and called for its destruction.{{Harvnb|Gilbert|2005|p=1}}{{cite book |title=Syria and Israel: From War to Peacemaking |last=Maoz |first=Moshe |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-828018-7 |page=70 }}{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/5/newsid_2654000/2654251.stm |title=On This Day 5 Jun |date=5 June 1967 |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 December 2011 |archive-date=14 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714044705/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/5/newsid_2654000/2654251.stm |url-status=live }} By 1966 Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces.{{sfn|Segev|2007|p=178}}

File:Six Day War Territories.svg}} {{legend|#f7d3aa|after the war}} The Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt in 1982.]]

In May 1967, Egypt massed its army near the border with Israel, expelled UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and blocked Israel's access to the Red Sea.{{cite book |last=Gat |first=Moshe |title=Britain and the Conflict in the Middle East, 1964–1967: The Coming of the Six-Day War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntLdA8QIgXIC&q=On+the+night+of+May+22-23,+Nasser+declared+the+Gulf+of+Aqaba+closed+to+Israeli+shipping&pg=PA202 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2003 |page=202 |isbn=978-0-275-97514-2 |access-date=4 October 2020 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219071151/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntLdA8QIgXIC&q=On+the+night+of+May+22-23,+Nasser+declared+the+Gulf+of+Aqaba+closed+to+Israeli+shipping&pg=PA202 |url-status=live }}John Quigley, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0zEi3qGWLFIC&pg=PA32 The Six-Day War and Israeli Self-Defense: Questioning the Legal Basis for Preventive War], Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 32.{{cite book|author=Samir A. Mutawi|title=Jordan in the 1967 War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52858-0|page=93|quote=Although Eshkol denounced the Egyptians, his response to this development was a model of moderation. His speech on 21 May demanded that Nasser withdraw his forces from Sinai but made no mention of the removal of UNEF from the Straits nor of what Israel would do if they were closed to Israeli shipping. The next day Nasser announced to an astonished world that henceforth the Straits were, indeed, closed to all Israeli ships|access-date=17 September 2021|archive-date=31 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031043157/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC|url-status=live}} Other Arab states mobilised their forces.{{sfn|Segev|2007|p=289}} Israel reiterated that these actions were a casus belli and launched a pre-emptive strike (Operation Focus) against Egypt in June. Jordan, Syria and Iraq attacked Israel. In the Six-Day War, Israel captured and occupied the West Bank from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria.{{harvnb|Smith|2006|p=126}}. "Nasser, the Egyptian president, decided to mass troops in the Sinai{{nbsp}}... casus belli by Israel." Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating East Jerusalem. The 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories.{{sfn|Shlay|Rosen|2010|pp=362–363}}

Following the 1967 war and the "Three Nos" resolution of the Arab League, Israel faced attacks from the Egyptians in the Sinai Peninsula during the 1967–1970 War of Attrition, and from Palestinian groups targeting Israelis in the occupied territories, globally, and in Israel. Most important among the Palestinian and Arab groups was the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/13/magazine/13PALESTINIANS.html |title=The Interregnum |last=Bennet |first=James |date=13 March 2005 |work=The New York Times Magazine |access-date=11 February 2010 |archive-date=16 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416021652/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/13/magazine/13PALESTINIANS.html |url-status=live }} In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched attacks{{cite book |title=Research on Terrorism: Trends, Achievements and Failures |last=Silke |first=Andrew |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7146-8273-0 |page=149 (256 pp.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rSpfNJQ4CbAC&q=palestinian+terror+1970s&pg=PA149 |access-date=8 March 2010 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219071201/https://books.google.com/books?id=rSpfNJQ4CbAC&q=palestinian+terror+1970s&pg=PA149#v=snippet&q=palestinian%20terror%201970s&f=false |url-status=live }}{{cite book |title=The Routledge Atlas of the Arab–Israeli Conflict: The Complete History of the Struggle and the Efforts to Resolve It |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28116-4 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNvJ1FOwiAwC&q=palestinian+terror+1970s&pg=PA82 |access-date=8 March 2010 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219071251/https://books.google.com/books?id=UNvJ1FOwiAwC&q=palestinian+terror+1970s&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q=palestinian%20terror%201970s&f=false |url-status=live }} against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world,{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html |title=George Habash, Palestinian Terrorism Tactician, Dies at 82 |first1=Edmund |last1=Andrews |author-link=Edmund Andrews (reporter) |first2=John |last2=Kifner |author-link2=John Kifner |newspaper=The New York Times |date=27 January 2008 |access-date=29 March 2012 |archive-date=13 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313121747/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html |url-status=live }} including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organisers of the massacre, a bombing and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon.

On 6 October 1973, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, opening the Yom Kippur War. The war ended on 25 October with Israel repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering great losses.{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/6/newsid_2514000/2514317.stm |title=1973: Arab states attack Israeli forces |work=On This Day |publisher=BBC News |access-date=15 July 2007 |date=6 October 1973 |archive-date=14 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714014851/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/6/newsid_2514000/2514317.stm |url-status=live }} An internal inquiry exonerated the government of responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister Golda Meir to resign.{{cite web |url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/lexicon/eng/agranat_eng.htm |title=Agranat Commission |publisher=Knesset |year=2008 |access-date=8 April 2010 |archive-date=29 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229175926/http://knesset.gov.il/lexicon/eng/agranat_eng.htm |url-status=live }}{{better source needed|date=February 2023}} In July 1976, an airliner was hijacked in flight from Israel to France by Palestinian guerrillas; Israeli commandos rescued 102 of 106 Israeli hostages.

{{main|Israeli–Palestinian peace process}}

The 1977 Knesset elections marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as Menachem Begin's Likud party took control from the Labour Party.{{harvnb|Bregman|2002|pp=169–170}}: "In hindsight we can say that 1977 was a turning point ..." Later that year, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip to Israel and spoke before the Knesset in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.{{sfn|Bregman|2002|pp=171–174}} Sadat and Begin signed the Camp David Accords (1978) and the Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1979).{{sfn|Bregman|2002|pp=186–187}} In return, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.{{sfn|Bregman|2002|pp=186–187}}

On 11 March 1978, a PLO guerilla raid from Lebanon led to the Coastal Road massacre. Israel responded by launching an invasion of southern Lebanon to destroy PLO bases. Begin's government meanwhile provided incentives for Israelis to settle in the occupied West Bank, increasing friction with the Palestinians there.{{cite book|title=A history of the modern Middle East |last=Cleveland |first=William L. |year=1999 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3489-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernm00clev/page/356 356] |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernm00clev/page/356 }}

The 1980 Jerusalem Law was believed by some to reaffirm Israel's 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree and reignited international controversy over the status of the city. No Israeli legislation has defined the territory of Israel, and no act specifically included East Jerusalem therein.{{cite journal |last=Lustick |first=Ian |year=1997 |title=Has Israel Annexed East Jerusalem? |journal=Middle East Policy |volume=V |issue=1 |pages=34–45 |issn=1061-1924 |oclc=4651987544 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4967.1997.tb00247.x |url=https://www.sas.upenn.edu/polisci/sites/www.sas.upenn.edu.polisci/files/Lustick_Has%20Israel%20Annexed%20Jerusalem_1997.pdf |access-date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091120090306/http://www.mepc.org/journal_vol5/9701_lustick.asp |archive-date=20 November 2009 }} In 1981 Israel effectively annexed the Golan Heights.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14724842 |title=Golan Heights profile |date=27 November 2015 |work=BBC News |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-date=17 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617170912/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14724842 |url-status=live }} The international community largely rejected these moves, with the UN Security Council declaring both the Jerusalem Law and the Golan Heights Law null and void.{{cite book | last=Hillier | first=T. | title=Sourcebook on Public International Law | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | isbn=978-1-135-35366-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmuPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA242 | access-date=12 October 2021 | archive-date=19 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219071301/https://books.google.com/books?id=DmuPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA242#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}{{cite book | last1=Monacella | first1=R. | last2=Ware | first2=S.A. | title=Fluctuating Borders: Speculations about Memory and Emergence | publisher=RMIT University Press | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-921166-48-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7r4wd57FqIC&pg=RA1-PA62 | access-date=12 October 2021 | archive-date=19 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219071154/https://books.google.com/books?id=q7r4wd57FqIC&pg=RA1-PA62#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }} Several waves of Ethiopian Jews immigrated to Israel since the 1980s, while between 1990 and 1994, immigration from the post-Soviet states increased Israel's population by twelve percent.{{cite journal |url=http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Economics/Papers/1996/pdfs/96-28.pdf |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |date=November 2001 |title=The Impact of Mass Migration on the Israeli Labor Market |last=Friedberg |first=Rachel M. |pages=1373–1408 |issue=4 |doi=10.1162/003355301753265606 |volume=116 |hdl=10419/102605 |citeseerx=10.1.1.385.2596 |access-date=14 August 2012 |archive-date=23 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923025501/http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Economics/Papers/1996/pdfs/96-28.pdf |url-status=live }}

On 7 June 1981, during the Iran–Iraq War, the Israeli air force destroyed Iraq's sole nuclear reactor, then under construction, in order to impede the Iraqi nuclear weapons programme.{{Cite news |date=1981-06-07 |title=1981: Israel bombs Baghdad nuclear reactor |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/7/newsid_3014000/3014623.stm |access-date=2024-06-20 |language=en-GB}} Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon to destroy the PLO bases.{{sfn|Bregman|2002|p=199}} In the first six days, Israel destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians. An Israeli government inquiry (the Kahan Commission) held Begin and several Israeli generals indirectly responsible for the Sabra and Shatila massacre and held defence minister Ariel Sharon as bearing "personal responsibility".{{cite book |last1=Schiff |first1=Ze'ev |author-link=Ze'ev Schiff |last2=Ehud |first2=Yaari |author-link2=Ehud Yaari |title=Israel's Lebanon War |year=1984 |page=[https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa0000schi/page/284 284] |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-47991-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa0000schi}} Sharon was forced to resign.{{cite book |last=Silver |first=Eric |title=Begin: The Haunted Prophet |publisher=Random House |year=1984 |page=[https://archive.org/details/beginhauntedprop00silv/page/239 239] |isbn=978-0-394-52826-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/beginhauntedprop00silv}} In 1985, Israel responded to a Palestinian terrorist attack in Cyprus by bombing the PLO headquarters in Tunisia. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986 but maintained a borderland buffer zone in southern Lebanon until 2000, from where Israeli forces engaged in conflict with Hezbollah. The First Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,{{cite book|title=A History of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict |last=Tessler |first=Mark A. |year=2009 |orig-year=1994 |edition=2nd |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofisraeli00tess_0/page/677 677] |isbn=978-0-253-20873-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofisraeli00tess_0 |ref={{harvid|Tessler|2009}}}} broke out in 1987, with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Over the following six years, the intifada became more organised and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation. Over 1,000 people were killed.{{harvnb|Stone|Zenner|1994|p=246}}. "Toward the end of 1991 ... were the result of internal Palestinian terror." During the 1991 Gulf War, the PLO supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi missile attacks against Israel. Despite public outrage, Israel heeded American calls to refrain from hitting back.{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE7DB173EF93AA35751C1A967958260 |title=After 4 Years, Intifada Still Smolders |work=The New York Times |date=9 December 1991 |access-date=28 March 2008 |last=Haberman |first=Clyde |archive-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717180855/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/09/world/after-4-years-intifada-still-smolders.html |url-status=live }}{{sfn |Mowlana |Gerbner |Schiller |1992 |p=111}}

File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Foreign Min. Peres and King Hussein.jpg (left) with Yitzhak Rabin (center) and King Hussein of Jordan (right), prior to signing the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994]]

In 1992, Yitzhak Rabin became prime minister following an election in which his party called for compromise with Israel's neighbours.{{sfn|Bregman|2002|p=236}}{{cite web |url=http://www.bc.edu/dam/files/research_sites/cjl/texts/cjrelations/resources/education/Israel_Palestine/cold_war_ends.htm |publisher=Boston College |title=From the End of the Cold War to 2001 |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827235024/http://www.bc.edu/dam/files/research_sites/cjl/texts/cjrelations/resources/education/Israel_Palestine/cold_war_ends.htm |archive-date=27 August 2013 }} The following year, Shimon Peres on behalf of Israel and Yasser Arafat for the PLO signed the Oslo Accords, which gave the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) the right to govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1990-2000/Oslo |publisher=U.S. Department of State |title=The Oslo Accords, 1993 |access-date=30 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122102530/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1990-2000/Oslo |archive-date=22 January 2010 }} The PLO also recognised Israel's right to exist and pledged an end to terrorism.{{sfn|Tessler|2009|p=729}} In 1994, the Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalise relations with Israel.{{harvnb|Harkavy|Neuman|2001|p=270}}. "Even though Jordan in 1994 became the second country, after Egypt to sign a peace treaty with Israel ..." Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements{{cite web |url=http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/sources-of-population-growth-total-israeli-population-and-settler-population-1991-2003 |title=Sources of Population Growth: Total Israeli Population and Settler Population, 1991–2003 |access-date=20 March 2012 |publisher=Foundation for Middle East Peace |website=Settlements information |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826051148/http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/sources-of-population-growth-total-israeli-population-and-settler-population-1991-2003 |archive-date=26 August 2013 }} and checkpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions.{{cite book|title=Negotiating Arab-Israeli peace: American leadership in the Middle East |last=Kurtzer |first=Daniel |author2=Lasensky, Scott |year=2008 |publisher=United States Institute of Peace Press |isbn=978-1-60127-030-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/negotiatingarabi0000kurt/page/44 44] |url=https://archive.org/details/negotiatingarabi0000kurt/page/44 }} Israeli public support for the Accords waned after Palestinian suicide attacks.{{cite book|title=A history of the modern Middle East |last=Cleveland |first=William L. |year=1999 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3489-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernm00clev/page/494 494] |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernm00clev/page/494 }} In November 1995, Rabin was assassinated by Yigal Amir, a far-right Jew who opposed the Accords.{{cite news |title=Israel marks Rabin assassination |publisher=BBC News |date=12 November 2005 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4431728.stm |access-date=12 May 2010 |archive-date=17 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117220054/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4431728.stm |url-status=live }}

During Benjamin Netanyahu's premiership at the end of the 1990s, Israel agreed to withdraw from Hebron,{{sfn|Bregman|2002|p=257}} though this was never ratified or implemented,[https://web.archive.org/web/20151002002611/http://www.ijcv.org/index.php/ijcv/article/view/14/14 Hanne Eggen Røislien, "Living with Contradiction: Examining the Worldview of the Jewish Settlers in Hebron"], 2 October 2015 International Journal of Conflict and Violence, Vol.1 (2) 2007, pp.169–184 and he signed the Wye River Memorandum. The agreement dealt with further redeployments in the West Bank and security issues. The memorandum was criticised by major international human rights organisations for its "encouragement" of human rights abuses.Human Rights Watch, An Analysis of the Wye River MemorandumAmnesty International, The United States, Israel and the Palestinian Authority: Human Rights Neglected in the Theory and Practice by All Involved in "Peacemaking"

Ehud Barak, elected prime minister in 1999, withdrew forces from southern Lebanon and conducted negotiations with PNA Chairman Yasser Arafat and U.S. President Bill Clinton at the 2000 Camp David Summit. Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a Palestinian state, including the entirety of the Gaza Strip and over 90% of the West Bank with Jerusalem as a shared capital.{{sfn|Gelvin|2005|p=240}} Each side blamed the other for the failure of the talks.

In late 2000, after a controversial visit by Sharon to the Temple Mount, the Second Intifada began. The popular uprising faced disproportionate repression from the Israeli state.{{harvnb|Ben-Ami|2007}}: "Israel’s disproportionate response to what had started as a popular uprising with young, unarmed men confronting Israeli soldiers armed with lethal weapons fuelled the Intifada beyond control and turned it into an all-out war" Palestinian suicide bombings eventually developed into a recurrent feature of the intifada.Sela-Shayovitz, R. (2007). Suicide bombers in Israel: Their motivations, characteristics, and prior activity in terrorist organizations. International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), 1(2), 163. "The period of the second Intifada significantly differs from other historical periods in Israeli history, because it has been characterized by intensive and numerous suicide attacks that have made civilian life into a battlefront." Some commentators contend that the intifada was pre-planned by Arafat after the collapse of peace talks.{{cite web |url=http://www.thejc.com/news/world-news/114827/the-big-myth-he-caused-second-intifada |title=The big myth: that he caused the Second Intifada |last=Gross |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Gross|date=16 January 2014 |newspaper=The Jewish Chronicle |access-date=22 April 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304193513/http://www.thejc.com/news/world-news/114827/the-big-myth-he-caused-second-intifada |url-status=dead }}{{cite news |last=Hong |first=Nicole |date=23 February 2015 |title=Jury Finds Palestinian Authority, PLO Liable for Terrorist Attacks in Israel a Decade Ago |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/jury-finds-palestinian-authority-plo-liable-for-terrorist-attacks-in-israel-a-decade-ago-1424715529 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=22 April 2016 |archive-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414204555/http://www.wsj.com/articles/jury-finds-palestinian-authority-plo-liable-for-terrorist-attacks-in-israel-a-decade-ago-1424715529 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid=3846 |title=PA: Intifada Was Planned |last=Ain |first=Stewart |date=20 December 2000 |newspaper=The Jewish Week |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013083338/http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid=3846 |archive-date=13 October 2007}}{{cite news |title=In a Ruined Country |first=David |last=Samuels |date=1 September 2005 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/09/in-a-ruined-country/304167/ |newspaper=The Atlantic |access-date=27 March 2013 |archive-date=30 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830024459/http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/200509/samuels |url-status=live }} Sharon became prime minister in a 2001 election; he carried out his plan to unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip and spearheaded the construction of the West Bank barrier,{{cite news|title=West Bank barrier route disputed, Israeli missile kills 2 |newspaper=USA Today |date=29 July 2004 |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-07-29-west-bank_x.htm |access-date=1 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020225835/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-07-29-west-bank_x.htm |archive-date=20 October 2012}} ending the intifada.See for example:
* {{cite news |title=Years of rage |first1=Amos |last1=Harel |first2=Avi |last2=Issacharoff |date=1 October 2010 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/years-of-rage-1.316603 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=2 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702094014/http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/years-of-rage-1.316603 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |title=Losing Faith in the Intifada |first=Laura |last=King |date=28 September 2004 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-sep-28-fg-intifada28-story.html |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=21 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921132644/http://articles.latimes.com/2004/sep/28/world/fg-intifada28 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A52801-2004Sep26.html |title=From Jenin To Fallujah? |last=Diehl |first=Jackson |date=27 September 2004 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203212546/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A52801-2004Sep26.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.jcpa.org/text/Amidror-perspectives-2.pdf |title=Winning Counterinsurgency War: The Israeli Experience |last=Amidror |first=Yaakov |website=Strategic Perspectives |publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811130134/http://www.jcpa.org/text/Amidror-perspectives-2.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last=Frisch |first=Hillel |url=http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/perspectives57.html |title=The Need for a Decisive Israeli Victory Over Hamas |date=12 January 2009 |website=Perspectives Papers on Current Affairs |publisher=Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614054502/http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/perspectives57.html |archive-date=14 June 2012 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA449421 |title=The "Defensive Shield" Operation as a Turning Point in Israel's National Security Strategy |last=Buchris |first=Ofek |date=9 March 2006 |website=Strategy Research Project |publisher=United States Army War College |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=7 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007044643/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA449421 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50910-2004Jun17.html |title=Israel's Intifada Victory |last=Krauthammer |first=Charles |date=18 June 2004 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=19 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919235122/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50910-2004Jun17.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3558676,00.html |title=2nd Intifada forgotten |last=Plocker |first=Sever |date=22 June 2008 |work=Ynetnews |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819220413/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3558676,00.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |last=Ya'alon |first=Moshe |date=January 2007 |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus64.pdf |title=Lessons from the Palestinian 'War' against Israel |website=Policy Focus |publisher=Washington Institute for Near East Policy |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811130133/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus64.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2012 }}
* {{cite news |date=20 September 2010 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/1,7340,L-3957131,00.html |title=Letting the IDF win |last=Hendel |first=Yoaz |work=Ynetnews |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=24 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924144858/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/1,7340,L-3957131,00.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |author1=Zvi Shtauber |author2=Yiftah Shapir |title=The Middle East strategic balance, 2004–2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7C-ZDXrfOgC&pg=PAPA7 |access-date=12 February 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-84519-108-5 |page=7 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219072213/https://books.google.com/books?id=t7C-ZDXrfOgC&pg=PAPA7 |url-status=live }} Between 2000 and 2008, 1,063 Israelis, 5,517 Palestinians and 64 foreign citizens were killed.{{cite web |url=http://www.btselem.org/statistics/fatalities/before-cast-lead/by-date-of-event |title=Fatalities before Operation "Cast Lead" |publisher=B'Tselem |access-date=14 January 2017 |archive-date=20 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180120010413/https://www.btselem.org/statistics/fatalities/before-cast-lead/by-date-of-event |url-status=live }}

In 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a cross-border abduction of two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month-long Second Lebanon War.{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8808.doc.htm |title=Security Council Calls for End to Hostilities between Hizbollah, Israel, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 1701 (2006) |website=United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 |date=11 August 2006 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=30 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130025538/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8808.doc.htm |url-status=live }}
Escalation of hostilities in Lebanon and in Israel since Hizbollah's attack on Israel on 12 July 2006{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/hezbollah-kills-8-soldiers-kidnaps-two-in-offensive-on-northern-border-1.192965 |title=Hezbollah kills 8 soldiers, kidnaps two in offensive on northern border |access-date=20 March 2012 |last=Harel |first=Amos |date=13 July 2006 |newspaper=Haaretz |archive-date=13 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513084315/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/hezbollah-kills-8-soldiers-kidnaps-two-in-offensive-on-northern-border-1.192965 |url-status=live }} In 2007 the Israeli Air Force destroyed a nuclear reactor in Syria. In 2008, a ceasefire between Hamas and Israel collapsed, resulting in the three-week Gaza War.{{cite news |first = Jason |last = Koutsoukis |title = Battleground Gaza: Israeli ground forces invade the strip |url = http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/battleground-gaza/2009/01/04/1231003847085.html |work = Sydney Morning Herald |date = 5 January 2009 |access-date = 5 January 2009 |archive-date = 8 January 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090108013919/http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/battleground-gaza/2009/01/04/1231003847085.html |url-status = live }}{{cite news |last=Ravid |first=Barak |title=IDF begins Gaza troop withdrawal, hours after ending 3-week offensive |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=18 January 2009 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/idf-begins-gaza-troop-withdrawal-hours-after-ending-3-week-offensive-1.268326 |archive-date=17 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817072019/http://www.haaretz.com/news/idf-begins-gaza-troop-withdrawal-hours-after-ending-3-week-offensive-1.268326 |url-status=live }} In what Israel described as a response to over a hundred Palestinian rocket attacks on southern Israeli cities,{{cite news |title=Gaza groups pound Israel with over 100 rockets |first1=Yaakov |last1=Lappin |first2=Tovah |last2=Lazaroff |url=http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Gaza-groups-pound-Israel-with-over-100-rockets |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=12 November 2012 |access-date=27 March 2013 |archive-date=14 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414151101/https://www.jpost.com/Defense/Gaza-groups-pound-Israel-with-over-100-rockets |url-status=live }} Israel began an operation in the Gaza Strip in 2012, lasting eight days.{{cite news |author=Stephanie Nebehay |date=20 November 2012 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/palestinians-israel-humanitarian-idUSL5E8MK6MG20121120 |title=UN rights boss, Red Cross urge Israel, Hamas to spare civilians |work=Reuters |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305052435/http://www.reuters.com/article/palestinians-israel-humanitarian-idUSL5E8MK6MG20121120 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |title=Hamas leader defiant as Israel eases Gaza curbs |first=Nidal |last=al-Mughrabi |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-israel-hamas-idUSBRE8AD0WP20121124 |publisher=Reuters |date=24 November 2012 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114184249/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-israel-hamas-idUSBRE8AD0WP20121124 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Article.aspx?id=291779 |title=Israeli air strike kills top Hamas commander Jabari |work=The Jerusalem Post |access-date=14 November 2012 |archive-date=14 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114141727/http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Article.aspx?id=291779 |url-status=live }} Israel started another operation in Gaza following an escalation of rocket attacks by Hamas in July 2014.{{cite news|title=Israel and Hamas Trade Attacks as Tension Rises|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/09/world/middleeast/israel-steps-up-offensive-against-hamas-in-gaza.html|work=The New York Times|date=8 July 2014|access-date=16 February 2017|archive-date=22 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222154524/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/09/world/middleeast/israel-steps-up-offensive-against-hamas-in-gaza.html|url-status=live}} In May 2021 another round of fighting took place in Gaza and Israel, lasting eleven days.{{cite news |title=Israel and Hamas agree Gaza truce, Biden pledges assistance |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-official-predicts-ceasefire-soon-israel-gaza-fight-goes-2021-05-19/ |publisher=Reuters |date=21 May 2021 |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=31 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531014137/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-official-predicts-ceasefire-soon-israel-gaza-fight-goes-2021-05-19/ |url-status=live }}

By the 2010s, increasing regional cooperation between Israel and Arab League countries have been established, culminating in the signing of the Abraham Accords. The Israeli security situation shifted from the traditional Arab–Israeli conflict towards the Iran–Israel proxy conflict and direct confrontation with Iran during the Syrian civil war. On 7 October 2023, Palestinian militant groups from Gaza, led by Hamas, launched a series of coordinated attacks on Israel, leading to the start of the Gaza war.{{cite news |last1=Martínez |first1=Andrés R. |last2=Bubola |first2=Emma |title=What We Know About the Hamas Attack and Israel's Response |url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/israel-gaza-hamas-what-we-know.html |access-date=10 October 2023 |work=The New York Times |date=10 October 2023 |archive-date=8 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008143358/https://www.nytimes.com/article/israel-gaza-hamas-what-we-know.html |url-status=live }} On that day, approximately 1,300 Israelis, predominantly civilians, were killed in communities near the Gaza Strip border and during a music festival. Over 200 hostages were kidnapped and taken to the Gaza Strip.{{cite news |last1=Gillett |first1=Francesca |date=8 October 2023 |title=How an Israel music festival turned into a nightmare after Hamas attack |agency=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67047034 |url-status=live |access-date=8 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008143208/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67047034 |archive-date=8 October 2023}}{{cite news |last1=Tabachnick |first1=Cara |date=8 October 2023 |title=Israelis search for loved ones with posts and pleas on social media |publisher=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/israelis-search-loved-ones-posts-pleas-social-media-hamas-attack/ |url-status=live |access-date=8 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008061931/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/israelis-search-loved-ones-posts-pleas-social-media-hamas-attack/ |archive-date=8 October 2023}}{{cite news |author=Amanda Borschel-Dan |date=7 October 2023 |title=Thousands flee rocket and gunfire at all-night desert 'Nature Party'; dozens missing |work=The Times of Israel |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/thousands-flee-rocket-and-gunfire-at-all-night-desert-nature-party-dozens-missing/ |url-status=live |access-date=8 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007231525/https://www.timesofisrael.com/thousands-flee-rocket-and-gunfire-at-all-night-desert-nature-party-dozens-missing/ |archive-date=7 October 2023}}

After clearing militants from its territory, Israel launched one of the most destructive bombing campaigns in modern history{{cite web |last=Frankel |first=Julia |title=Israel's military campaign in Gaza is among the most destructive in history, experts say |website=PBS NewsHour |agency=Associated Press |date=21 December 2023 |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/israels-military-campaign-in-gaza-is-among-the-most-destructive-in-history-experts-say |access-date=22 April 2024 |archive-date=22 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422042427/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/israels-military-campaign-in-gaza-is-among-the-most-destructive-in-history-experts-say |url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=Israeli bombardment destroyed over 70% of Gaza homes: Report |work=Al Jazeera |date=31 December 2023 |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/31/israeli-bombardment-destroyed-over-70-of-gaza-homes-media-office |access-date=22 April 2024 |archive-date=23 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423191214/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/31/israeli-bombardment-destroyed-over-70-of-gaza-homes-media-office |url-status=live}} and invaded Gaza on 27 October with the stated objectives of destroying Hamas and freeing hostages.{{cite news |title=Can Israel achieve its war goals in Gaza? |url=https://www.ft.com/content/282ffdcd-70c0-4da5-9a7e-5a31d7677fe5 |access-date=6 May 2024 |work=Financial Times |archive-date=7 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407032619/https://www.ft.com/content/282ffdcd-70c0-4da5-9a7e-5a31d7677fe5 |url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=Netanyahu says IDF will control Gaza after war, rejects notion of international force |work=The Times of Israel |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/netanyahu-says-idf-will-control-gaza-after-war-rejects-notion-of-international-force/ |url-status=live |access-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231112163219/https://www.timesofisrael.com/netanyahu-says-idf-will-control-gaza-after-war-rejects-notion-of-international-force/ |archive-date=12 November 2023}} The fifth war of the Gaza–Israel conflict since 2008, it has been the deadliest for Palestinians in the entire Israeli–Palestinian conflict{{Cite web |last=Krauss |first=Joseph |date=14 May 2024 |title=Palestinians mark 76 years of dispossession as a potentially even larger catastrophe unfolds in Gaza |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-hamas-war-nakba-history-b5cea9556e516655c25598d5dbe54192 |access-date=14 June 2024 |website=AP News |quote=The war in Gaza, which was triggered by Hamas' Oct. 7 attack into Israel, has killed over 35,000 Palestinians, according to local health officials, making it by far the deadliest round of fighting in the history of the conflict. |archive-date=13 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613150349/https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-hamas-war-nakba-history-b5cea9556e516655c25598d5dbe54192 |url-status=live }} and the most significant military engagement in the region since the Yom Kippur War in 1973.{{#invoke:cite news||last=El Deeb|first=Sarah|date=9 October 2023|title=What is Hamas? The group that rules the Gaza Strip has fought several rounds of war with Israel|url=https://apnews.com/article/hamas-gaza-palestinian-authority-israel-war-ed7018dbaae09b81513daf3bda38109a|access-date=5 December 2023|work=AP News|archive-date=23 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231023140259/https://apnews.com/article/hamas-gaza-palestinian-authority-israel-war-ed7018dbaae09b81513daf3bda38109a|url-status=live}} On 1 October 2024, Israel invaded Southern Lebanon, marking the fifth Israeli invasion of Lebanon since 1978. The invasion took place after nearly 12 months of Israel–Hezbollah conflict.

Israel is accused of carrying out a genocide against the Palestinian people by a United Nations agency, experts, governments, and non-governmental organisations during its invasion of the Gaza Strip in the ongoing Gaza war.{{cite web |author= |date=16 November 2023 |title=Gaza: UN experts call on international community to prevent genocide against the Palestinian people |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/11/gaza-un-experts-call-international-community-prevent-genocide-against |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224050530/https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/11/gaza-un-experts-call-international-community-prevent-genocide-against |archive-date=24 December 2023 |access-date=22 December 2023 |website=OHCHR |quote=Grave violations committed by Israel against Palestinians in the aftermath of 7 October, particularly in Gaza, point to a genocide in the making, UN experts said today. They illustrated evidence of increasing genocidal incitement, overt intent to "destroy the Palestinian people under occupation", loud calls for a 'second Nakba' in Gaza and the rest of the occupied Palestinian territory, and the use of powerful weaponry with inherently indiscriminate impacts, resulting in a colossal death toll and destruction of life-sustaining infrastructure.}}{{cite magazine |last=Burga |first=Solcyré |date=13 November 2023 |title=Is What's Happening in Gaza a Genocide? Experts Weigh In |url=https://time.com/6334409/is-whats-happening-gaza-genocide-experts |magazine=Time |access-date=24 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125022352/https://time.com/6334409/is-whats-happening-gaza-genocide-experts/ |archive-date=25 November 2023}}; {{cite news |last=Corder |first=Mike |date=2 January 2024 |title=South Africa's genocide case against Israel sets up a high-stakes legal battle at the UN's top court |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/south-africas-genocide-case-israel-sets-high-stakes-106055104 |access-date=3 January 2024 |work=ABC News |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107013809/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/south-africas-genocide-case-israel-sets-high-stakes-106055104 |archive-date=7 January 2024}};{{Cite web |last=Quigley |first=John |date=3 July 2024 |title=The Lancet and Genocide By "Slow Death" in Gaza |url=https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-lancet-and-genocide-by-slow-death-in-gaza/ |access-date=13 July 2024 |website=Arab Center Washington DC |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713161805/https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-lancet-and-genocide-by-slow-death-in-gaza/ |archive-date=13 July 2024}}

{{Main|Geography of Israel}}

{{see also|Agriculture in Israel|Wildlife of Israel|List of forests in Israel|Yatir Forest}}

{{Israel Geographical Map}}

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Israel is located in the Levant area of the Fertile Crescent. At the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, it is bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank to the east, and Egypt and the Gaza Strip to the southwest. It lies between latitudes 29° and 34° N, and longitudes 34° and 36° E.

The sovereign territory of Israel (according to the demarcation lines of the 1949 Armistice Agreements and excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War) is approximately {{convert|20770|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us}}, of which two percent is water.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/ |title=Israel |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=5 January 2017 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel |url-status=live }} However Israel is so narrow (100 km at its widest, compared to 400 km from north to south) that the exclusive economic zone in the Mediterranean is double the land area of the country.{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israel-navy-to-devote-majority-of-missile-boats-to-secure-offshore-drilling-rafts-1.406203 |title=Israel Navy to devote majority of missile boats to secure offshore drilling rafts |first=Gili |last=Cohen |date=9 January 2012 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=9 January 2012 |archive-date=22 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522081921/https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/israel-navy-to-devote-majority-of-missile-boats-to-secure-offshore-drilling-rafts-1.406203 |url-status=live }} The total area under Israeli law, including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, is {{convert|22072|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us}},{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st01_01&CYear=2012 |title=Area of Districts, Sub-Districts, Natural Regions and Lakes |date=11 September 2012 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=13 June 2013 |archive-date=4 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004120711/http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st01_01&CYear=2012 |url-status=live }} and the total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partially Palestinian-governed territory of the West Bank, is {{convert|27799|km2|sqmi|0|sp=us}}.{{cite journal |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/iltoc.html |date=7 May 2009 |title=Israel (Geography) |journal=Country Studies |access-date=12 February 2010 |archive-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710212220/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/iltoc.html |url-status=live }}

Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev desert in the south to the inland fertile Jezreel Valley, with mountain ranges of the Galilee, Carmel and towards the Golan in the north. The Israeli coastal plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to most of the population.{{cite web |url=http://goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Tourist%20Information/Discover%20Israel/Geographic%20Regions/pages/The%20coastal%20plain.aspx |title=The Coastal Plain |publisher=Israel Ministry of Tourism |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107171405/http://goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Tourist%20Information/Discover%20Israel/Geographic%20Regions/pages/The%20coastal%20plain.aspx |archive-date=7 January 2017 }} East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, a small part of the {{convert|6500|km|mi|0|adj=on|sp=us}} Great Rift Valley. The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/livingwatersmyth0000krei |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=20 July 2007 |year=1999 |title=The Living Dead Sea |isbn=978-0-8264-0406-0 |url-access=registration}} Further south is the Arabah, ending with the Gulf of Eilat, part of the Red Sea. Makhtesh, or "erosion cirques" are unique to the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula, the largest being the Makhtesh Ramon at 38 km in length.{{cite book |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1486/ |publisher=UNESCO |title=Makhteshim Country |access-date=19 September 2007 |isbn=978-954-642-135-7 |year=2001 |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510053055/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1486/ |url-status=live }} Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of the countries in the Mediterranean Basin{{cite news |last=Rinat |first=Zafrir |title=More endangered than rain forests? |newspaper=Haaretz |date=29 May 2008 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/more-endangered-than-rain-forests-1.246839 |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010225743/https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/more-endangered-than-rain-forests-1.246839 |url-status=live }} and contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forests, Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests, Arabian Desert, and Mesopotamian shrub desert.{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |year=2017 |pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free}} Forests accounted for 8.5% of the area in 2016, up from 2% in 1948, as the result of a large-scale forest planting programme by the Jewish National Fund.{{cite book |last1=Tal |first1=Alon |title=All the Trees of the Forest |date=2013 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300189506 |pages=5, 66}}{{Cite web |title=Forestry and Green Innovations |url=https://www.jnf.org/our-work/forestry-green-innovations |access-date=2023-11-13 |publisher=Jewish National Fund |language=en |archive-date=16 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016185242/https://www.jnf.org/our-work/forestry-green-innovations |url-status=live }}

{{Further|List of earthquakes in the Levant}}

The Jordan Rift Valley is the result of tectonic movements within the Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault system. The DST forms the transform boundary between the African Plate to the west and the Arabian Plate to the east. The Golan Heights and all of Jordan are part of the Arabian Plate, while the Galilee, West Bank, Coastal Plain, and Negev along with the Sinai Peninsula are on the African Plate. This tectonic disposition leads to a relatively high seismic activity. The entire Jordan Valley segment is thought to have ruptured repeatedly, for instance during the last two major earthquakes along this structure in 749 and 1033. The deficit in slip that has built up since 1033 is sufficient to cause an earthquake of {{M|w}}~7.4.{{cite journal |title= A 48-kyr-long slip rate history for the Jordan Valley segment of the Dead Sea Fault |author1=Ferry M. |author2=Meghraoui M. |author3=Karaki A.A. |author4=Al-Taj M. |author5=Amoush H. |author6=Al-Dhaisat S. |author7=Barjous M. |journal= Earth and Planetary Science Letters |year=2008 |volume=260 |issue=3–4 |pages=394–406 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2007.05.049 |bibcode=2007E&PSL.260..394F }}

The most catastrophic known earthquakes occurred in 31 BCE, 363, 749, and 1033 CE, that is every {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 400 years on average.American Friends of the Tel Aviv University, Earthquake Experts at Tel Aviv University Turn to History for Guidance (4 October 2007). Quote: The major ones were recorded along the Jordan Valley in the years 31 B.C.E., 363 C.E., 749 C.E., and 1033 C.E. "So roughly, we are talking about an interval of every 400 years. If we follow the patterns of nature, a major quake should be expected any time because almost a whole millennium has passed since the last strong earthquake of 1033." (Tel Aviv University Associate Professor Dr. Shmuel (Shmulik) Marco). [http://www.aftau.org/news-page-environment--ecology?storyid4703=2015&ncs4703=3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811164733/https://www.aftau.org/news-page-environment--ecology?storyid4703=2015&ncs4703=3|date=11 August 2020}} Destructive earthquakes strike about every 80 years, leading to serious loss of life .Zafrir Renat, Israel Is Due, and Ill Prepared, for Major Earthquake, Haaretz, 15 January 2010. "On average, a destructive earthquake takes place in Israel once every 80 years, causing serious casualties and damage." [http://www.haaretz.com/israel-is-due-and-ill-prepared-for-a-major-earthquake-1.261497] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315233829/http://www.haaretz.com/israel-is-due-and-ill-prepared-for-a-major-earthquake-1.261497|date=15 March 2016}} While stringent construction regulations are in place and recently built structures are earthquake resistant, {{As of|2007|lc=y}} many public buildings as well as 50,000 residential buildings did not meet the new standards and were "expected to collapse" if exposed to a strong earthquake.

{{Further|Climate change in Israel}}

File:Soil moisture and climate change.svg show clearly the impacts of climate change on Israel even at 2 degrees of warming.]]

Temperatures vary widely, especially during the winter. Coastal areas, such as those of Tel Aviv and Haifa, have a typical Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The area of Beersheba and the northern Negev have a semi-arid climate with hot summers, cool winters, and fewer rainy days. The southern Negev and the Arabah areas have a desert climate with very hot, dry summers, and mild winters with few days of rain. The highest temperature of 54 °C (129 °F) was recorded in 1942 in the Tirat Zvi kibbutz.{{cite news |last=Watzman |first=Haim |title=Left for dead |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=8 February 1997 |newspaper=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15320684.400-left-for-dead.html |archive-date=14 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114031306/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg15320684.400-left-for-dead.html |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=WMO Region 6: Highest Temperature |url=https://wmo.asu.edu/content/wmo-region-vi-europe-highest-temperature|website=World Meteorological Organization's World Weather & Climate Extremes Archive|publisher=Arizona State University|url-status=live|access-date=14 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913230418/https://wmo.asu.edu/content/wmo-region-vi-europe-highest-temperature |archive-date=13 September 2021}} Mountainous regions can be windy and cold, and areas at elevation of {{Convert|750|m|}} or more (same elevation as Jerusalem) usually receive at least one snowfall each year.{{sfn|Goldreich|2003|p=85}} From May to September, rain is rare.{{cite web |url=http://www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0026 |publisher=The Weather Channel |access-date=11 July 2007 |title=Average Weather for Tel Aviv-Yafo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120111750/http://www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0026 |archive-date=20 January 2013 }}{{cite web |url=http://www.weather.com/outlook/events/weddings/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0010 |publisher=The Weather Channel |access-date=11 July 2007 |title=Average Weather for Jerusalem |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120111740/http://www.weather.com/outlook/events/weddings/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/ISXX0010 |archive-date=20 January 2013 }}

There are four different phytogeographic regions, due to its location between the temperate and tropical zones. For this reason, the flora and fauna are extremely diverse. There are 2,867 known species of plants in Israel. Of these, at least 253 species are introduced and non-native.{{cite web |url=http://flora.huji.ac.il/browse.asp?action=browse&name=1070 |title=Flora of Israel Online |publisher=Flora.huji.ac.il |access-date=29 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430091717/http://flora.huji.ac.il/browse.asp?action=browse&name=1070 |archive-date=30 April 2014 }} There are 380 Israeli nature reserves.{{cite web |url=http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Articles/Attractions/Pages/National%20Parks%20and%20Nature%20Reserves.aspx |title=National Parks and Nature Reserves, Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Tourism |access-date=18 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019042219/http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Articles/Attractions/Pages/National%20Parks%20and%20Nature%20Reserves.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2012 }}

With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, including drip irrigation.{{Cite news |last=Degani |first=Corin |date=2023-08-14 |title=How Israel achieved one of the most secure water economies, drip by drip |url=https://www.haaretz.com/life/nature-environment/2023-08-14/ty-article-magazine/.premium/as-the-world-struggles-to-prepare-for-water-shortages-israel-is-sitting-pretty/00000189-f3f1-d975-a9cf-fbf3eb930000 |access-date=2024-06-17 |work=Haaretz |language=en}}{{cite web |url=http://www.gardenguides.com/79735-history-drip-irrigation.html|title=The History of Drip Irrigation|date=21 September 2017 }} The considerable sunlight available for solar energy makes Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita—practically every house uses solar panels for water heating. The Ministry of Environmental Protection has reported that climate change "will have a decisive impact on all areas of life", particularly for vulnerable populations.{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.il/en/departments/guides/climate_trends_and_impact_in_israel |title=Climate Change Trends and Impact in Israel |newspaper=Gov.il |publisher=Ministry of Environmental Protection |date=2 November 2020 |access-date=29 June 2021 |archive-date=6 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806015845/https://www.gov.il/en/departments/guides/climate_trends_and_impact_in_israel |url-status=live }}

{{Main|Israeli system of government|Politics of Israel}}

{{See also|Criticism of Israel}}

{{multiple image

| total_width = 260

| caption_align = center

| image1 = Isaac Herzog, July 2021 (D1233-049).JPG

| caption1 = President
Isaac Herzog

| image2 = Benjamin Netanyahu, February 2023.jpg

| caption2 = Prime Minister
Benjamin Netanyahu

}}

File:PikiWiki Israel 7260 Knesset-Room.jpg chamber, home to the Israeli parliament]]

Israel has a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority becomes the prime minister—usually this is the chair of the largest party. The prime minister is the head of government and of cabinet.In 1996, direct elections for the prime minister were inaugurated, but the system was declared unsatisfactory and the old one reinstated. See {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2683259.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Israel's election process explained |access-date=31 March 2010 |date=23 January 2003}} The president is head of state, with largely ceremonial duties.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2077.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004001/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2077.html |archive-date=13 June 2007 |work=The World Factbook |title=Field Listing — Executive Branch |access-date=20 July 2007 |date=19 June 2007 }}

Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the Knesset. Membership of the Knesset is based on proportional representation of political parties,{{cite web |url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_beh.htm |publisher=The Knesset |access-date=8 August 2007 |title=The Electoral System in Israel }}{{Cite book |last=סגל |first=עמית |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AuvVzgEACAAJ |title=סיפורה של הפוליטיקה הישראלית: מבן גוריון ועד בנט |date=2021 |publisher=Hotsaʼat ʻAmit Segal |isbn=978-965-599-597-8 |language=he}} with a 3.25% electoral threshold, which in practice has resulted in coalition governments. Residents of Israeli settlements in the West Bank are eligible to vote,[https://www.foxnews.com/world/jewish-settlers-can-vote-in-israeli-elections-though-west-bank-is-officially-not-israel Jewish settlers can vote in Israeli elections, though West Bank is officially not Israel], Fox News, February 2015: "When Israelis go to the polls next month, tens of thousands of Jewish settlers in the West Bank will also be casting votes, even though they do not live on what is sovereign Israeli territory. This exception in a country that doesn't allow absentee voting for citizens living abroad is a telling reflection of Israel's somewhat ambiguous and highly contentious claim to the territory, which has been under military occupation for almost a half century." and after the 2015 election 10 of the 120 members of the Knesset ({{percent|10|120}}) were settlers.[https://en.idi.org.il/articles/5199 The Social Composition of the 20th Knesset], Israeli Democracy Institute, 30 March 2015 Parliamentary elections are scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or a no-confidence vote can dissolve a government earlier.{{cite web |title=How Israel's electoral system works |website=CNN.com |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/02/05/israel.elections.explainer/index.html |access-date=14 October 2021 |publisher=CNN International}} The first Arab-led party was established in 1988,{{Cite news |last1=Halbfinger |first1=David M. |last2=McCann |first2=Allison |date=28 February 2020 |title=As Israel Votes Again (and Again), Arabs See an Opportunity |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/28/world/middleeast/israel-arabs-election-vote.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220106024835/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/28/world/middleeast/israel-arabs-election-vote.html%23commentsContainer |archive-date=6 January 2022}} and as of 2022 Arab-led parties hold about 10% of seats.{{Cite web |last=Abu Much |first=Afif |date=7 November 2022 |title=Arab Israeli parties trade blame for election fiasco |website=Al-Monitor |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/11/arab-israeli-parties-trade-blame-election-fiasco |access-date=12 May 2023 |language=en}} A party cannot run for election to the Knesset if its objectives or actions include the "negation of the existence of the State of Israel as the state of the Jewish people".

The Basic Laws of Israel function as an uncodified constitution. These define Israel as a Jewish and democratic state and the nation-state of exclusively the Jewish people.{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/israel/freedom-world/2020 |access-date=13 October 2020 |year=2020 |title=Israel |website=Freedom in the World |publisher=Freedom House}} In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws.{{sfn|Mazie|2006|p=34}}

Israel has no official religion,{{cite book | title=Secularism on the Edge: Rethinking Church-State Relations in the United States, France, and Israel |last=Charbit |first=Denis | editor1-last=Berlinerblau | editor1-first=Jacques | editor2-last=Fainberg | editor2-first=Sarah | editor3-last=Nou | editor3-first=Aurora | chapter=Israel's Self-Restrained Secularism from the 1947 Status Quo Letter to the Present | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-137-38115-6 | pages=167–169 |chapter-url={{Google books|gThvBAAAQBAJ|page=PA167|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |quote=The compromise, therefore, was to choose constructive ambiguity: as surprising as it may seem, there is no law that declares Judaism the official religion of Israel. However, there is no other law that declares Israel's neutrality toward all confessions. Judaism is not recognized as the official religion of the state, and even though the Jewish, Muslim and Christian clergy receive their salaries from the state, this fact does not make Israel a neutral state. This apparent pluralism cannot dissimulate the fact that Israel displays a clear and undoubtedly hierarchical pluralism in religious matters. ... It is important to note that from a multicultural point of view, this self-restrained secularism allows Muslim law to be practiced in Israel for personal matters of the Muslim community. As surprising as it seems, if not paradoxical for a state in war, Israel is the only Western democratic country in which Sharia enjoys such an official status.}}{{cite book | title=The Sage Handbook of the Sociology of Religion |last=Sharot |first=Stephen | editor1-last=Beckford | editor1-first=James A. | editor2-last=Demerath | editor2-first=Jay | chapter=Judaism in Israel: Public Religion, Neo-Traditionalism, Messianism, and Ethno-Religious Conflict | publisher=Sage Publications |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4129-1195-5 | pages=671–672 |chapter-url={{Google books|vA8edg7bv0kC|page=PA671|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |quote=It is true that Jewish Israelis, and secular Israelis in particular, conceive of religion as shaped by a state-sponsored religious establishment. There is no formal state religion in Israel, but the state gives its official recognition and financial support to particular religious communities, Jewish, Islamic and Christian, whose religious authorities and courts are empowered to deal with matters of personal status and family law, such as marriage, divorce, and alimony, that are binding on all members of the communities.}}{{cite book | title=Women in Zones of Conflict: Power and Resistance in Israel |last=Jacoby |first=Tami Amanda | publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7735-2993-9 | pages=53–54|url={{Google books|pr1LJNrlmuIC|page=PA53|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |quote=Although there is no official religion in Israel, there is also no clear separation between religion and state. In Israeli public life, tensions frequently arise among different streams of Judaism: Ultra-Orthodox, National-Religious, Mesorati (Conservative), Reconstructionist Progressive (Reform), and varying combinations of traditionalism and non-observance. Despite this variety in religious observances in society, Orthodox Judaism prevails institutionally over the other streams. This boundary is an historical consequence of the unique evolution of the relationship between Israel nationalism and state building. ... Since the founding period, in order to defuse religious tensions, the State of Israel has adopted what is known as the 'status quo,' an unwritten agreement stipulating that no further changes would be made in the status of religion, and that conflict between the observant and non-observant sectors would be handled circumstantially. The 'status quo' has since pertained to the legal status of both religious and secular Jews in Israel. This situation was designed to appease the religious sector, and has been upheld indefinitely through the disproportionate power of religious political parties in all subsequent coalition governments. ... On one hand, the Declaration of Independence adopted in 1948 explicitly guarantees freedom of religion. On the other, it simultaneously prevents the separation of religion and state in Israel.}} but the definition of the state as "Jewish and democratic" creates a strong connection with Judaism. On 19 July 2018, the Knesset passed a Basic Law that characterizes Israel as principally a "Nation State of the Jewish People" and Hebrew as its official language. The bill ascribes an undefined "special status" to the Arabic language.{{cite web |title=Israel's Jewish Nation-State Law – Adalah |url=https://www.adalah.org/en/content/view/9569 |website=adalah.org |language=en}} The same bill gives Jews a unique right to national self-determination and views the developing of Jewish settlement in the country as "a national interest", empowering the government to "take steps to encourage, advance and implement this interest".{{cite news |title=Jewish nation state: Israel approves controversial bill |publisher=BBC |date=19 July 2018 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-44881554 |access-date=20 July 2018 }}

{{Main|Districts of Israel}}

{{Israel Labelled Map}}

The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known as mehozot ({{Langx|he|מחוזות|link=no}}; {{singular}}: mahoz)—Center, Haifa, Jerusalem, North, South, and Tel Aviv, as well as the Judea and Samaria Area in the West Bank. All of the Judea and Samaria Area and parts of the Jerusalem and Northern districts are not recognised internationally as part of Israel. Districts are divided into 15 sub-districts known as nafot ({{Langx|he|נפות|link=no}}; {{singular}}: nafa), which are partitioned into 50 natural regions.{{cite web |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics |title=Introduction to the Tables: Geophysical Characteristics |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton53/download/st_eng01.doc |format=doc |access-date=4 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221195435/http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton53/download/st_eng01.doc |archive-date=21 February 2011 }}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"

|-

! rowspan="2"| District

! rowspan="2"| Capital

! rowspan="2"| Largest city

! colspan="4"| Population, 2021{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2022/2.shnatonpopulation/st02_17.pdf |title=Localities and Population, by Population Group, District, Sub-District and Natural Region |date=15 September 2022 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=21 February 2023}}

|-

! Jews

! Arabs

! Total

! class="unsortable"| note

|-

! Jerusalem

| colspan="2"| Jerusalem

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|802400|1209700}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|389000|1209700}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1209700|1,209,700}}

| {{ref|jerusalemdistrict|a}}

|-

! North

| Nof HaGalil

| Nazareth

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|641500|1513600}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|811700|1513600}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1513600|1,513,600}}

|

|-

! Haifa

| colspan="2"| Haifa

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|735200|1092700}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|277600|1092700}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1092700|1,092,700}}

|

|-

! Center

| Ramla

| Rishon LeZion

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|2002100|2304300}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|190300|2304300}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{sort|2304300|2,304,300}}

|

|-

! Tel Aviv

| colspan="2"| Tel Aviv

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|1362900|1481400}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|25200|1481400}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1481400|1,481,400}}

|

|-

! South

| Beersheba

| Ashdod

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|982800|1386000}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|303100|1386000}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{sort|1386000|1,386,000}}

|

|-

! Judea and Samaria Area

| Ariel

| Modi'in Illit

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|455700|465400}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{percentage|900|465400}}

| style="text-align:right"| {{sort|0465400|465,400}}

| {{ref|judeaandsamaria|b}}

|}

:{{note|jerusalemdistrict|a}} Including 361,700 Arabs and 233,900 Jews in East Jerusalem, {{as of|2020|lc=y}}.{{cite report |last1=Yaniv |first1=Omer |last2=Haddad |first2=Netta |last3=Assaf-Shapira |first3=Yair |date=2022 |title=Jerusalem Facts and Trends 2022 |url=https://jerusaleminstitute.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/2022-על-נתונייך-אנגלית-דיגיטל-1.pdf |publisher=Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research |page=25 |access-date=21 February 2023}}

:{{note|judeaandsamaria|b}} Israeli citizens only.

{{Main|Israeli citizenship law}}

The 1950 Law of Return grants Jews the unrestricted right to immigrate to Israel and obtain Israeli citizenship. Individuals born within the country receive birthright citizenship if at least one parent is a citizen.{{cite report |last1=Harpaz |first1=Yossi |last2=Herzog |first2=Ben |title=Report on Citizenship Law: Israel |publisher=European University Institute |date=June 2018 |hdl=1814/56024 |hdl-access=free }} Israeli law defines Jewish nationality as distinct from Israeli nationality, and the Supreme Court of Israel has ruled that an Israeli nationality does not exist.{{cite journal |last=Tekiner |first=Roselle |year=1991 |title=Race and the Issue of National Identity in Israel |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=39–55 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |jstor=163931 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800034541 |s2cid=163043582 }}{{cite news |last=Goldenberg |first=Tia |date=4 October 2013 |title=Supreme Court rejects 'Israeli' nationality status |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/supreme-court-rejects-israeli-nationality-status/ |work=The Times of Israel |access-date=6 November 2018 |archive-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213205459/https://www.timesofisrael.com/supreme-court-rejects-israeli-nationality-status/ |url-status=live }} A Jewish national is defined as any person practicing Judaism and their descendants.

{{Main|Israeli-occupied territories|Israeli occupation of the West Bank|Golan Heights}}

{{Administration in the Palestine region}}

{{Israeli occupations navbox}}

File:Map of Israel, neighbours and occupied territories-en.svg

In 1967, as a result of the Six-Day War, Israel captured and occupied the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Israel also captured the Sinai Peninsula but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty.{{sfn|Bregman|2002|pp=186–187}} Between 1982 and 2000, Israel occupied part of southern Lebanon, in what was known as the Security Belt. Since capture of these territories, Israeli settlements and military installations have been built within each of them, except Lebanon.

The Golan Heights and East Jerusalem have been fully incorporated under Israeli law but not under international law. Israel has applied civilian law to both areas and granted their inhabitants permanent residency status and the ability to apply for citizenship. The UN Security Council has declared the annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and void" and continues to view the territories as occupied.{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/73D6B4C70D1A92B7852560DF0064F101 |title=Resolution 497 (1981) |year=1981 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612120152/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/73D6B4C70D1A92B7852560DF0064F101 |archive-date=12 June 2012 }}{{cite web |url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/dde590c6ff232007852560df0065fddb?OpenDocument |title=East Jerusalem: UNSC Res. 478 |year=1980 |publisher=UN |access-date=10 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231090053/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/dde590c6ff232007852560df0065fddb?OpenDocument |archive-date=31 December 2010 }} The status of East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult issue in negotiations between Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians.

File:West_Bank_Fence_South_Hebron.JPG is a separation barrier built by Israel along the Green Line and inside parts of the West Bank.]]

The West Bank excluding East Jerusalem is known as the Judea and Samaria Area. The almost 400,000 Israeli settlers residing in the area are considered part of Israel's population, have Knesset representation, are subject to a large part of Israel's civil and criminal laws, and their output is considered part of Israel's economy.Gilead Sher, [http://www.inss.org.il/publication/the-application-of-israeli-law-to-the-west-bank-de-facto-annexation/ The Application of Israeli Law to the West Bank: De Facto Annexation?], INSS Insight No. 638, 4 December 2014{{refn|group=fn|name=oecd|Israeli population and economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.{{sfn|OECD|2011}}[http://mas.ps/files/server/20141911093442-1.pdf Quarterly Economic and Social Monitor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009161737/http://mas.ps/files/server/20141911093442-1.pdf |date=9 October 2021 }}, Volume 26, October 2011, p. 57: "When Israel bid in March 2010 for membership in the 'Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development'... some members questioned the accuracy of Israeli statistics, as the Israeli figures (relating to gross domestic product, spending and number of the population) cover geographical areas that the Organization does not recognize as part of the Israeli territory. These areas include East Jerusalem, Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Golan Heights."}} The land is not considered part of Israel under Israeli law, as Israel has consciously refrained from annexing the territory, without ever relinquishing its legal claim to the land or defining a border. Israeli political opposition to annexation primarily stems from the perceived "demographic threat" of incorporating the West Bank's Palestinian population into Israel. Outside of the Israeli settlements, the West Bank remains under direct Israeli military rule, and Palestinians in the area cannot become Israeli citizens.

The international community maintains that Israel does not have sovereignty in the West Bank and considers Israel's control of the area to be the longest military occupation in modern history.See for example:
* {{cite book |title=Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |publisher=University of California Press |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-520-24194-7 |page=96 |url={{Google books|mcjoHq2wqdUC|page=PA96|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |quote=The Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza is the longest military occupation in modern times.}}
* {{cite journal |first=Perry |last=Anderson |author-link=Perry Anderson |title=Editorial: Scurrying Towards Bethlehem |date=July–August 2001 |journal=New Left Review|volume=10 |url=https://newleftreview.org/article/download_pdf?id=2330 |quote=longest official military occupation of modern history—currently entering its thirty-fifth year|access-date=9 January 2015|archive-date=1 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001124430/https://newleftreview.org/article/download_pdf?id=2330}}
* {{cite book |first=Saree |last=Makdisi|author-link=Saree Makdisi|url={{Google books|2dBM3Ago2BAC|page=PA299|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |quote=longest-lasting military occupation of the modern age|title=Palestine Inside Out: An Everyday Occupation |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|date=2010 |isbn=978-0-393-33844-7}}
* {{cite journal |volume=94|issue=885|date=Spring 2012|journal=International Review of the Red Cross|title=The law of belligerent occupation in the Supreme Court of Israel |first=David|last=Kretzmer|author-link=David Kretzmer |doi=10.1017/S1816383112000446|url=https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/review/2012/irrc-885-kretzmer.pdf |quote=This is probably the longest occupation in modern international relations, and it holds a central place in all literature on the law of belligerent occupation since the early 1970s|pages=207–236|s2cid=32105258}}
* {{cite news|title=The Justice of Occupation|quote=Israel is the only modern state that has held territories under military occupation for over four decades|type=opinion|first=Ra'anan |last=Alexandrowicz|date=24 January 2012|work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/25/opinion/the-justice-of-occupation.html}}
* {{cite book|title=The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law |first=Sharon |last=Weill |url={{Google books|bDnnAgAAQBAJ|page=PA22|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |page=22 |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-968542-4 |quote=Although the basic philosophy behind the law of military occupation is that it is a temporary situation modem occupations have well demonstrated that rien ne dure comme le provisoire A significant number of post-1945 occupations have lasted more than two decades such as the occupations of Namibia by South Africa and of East Timor by Indonesia as well as the ongoing occupations of Northern Cyprus by Turkey and of Western Sahara by Morocco. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories, {{underline|which is the longest in all occupation's history}} has already entered its fifth decade.}}
* Azarova, Valentina. 2017, [http://www.ecfr.eu/publications/summary/israels_unlawfully_prolonged_occupation_7294 Israel's Unlawfully Prolonged Occupation: Consequences under an Integrated Legal Framework], European Council on Foreign Affairs Policy Brief: "June 2017 marks 50 years of Israel's belligerent occupation of Palestinian territory, making it the longest occupation in modern history." The West Bank was occupied and annexed by Jordan in 1950, following the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Only Britain recognised this annexation, and Jordan has since ceded its claim to the territory to the PLO. The population is mainly Palestinians, including refugees of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.{{cite web |title=UNRWA in Figures: Figures as of 30 June 2009 |publisher=United Nations |date=June 2009 |url=http://www.unrwa.org/userfiles/uif-june09.pdf |access-date=27 September 2007 }} From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the Israel–PLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. Israel's claim of universal suffrage has been questioned due to its blurred territorial boundaries, its simultaneous extension of voting rights to Israeli settlers in the occupied territories and denial of voting rights to their Palestinian neighbours, as well as the alleged ethnocratic nature of the state.{{cite journal |author=Yiftachel, O. |date=1999 |title='Ethnocracy': The Politics of Judaizing Israel/Palestine |journal=Constellations |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=364–390 |doi=10.1111/1467-8675.00151 |quote=Israel's political structure and settlement activity have [...] in effect undermined the existence of universal suffrage (as Jewish settlers in the Occupied Territories can vote to the parliament that governs them, but their Palestinian neighbours cannot). |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/31054252/ethnocracy-yiftachel.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{cite journal |author=Ghanem, A. A. |author2=Rouhana, N. |author3=Yiftachel, O. |date=1998 |title=Questioning" ethnic democracy": A response to Sammy Smooha |journal=Israel Studies |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=253–267 |doi=10.2979/ISR.1998.3.2.253 |quote=settlers remain fully enfranchised Israeli citizens while their Palestinian neighbors have no voting rights and no impact on Israeli policies |jstor=30245721|s2cid=3524173}}

The Gaza Strip is considered to be a "foreign territory" under Israeli law. Israel and Egypt operate a land, air, and sea blockade of the Gaza Strip. The Gaza Strip was occupied by Israel after 1967. In 2005, as part of a unilateral disengagement plan, Israel removed its settlers and forces from the territory but continues to maintain control of its airspace and waters. The international community, including numerous international humanitarian organisations and UN bodies, consider Gaza to remain occupied.{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F0B7D1A3A8E7CF1985257552004F640E |title=Situation Report on the Humanitarian Situation in the Gaza Strip |publisher=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs |date=23 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612121839/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F0B7D1A3A8E7CF1985257552004F640E |archive-date=12 June 2012 }}{{cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/report/palestine-report-131207.htm |title=The occupied Palestinian territories: Dignity Denied |publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross |date=13 December 2007}}{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/israel-palestine |title=Israel/Palestine |chapter=World Report 2013: Israel/Palestine |year=2013 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=13 June 2013}}{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/pdfs/AHRC1248.pdf|title=Human Rights in Palestine and Other Occupied Arab Territories: Report of the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict |publisher=United Nations Human Rights Council |date=15 September 2009 |page=85}}{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde15/093/2006/en/ |title=Israel/Occupied Territories: Road to nowhere |publisher=Amnesty International |date=1 December 2006 }} Following the 2007 Battle of Gaza, when Hamas assumed power in the Gaza Strip, Israel tightened control of the Gaza crossings along its border, as well as by sea and air, and prevented persons from entering and exiting except for isolated cases it deemed humanitarian.{{cite web |url=http://www.btselem.org/gaza_strip/gaza_status |title=The scope of Israeli control in the Gaza Strip |publisher=B'Tselem |access-date=20 March 2012}} Gaza has a border with Egypt, and an agreement between Israel, the EU, and the PA governs how border crossings take place.{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/mfadocuments/pages/agreed%20documents%20on%20movement%20and%20access%20from%20and%20to%20gaza%2015-nov-2005.aspx |title=Agreed documents on movement and access from and to Gaza |date=15 November 2005 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=13 June 2013}} The application of democracy to its Palestinian citizens and the selective application of Israeli democracy in the Israeli-controlled Palestinian territories have been criticised.{{cite book|author=Jerome Slater|title=Mythologies Without End: The US, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1917–2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yVAAEAAAQBAJ|date=1 October 2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-045909-3|page=15|quote=It is now clear that Israel is a true democracy in its broadest sense only for its Jewish citizens. The Arab-Israeli (or, as some prefer, the Palestinian-Israeli) peoples, roughly 20 percent of the total population of Israel its pre-1967 boundaries, are citizens and have voting rights, but they face political, economic, and social discrimination. And, of course, Israeli democracy is inapplicable to the nearly 4 million Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank and Gaza, conquered by Israel in June 1967, who are occupied, repressed, and in many ways, directly and indirectly, effectively ruled by Israel.|ref={{harvid|Slater|2020}}}}{{cite book|author=Ben White|title=Palestinians in Israel: Segregation, Discrimination and Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp1PXwAACAAJ|date=15 January 2012|publisher=Pluto Press|isbn=978-0-7453-3228-4}}

{{see also|Israeli war crimes}}

The International Court of Justice said, in its 2004 advisory opinion on the legality of the construction of the West Bank barrier, that the lands captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, including East Jerusalem, are occupied territory and found that the construction of the wall within the occupied Palestinian territory violates international law.{{cite news |title=Arabs will ask U.N. to seek razing of Israeli wall |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna5400559 |publisher=NBC News |date=9 July 2004 |access-date=9 February 2013}} Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 242, which emphasises "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war", and calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalisation of relations with Arab states ("Land for peace").{{cite news |title=Olmert: Willing to trade land for peace |work=Ynetnews |date =16 December 2006 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3340641,00.html |access-date=26 September 2007 }}{{cite news |title=Syria ready to discuss land for peace |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=12 June 2007 |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=64667 |access-date=20 March 2012}}{{cite news |title=Egypt: Israel must accept the land-for-peace formula |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=15 March 2007 |url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=54876 |access-date=20 March 2012}} Israel has been criticised for engaging in systematic and widespread violations of human rights in the occupied territories, including occupation{{cite web|title=A/RES/36/147. Report of the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Population of the Occupied Territories |url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/36/a36r147.htm|access-date=12 February 2017}} and war crimes against civilians.{{cite news |last1=Rudoren |first1=Jodi |last2=Sengupta |first2=Somini |date=22 June 2015 |title=U.N. Report on Gaza Finds Evidence of War Crimes by Israel and by Palestinian Militants |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/23/world/middleeast/israel-gaza-report.html |access-date=12 February 2017}}{{cite web |date=23 July 2014 |title=Human Rights Council establishes Independent, International Commission of Inquiry for the Occupied Palestinian Territory |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2014/07/human-rights-council-establishes-independent-international-commission |access-date=12 February 2017 |publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights}}{{cite news|title=UN condemns Israel's West Bank settlement plans|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-38740712|publisher=BBC News|access-date=12 February 2017 |date=25 January 2017}}{{cite web |date=22 December 1987 |title=The Avalon Project: United Nations Security Council Resolution 605 |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/un605.asp |access-date=12 February 2017 |website=avalon.law.yale.edu}} The allegations include violations of international humanitarian law{{cite web|title=Faced with Israeli denial of access to Occupied Palestinian Territory, UN expert resigns |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=52935|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205095623/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=52935|archive-date=5 December 2016 |date=4 January 2016}} by the UN Human Rights Council.{{cite web|title=Human Rights Council adopts six resolutions and closes its thirty-first regular session |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=18535&LangID=E |access-date=12 February 2017}} The U.S. State Department has called reports of abuses of significant human rights of Palestinians "credible" both within Israel'Significant human rights issues included credible reports of: unlawful or arbitrary killings; arbitrary detention, often extraterritorial detention of Palestinians from the occupied territories in Israel; restrictions on Palestinians residing in Jerusalem including arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy, family, and home; substantial interference with the freedom of association; arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy; harassment of nongovernmental organizations; significant restrictions on freedom of movement within the country; violence against asylum seekers and irregular migrants; violence or threats of violence against national, racial, or ethnic minority groups; and labor rights abuses against foreign workers and Palestinians from the West Bank.' [https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/313615_ISRAEL-2021-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf Israel 2021 Human Rights Report,] United States Department of State 17 April 2021. and the occupied territories.'With respect to Israeli security forces in the West Bank: credible reports of unlawful or arbitrary killings due to unnecessary or disproportionate use of force by Israeli officials; torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment by Israeli officials; arbitrary arrest or detention; arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy; restrictions on free expression and media, including violence, threats of violence, unjustified arrests and prosecutions against journalists, and censorship; restrictions on internet freedom; restrictions on Palestinians residing in Jerusalem, including arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy, family, and home; substantial interference with the rights of peaceful assembly and freedom of association, including harassment of nongovernmental organizations; and restrictions on freedom of movement and residence.' [https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/west-bank-and-gaza/ 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Israel, West Bank and Gaza,] United States Department of State 12 April 2022 Amnesty International and other NGOs have documented mass arbitrary arrests, torture, unlawful killings, systemic abuses and impunity{{cite news|last1=Heyer |first1=Julia Amalia|title=Kids Behind Bars: Israel's Arbitrary Arrests of Palestinian Minors |work=Der Spiegel |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/israeli-military-arrest-large-numbers-of-palestinian-children-a-995758.html |access-date=23 April 2017|date=7 October 2014}}{{cite web|title=Israel and Occupied Palestinian Territories 2016/2017 |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/middle-east-and-north-africa/israel-and-occupied-palestinian-territories/report-israel-and-occupied-palestinian-territories/|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=23 April 2017|language=en}}{{cite web|last1=Isfahan|first1=Ali |title=Why Israel's Impunity Goes Unpunished by International Authorities |url=https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2014/08/11/why-israels-impunity-goes-unpunished-by-international-authorities/ |publisher=Foreign Policy Journal|access-date=23 April 2017|date=11 August 2014}}{{cite news |last1=Barghouti |first1=Marwan|date=16 April 2017 |title=Why We Are on Hunger Strike in Israel's Prisons |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/16/opinion/palestinian-hunger-strike-prisoners-call-for-justice.html|newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=23 April 2017}} in tandem with a denial of the right to Palestinian self-determination.{{cite news |last1=Dorfman|first1=Zach |title=George Mitchell wrote 'A Path to Peace' about Israel and Palestine. Is there one?|url=http://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-mitchell-peace-20170127-story.html|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|access-date=1 February 2017}}{{cite web|title=Outrage over Maimane's visit to Israel |url=http://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/outrage-over-maimanes-visit-to-israel-7397147|access-date=1 February 2017}}{{cite web|title=The subordination of Palestinian rights must stop |url=http://www.thenational.ae/opinion/comment/the-subordination-of-palestinian-rights-must-stop|access-date=1 February 2017|publisher=The National}}{{cite web|title=Palestine-Israel Journal: Settlements and the Palestinian Right to Self-Determination |website=pij.org |url=http://www.pij.org/details.php?id=478 |access-date=1 February 2017}}{{cite web|last1=Hammond |first1=Jeremy R.|title=The Rejection of Palestinian Self Determination |url=http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Hammond-Rejection-Palestinian-Self-Determination.pdf|access-date=1 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203161044/http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Hammond-Rejection-Palestinian-Self-Determination.pdf|archive-date=3 February 2017}} Prime Minister Netanyahu has defended the country's security forces for protecting the innocent from terrorists{{cite news|title=Top US senator clashes with Netanyahu over Israeli rights record |url=http://www.politico.eu/article/patrick-leahy-clashes-with-netanyahu-over-israeli-rights-record-human-rights-violations/ |work=Politico|access-date=12 February 2017|date=31 March 2016}} and expressed contempt for what he describes as a lack of concern about the human rights violations committed by "criminal killers".{{cite news|title=Allegations of Israeli Human Rights Violations Closely Scrutinized, Says U.S. State Department |language=en|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/1.718320 |newspaper=Haaretz|access-date=12 February 2017 |date=6 May 2017}}

The international community widely regards Israeli settlements in the occupied territories illegal under international law.{{Cite journal |title=Israel: The security barrier—between international law, constitutional law, and domestic judicial review |last=Barak-Erez |first=Daphne |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |date=1 July 2006 |volume=4 |issue=3 |page=548| doi=10.1093/icon/mol021 |doi-access=free |quote=The real controversy hovering over all the litigation on the security barrier concerns the fate of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories. Since 1967, Israel has allowed and even encouraged its citizens to live in the new settlements established in the territories, motivated by religious and national sentiments attached to the history of the Jewish nation in the land of Israel. This policy has also been justified in terms of security interests, taking into consideration the dangerous geographic circumstances of Israel before 1967 (where Israeli areas on the Mediterranean coast were potentially threatened by Jordanian control of the West Bank ridge). The international community, for its part, has viewed this policy as patently illegal, based on the provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention that prohibit moving populations to or from territories under occupation.}} United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334 (passed 2016) states that Israel's settlement activity constitutes a "flagrant violation" of international law and demands that Israel stop such activity and fulfill its obligations as an occupying power under the Fourth Geneva Convention.{{cite news|title=Choosing not to veto, Obama lets anti-settlement resolution pass at UN Security Council |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/choosing-not-to-veto-obama-lets-anti-settlement-resolution-pass-at-un-security-council/|access-date=23 December 2016|work=The Times of Israel}} A United Nations special rapporteur concluded that the settlement programme was a war crime under the Rome Statute,{{cite web |last=Nebehay |first=Stephanie |title=Israeli settlements amount to war crime – U.N. rights expert |website=Reuters |date=9 July 2021 |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israeli-settlements-amount-war-crime-un-rights-expert-2021-07-09/ |access-date=6 April 2023}} and Amnesty International found that the settlement programme constitutes an illegal transfer of civilians into occupied territory and "pillage", which is prohibited by the Hague Conventions and Geneva Conventions as well as being a war crime under the Rome Statute.{{cite web |title=Chapter 3: Israeli Settlements and International Law |website=Amnesty International |date=30 January 2019 |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2019/01/chapter-3-israeli-settlements-and-international-law/ |access-date=6 April 2023}}

In a 2024 advisory opinion, the International Court of Justice stated that occupation of the Palestinian territories violated international law; Israel should end its occupation as quickly as possible and pay reparations. In addition, the court found that Israel was in breach of article 3 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which requires states to prevent, prohibit and eradicate all practices of racial segregation and apartheid.{{Cite news |last=Siddique |first=Haroon |last2= |first2= |date=2024-07-19 |title=UN court orders Israel to end its occupation of Palestinian territories |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/19/israels-settlement-policies-break-international-law-court-finds |access-date=2024-08-20 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}{{Cite web |date=2024-07-19 |title=ICJ says Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories is illegal |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cjerjzxlpvdo |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}{{Cite web |date=19 July 2024 |title=LEGAL CONSEQUENCES ARISING FROM THE POLICIES AND PRACTICES OF ISRAEL IN THE OCCUPIED PALESTINIAN TERRITORY, INCLUDING EAST JERUSALEM |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/186/186-20240719-adv-01-00-en.pdf |website=icj-cij.org}}

{{main|Israeli apartheid}}

Treatment of Palestinians within the occupied territories and to a lesser extent in Israel itself have drawn widespread accusations that it is guilty of apartheid, a crime against humanity under the Rome Statute and the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid.{{sfn|Shakir|2021}}{{cite web |date=27 April 2021 |title=Israel committing crimes of apartheid and persecution – HRW |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-56898864 |access-date=6 April 2023 |website=BBC News}} The Washington Post's 2021 survey of scholars and academic experts on the Middle East found an increase from 59% to 65% of these scholars describing Israel as a "one-state reality akin to apartheid".{{cite news |date=16 February 2021 |title=Here's how experts on the Middle East see the region's key issues, our new survey finds |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/02/16/heres-how-experts-middle-east-see-regions-key-issues-our-new-survey-finds/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210218195818/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/02/16/heres-how-experts-middle-east-see-regions-key-issues-our-new-survey-finds/|archive-date=18 February 2021}}{{cite news |date=17 September 2021 |title=Academic experts believe that Middle East politics are actually getting worse |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/09/17/academic-experts-believe-that-middle-east-politics-are-actually-getting-worse/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210917111222/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/09/17/academic-experts-believe-that-middle-east-politics-are-actually-getting-worse/|archive-date=17 September 2021}} The claim that Israel's policies for Palestinians within Israel amount to apartheid has been affirmed by Israeli human rights organisation B'tselem and international human rights organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.{{Cite news|last=Rosenfeld|first=Arno|date=27 April 2021|title=Israel is committing 'crime of apartheid,' Human Rights Watch says|url=https://forward.com/news/468473/israel-apartheid-human-rights-watch/|access-date=15 February 2022|work=The Forward |language=en-US}} Israeli human rights organisation Yesh Din has also accused Israel of apartheid. Amnesty's claim was criticised by politicians and representatives from Israel and its closest allies such as, the US,{{Cite news |title=U.S. State Department Rejects Amnesty's Apartheid Claim Against Israel |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/u-s-state-department-rejects-amnesty-s-apartheid-claims-against-israel-1.10583830 |access-date=16 February 2022}} the UK,{{Cite news |last=Elgot |first=Jessica |date=2022-04-28 |title=Keir Starmer hosts Israeli Labor party in charm offensive ahead of local elections |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/apr/28/keir-starmer-hosts-israeli-labor-party-in-charm-offensive-ahead-of-local-elections |access-date=2023-10-25 |issn=0261-3077}} the European Commission,{{Cite web |date=2023-01-20 |title=Parliamentary question E-000932/2022(ASW) {{!}} Answer given by High Representative/Vice-President Borrell i Fontelles on behalf of the European Commission |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-9-2022-000932-ASW_EN.html |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=European Parliament |language=en}} Australia,{{Cite web |last=Andrew Tillett |date=2022-02-02 |title=PM, Labor defend Israel over apartheid claim |url=https://www.afr.com/politics/federal/pm-labor-defend-israel-over-apartheid-claim-20220202-p59t33 |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=Australian Financial Review |language=en}} Netherlands{{Cite news |title=Netherlands rejects Amnesty report accusing Israel of apartheid |work=The Jerusalem Post |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-705664 |access-date=2 May 2022}} and Germany,{{Cite news |date=2 February 2022 |title=Germany rejects use of word 'apartheid' in connection with Israel |language=en |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/germany-rejects-use-word-apartheid-connection-with-israel-2022-02-02/ |access-date=16 February 2022}} while said accusations were welcomed by Palestinians{{Cite news |date=1 February 2022 |title=Israeli policies against Palestinians amount to apartheid – Amnesty |language=en-GB |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-60197918 |access-date=15 February 2022}} and the Arab League.{{Cite news |url=https://arab.news/mggnn |title=Arab League, OIC welcome Amnesty's report on Israel's 'apartheid' against Palestinians|date=3 February 2022 |website=Arab News}} In 2022, Michael Lynk, a Canadian law professor appointed by the U.N. Human Rights Council said that the situation met the legal definition of apartheid, and concluded: "Israel has imposed upon Palestine an apartheid reality in a post-apartheid world".{{Cite web |last=Kingsley |first=Patrick |date=23 March 2022 |title=U.N. Investigator Accuses Israel of Apartheid, Citing Permanence of Occupation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/23/world/middleeast/israel-apatheid-un.html |website=The New York Times}}{{cite news |last1=Berman |first1=Lazar |title=UN Human Rights Council report accuses Israel of apartheid |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/un-human-rights-council-report-accuses-israel-of-apartheid/ |access-date=2 June 2024 |work=The Times of Israel |date=23 March 2022}} Subsequent reports from his successor, Francesca Albanese and from Permanent United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Israel Palestine conflict chair Navi Pillay echoed the opinion.{{Cite web |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/un-report-urges-plan-end-israeli-colonialism-apartheid|title=UN report urges plan to 'end Israeli colonialism, apartheid'|website=The New Arab|date=19 October 2022 }}{{Cite web |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/un-commission-says-it-will-investigate-apartheid-charges-against-israel/|title=UN commission says it will investigate 'apartheid' charges against Israel|first=Luke|last=Tress|website=The Times of Israel |date=28 October 2022}}

In February 2024, the ICJ held public hearings in regards to the legal consequences arising from the policies and practices of Israel in the occupied Palestinian territory including East Jerusalem. During the hearings, 24 states and three international organisations said that Israeli practices amount to a breach of the prohibition of apartheid and/or amount to prohibited acts of racial discrimination.{{Cite web|url=https://www.justsecurity.org/93403/the-implications-of-an-icj-finding-that-israel-is-committing-the-crime-against-humanity-of-apartheid-2/|title=The Implications of An ICJ Finding that Israel is Committing the Crime Against Humanity of Apartheid|first=Victor|last=Kattan|date=20 March 2024|website=Just Security}} The International Court of Justice in its 2024 advisory opinion found that Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories constitutes systemic discrimination and is in breach of Article 3 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which prohibits racial segregation and apartheid. The opinion is silent as to whether the discrimination amounts to apartheid; individual judges were split on the question.{{Cite web|url=https://www.ejiltalk.org/racial-segregation-and-apartheid-in-the-icj-palestine-advisory-opinion/|title='Racial Segregation and Apartheid' in the ICJ Palestine Advisory Opinion|date=31 July 2024 }}{{Cite web|url=https://en.idi.org.il/articles/55384|title=Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the Legal Consequences of Israel's Policies and Practices in the "Occupied Palestinian Territory"|date=January 2024 }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/the-limits-of-the-icj-advisory-opinion-on-israel-s-occupation-and-the-west-bank|title=The Limits of the ICJ Advisory Opinion on Israel's Occupation and the West Bank|work=Lawfare |date=20 August 2024 |last1=Solomon |first1=Solon }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.ejiltalk.org/icj-delivers-advisory-opinion-on-the-legality-of-israels-occupation-of-palestinian-territories/|title=ICJ Delivers Advisory Opinion on the Legality of Israel's Occupation of Palestinian Territories|date=20 July 2024 }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.ejiltalk.org/racial-segregation-and-apartheid-in-the-icj-palestine-advisory-opinion/|title='Racial Segregation and Apartheid' in the ICJ Palestine Advisory Opinion|first=David|last=Keane|date=31 July 2024}}{{Cite journal|url=https://verfassungsblog.de/the-inadvertent-protagonist/|title=The Inadvertent Protagonist|first1=Florian|last1=Jeßberger|first2=Kalika|last2=Mehta|date=19 September 2024|journal=Verfassungsblog|via=verfassungsblog.de|doi=10.59704/27788635acf1f7b5}}

{{Main|Foreign relations of Israel|International recognition of Israel}}

[[File:Countries recognizing Israel.svg|thumb|450px|{{legend inline|Yellow|State of Israel}}

{{legend inline|Green|Countries that recognise Israel}}

{{legend inline|#501616|Countries that have withdrawn their recognition of Israel}}

{{legend inline|#c83737|Countries that have suspended/cut bilateral ties with Israel, but maintain recognition}}

{{legend inline|#b9b9b9|Countries that have never recognised Israel}}]]

Israel maintains diplomatic relations {{Numrec|Israel|with|UN member states|link=N}}, the Holy See, Kosovo, the Cook Islands and Niue. It has 107 diplomatic missions;{{cite web |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutTheMinistry/Pages/Israel-s%20Diplomatic%20Missions%20Abroad.aspx |title=Israel's Diplomatic Missions Abroad: Status of relations |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420071334/http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutTheMinistry/Pages/Israel-s%20Diplomatic%20Missions%20Abroad.aspx |archive-date=20 April 2016 }} countries with which it has no diplomatic relations include most Muslim countries.{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/Why-doesnt-the-Muslim-world-recognize-Israel#article=0QUFFOUZBN0YxODM3RDE5NDM4OUEyRkE5MjY1OEJCRDI= |title=Why Doesn't the Muslim World Recognize Israel? |author=Mohammed Mostafa Kamal|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=21 July 2012|access-date=30 November 2015}} Six out of 22 nations in the Arab League have normalised relations with Israel. Israel remains formally in a state of war with Syria, dating back uninterrupted to 1948. It has been in a similarly formal state of war with Lebanon since the end of the Lebanese Civil War in 2000, with the Israel–Lebanon border remaining unagreed by treaty.

Despite the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, Israel is still widely considered an enemy country among Egyptians."Massive Israel protests hit universities" (Egyptian Mail, 16 March 2010) "According to most Egyptians, almost 31 years after a peace treaty was signed between Egypt and Israel, having normal ties between the two countries is still a potent accusation and Israel is largely considered to be an enemy country" Iran withdrew its recognition of Israel during the Islamic Revolution.{{sfn|Abadi|2004|pp=47–49}} Israeli citizens may not visit Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen without permission from the Ministry of the Interior.{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFAHeb/MFAArchive/2004/horaot+din+israeli0304.htm |publisher=Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs |script-title=he:הוראות הדין הישראלי |year=2004 |language=he |access-date=9 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701072212/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFAHeb/MFAArchive/2004/horaot%2Bdin%2Bisraeli0304.htm |archive-date=1 July 2007}} As a result of the 2008–09 Gaza War, Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economic ties with Israel,{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2009/01/2009116151135307776.html |publisher=Al Jazeera English |title=Qatar, Mauritania cut Israel ties |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=17 January 2009}} though Bolivia renewed ties in 2019.{{cite news |last1=Flores |first1=Paola |title=Bolivia to renew Israel ties after rupture under Morales |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/bolivia-renew-israel-ties-rupture-morales-67374746 |access-date=15 December 2020 |agency=ABC News |date=29 November 2019}}

File:Bill Clinton, Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat at the White House 1993-09-13.jpg with then US President Bill Clinton]]

The United States and the Soviet Union were the first two countries to recognise the State of Israel, having declared recognition roughly simultaneously.{{Cite journal |jstor=2193961 |title=The Recognition of Israel |journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=620–627 |last1=Brown |first1=Philip Marshall |doi=10.2307/2193961 |year=1948 |s2cid=147342045}} Diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were broken in 1967 following the Six-Day War and renewed in 1991.{{cite news|last=Yaakov |first=Saar |title= There Were Times (Hayu Zemanim) |page= 30 |language= he |publisher= Israel Hayom |date= 18 October 2017 }} The United States regards Israel as its "most reliable partner in the Middle East",{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3581.htm |title=U.S. Relations With Israel Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs Fact Sheet March 10, 2014|website=U.S. Department of State|access-date=30 October 2014}} based on "common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests".{{cite web |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA470003&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf |title=Israel: Background and Relations with the United States Updated |publisher=Defense Technical Information Center|access-date=19 October 2009|archive-date=5 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205011800/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA470003&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}} The US has provided $68 billion in military assistance and $32 billion in grants to Israel since 1967, under the Foreign Assistance Act (period beginning 1962),{{Cite web|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADT555.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510063014/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADT555.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 May 2011|title=U.S. Overseas Loans and Grants}} more than any other country for that period until 2003.{{cite web |url= https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s1297.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020131918/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s1297.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2011 |title=U.S. Government Foreign Grants and Credits by Type and Country: 2000 to 2010}}{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/foreign_commerce_aid/foreign_aid.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225192852/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/foreign_commerce_aid/foreign_aid.html |archive-date=25 December 2007 |title=Foreign Aid}} Most surveyed Americans have held consistently favourable views of Israel.{{Cite web |date=17 March 2022 |title=Americans Still Pro-Israel, Though Palestinians Gain Support |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/390737/americans-pro-israel-though-palestinians-gain-support.aspx |website=Gallup, Inc |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2 February 2022 |title=Friend or Enemy — Israel |url=https://today.yougov.com/topics/travel/trackers/friend-enemy-israel |website=YouGov |language=en-us}} The United Kingdom is seen as having a "natural" relationship with Israel because of the Mandate for Palestine.{{cite web |url=http://ukinisrael.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/working-with-israel/uk-israel-relations/bilateral-relations |publisher=Foreign and Commonwealth Office |title=The bilateral relationship |website=UK in Israel |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083311/http://ukinisrael.fco.gov.uk/en/about-us/working-with-israel/uk-israel-relations/bilateral-relations |url-status=dead }} {{As of|2007|alt=By 2007}}, Germany had paid 25 billion euros in reparations to Israel and individual Israeli Holocaust survivors.{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33808.pdf |title=Congressional Research Service: Germany's Relations with Israel: Background and Implications for German Middle East Policy, Jan 19, 2007. (p. CRS-2) |access-date=29 September 2010}} Israel is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy.{{cite news |url=https://euobserver.com/foreign/127874|title=EU to Revise Relations with Turbulent Neighbourhood|author=Eric Maurice |publisher=EUobserver|date=5 March 2015|access-date=1 December 2015}}

Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,{{harvnb|Abadi|2004|p=3}}. "However, it was not until 1991 that the two countries established full diplomatic relations." Turkey has cooperated with the Jewish state since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey's ties to other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab and Muslim states to temper its relationship with Israel.{{sfn|Abadi|2004|pp=4–6}} Relations took a downturn after the 2008–09 Gaza War and Israel's raid of the Gaza flotilla.{{cite journal |last=Uzer |first=Umut |date=26 March 2013 |title=Turkish-Israeli Relations: Their Rise and Fall |url=http://www.mepc.org/journal/middle-east-policy-archives/turkish-israeli-relations-their-rise-and-fall |journal=Middle East Policy |volume=XX |issue=1 |pages=97–110 |doi=10.1111/mepo.12007 |access-date=7 January 2017}} Relations between Greece and Israel have improved since 1995 after decline of Israeli–Turkish relations.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11556442 |title=Israel woos Greece after rift with Turkey |publisher=BBC News |date=16 October 2010}} The two countries have a defence cooperation agreement and in 2010, the Israeli Air Force hosted Greece's Hellenic Air Force in a joint exercise. The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on the Leviathan gas field are an important factor for Greece, given its strong links with Cyprus.{{cite news |title=Turkey, Greece discuss exploration off Cyprus |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/turkey-greece-discuss-exploration-off-cyprus-1.386864 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=26 September 2011 |access-date=1 January 2012}} Cooperation in the world's longest submarine power cable, the EuroAsia Interconnector, has strengthened Cyprus–Israel relations.{{cite news |last=Benari |first=Elad |date=5 March 2012 |title=Israel, Cyprus Sign Deal for Underwater Electricity Cable |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/153437 |website=Arutz Sheva |access-date=7 January 2017}}

Azerbaijan is one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop strategic and economic relations with Israel.{{Cite web |title=Inequality Report: The Palestinian Arab Minority in Israel – Adalah |url=https://www.adalah.org/en/content/view/7404 |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=www.adalah.org |language=en}} Kazakhstan also has an economic and strategic partnership with Israel.{{Cite web |date=19 July 2016 |title=The Israel-Kazakhstan Partnership |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/the-israel-kazakhstan-partnership/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518015549/https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/the-israel-kazakhstan-partnership/ |archive-date=18 May 2022 |website=The Diplomat |language=en-US}} India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military, technological and cultural partnership with the country since then.{{cite web |url=http://pakistanyouthmovement.com/Research-Reports/India%20Israel%20Ties.pdf |publisher=Jerusalem Institute for Western Defense |last=Kumar |first=Dinesh |title=India and Israel: Dawn of a New Era |access-date=19 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512233225/http://pakistanyouthmovement.com/Research-Reports/India%20Israel%20Ties.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2012 }} India is the largest customer of the Israeli military equipment, and Israel is the second-largest military partner of India after Russia.{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-to-hold-wide-ranging-strategic-talks-with-US-Israel/articleshow/5474033.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707084501/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-01-19/india/28119010_1_largest-ever-defence-deal-second-largest-defence-supplier-sensitive-technology-control-requirements |archive-date=7 July 2012 |title=India to hold wide-ranging strategic talks with US, Israel |date=19 January 2010 |newspaper=The Times of India |url-status=live |access-date=20 March 2012}} Ethiopia is Israel's main ally in Africa due to common political, religious and security interests.{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15453225 |title=Iran and Israel in Africa: A search for allies in a hostile world |newspaper=The Economist |date=4 February 2010 |access-date=20 March 2012}}

Israel has a history of providing emergency foreign aid and humanitarian response to disasters across the world.{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.653988 |last=Pfeffer|first=Anshel|newspaper=Haaretz|title=The Downsides of Israel's Missions of Mercy Abroad|date=28 April 2015|access-date=22 November 2015|quote=And even when no Israelis are involved, few countries are as fast as Israel in mobilizing entire delegations to rush to the other side of the world. It has been proved time and again in recent years, after the earthquake in Haiti, the typhoon in the Philippines and the quake/tsunami/nuclear disaster in Japan. For a country of Israel's size and resources, without conveniently located aircraft carriers and overseas bases, it is quite an impressive achievement.}} In 1955 Israel began its foreign aid programme in Burma and then shifted to Africa.{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/isolatedstatesco0000geld |url-access=registration |quote=israel international aid africa 1970. |title=Isolated States: A Comparative Analysis |author=Deon Geldenhuys |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isolatedstatesco0000geld/page/428 428] |isbn=978-0-521-40268-2}} Israel's humanitarian efforts officially began in 1957 with the establishment of Mashav, the Israel's Agency for International Development Cooperation.{{cite web |url= http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/mashav/AboutMASHAV/Pages/Background.aspx |title=About MASHAV |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=20 January 2017}} In this early period, whilst Israel's aid represented only a small percentage of total aid to Africa, its programme was effective in creating goodwill; however, following the 1967 war relations soured.{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalrel0000isma |url-access=registration |quote=Israel foreign aid 1958 burundi. |title=International Relations of the Contemporary Middle East: A Study in World Politics |author=Tareq Y. Ismael |publisher=Syracuse University Press| year=1986 |page=[https://archive.org/details/internationalrel0000isma/page/249 249] |isbn=978-0-8156-2382-3}} Israel's foreign aid programme subsequently shifted its focus to Latin America.

Since the late 1970s Israel's foreign aid has gradually decreased, although in recent years Israel has tried to reestablish aid to Africa.{{cite book |title=Israel and Africa: A Genealogy of Moral Geography |author=Haim Yacobi |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-90237-4 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lgQXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111–112] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgQXCgAAQBAJ}} There are additional Israeli humanitarian and emergency response groups that work with the government, including IsraAid, a joint programme run by Israeli organisations and North American Jewish groups,{{cite book |author=Haim Yacobi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgQXCgAAQBAJ |title=Israel and Africa: A Genealogy of Moral Geography |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-90237-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lgQXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113 113]}} ZAKA,{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2016-12-01/secretary-generals-remarks-reception-honour-zaka-international |title=Secretary-General's remarks at reception in honour of ZAKA International Rescue Unit [as prepared for delivery] |last=Ki-moon |first=Ban |date=1 December 2016 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=20 January 2017}} The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team,Ueriel Hellman,[http://www.jta.org/2010/01/19/news-opinion/israel-middle-east/israeli-aid-effort-helps-haitians-and-israels-image "Israeli aid effort helps Haitians – and Israel's image"], Jewish Telegraphic Agency 19 January 2010 Israeli Flying Aid,{{cite web |url=http://www.israel21c.org/israels-superwoman-takes-flight-to-help-others/|title=Israel's 'superwoman' takes flight to help others |website=ISRAEL21c |author=Jenny Hazan|date=12 March 2006}} Save a Child's Heart{{cite web |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Wolfson-cardiac-surgeons-save-lives-of-more-Gazan-children-374391|title=Wolfson cardiac surgeons save lives of more Gazan children |website=The Jerusalem Post|date=4 September 2014 }} and Latet.{{cite press release |date=17 January 2010 |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/haiti/earthquake-haiti-latet-organization-deploys-immediate-relief-victims|title=Earthquake in Haiti – Latet Organization deploys for immediate relief to victims |website=ReliefWeb}} Between 1985 and 2015, Israel sent 24 delegations of their search and rescue unit the Home Front Command to 22 countries.{{cite news |url=http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/26634/Default.aspx|date=20 May 2015|access-date=24 November 2015|newspaper=Israel Today|title=When catastrophe strikes the IDF is there to help|archive-date=19 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119084926/http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/26634/Default.aspx}} Currently Israeli foreign aid ranks low among OECD nations, spending less than 0.1% of its GNI on development assistance.{{Cite web |title=Israel's Official Development Assistance (ODA) |url=https://www.oecd.org/israel/israels-official-development-assistance.htm#:~:text=In%202016,%20preliminary%20data%20show%20that%20ODA%20reached,a%20share%20of%20GNI%20remained%20stable%20at%200.07%25. |access-date=30 March 2023 |website=oecd.org |publisher=OECD}} The country ranked 38th in the 2018 World Giving Index.{{cite report|title=World Giving Index|date=October 2018 |url=https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-publications/caf_wgi2018_report_webnopw_2379a_261018.pdf |publisher=Charities Aid Foundation |access-date=22 February 2022}}

{{Further|List of wars involving Israel|List of the Israel Defense Forces operations|Israel and weapons of mass destruction}}

File:The_Southern_Lions._Squadron_116._I.jpg fighter jets of the Israeli Air Force]]

The Israel Defence Forces (IDF) is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces and is headed by its Chief of the General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Cabinet. The IDF consists of the army, air force and navy. It was founded during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War by consolidating paramilitary organisations—chiefly the Haganah.{{cite web |url=http://dover.idf.il/IDF/English/about/History/40s/1948/default.htm |publisher=Israel Defense Forces |access-date=31 July 2007 |title=History: 1948 |year=2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412082705/http://dover.idf.il/IDF/English/about/History/40s/1948/default.htm |archive-date=12 April 2008 }} The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman).{{sfn|Henderson|2003|p=97}} The IDF have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts+About+Israel/State/THE+STATE-+Israel+Defense+Forces+-IDF-.htm |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=The State: Israel Defense Forces (IDF) |access-date=9 August 2007 |date=13 March 2009 }}

Most Israelis are conscripted at age 18. Men serve two years and eight months, and women serve two years.{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/State/The%20Israel%20Defense%20Forces |title=The Israel Defense Forces |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=21 October 2006}} Following mandatory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and usually do up to several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Arab citizens of Israel (except the Druze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are exempt, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention.{{sfn|Stendel|1997|pp=191–192}}{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/cool-law-for-wrong-population-1.220687 |date=16 May 2007 |access-date=19 March 2012 |title=Cool law, for wrong population |last=Shtrasler |first=Nehemia |newspaper=Haaretz}} An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a programme of service in social welfare frameworks.{{cite web |url=http://www.nbn.org.il/aliyahpedia/army/585-sherut-leumi-national-service.html |publisher=Nefesh B'Nefesh |access-date=20 March 2012 |title=Sherut Leumi (National Service)}} A small minority of Israeli Arabs also volunteer in the army.{{Cite news |date=8 November 2016 |title=Israel's Arab soldiers who fight for the Jewish state |language=en-GB |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37895021}} As a result of its conscription programme, the IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and 465,000 reservists, giving Israel one of the world's highest percentage of citizens with military training.IISS 2018, pp. 339–340

File:IDF_Air_Defense_fighters_during_Operation_Guardian_of_the_Walls,_May_2021._I.jpg is the world's first operational anti-artillery rocket defence system.]]

The military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. The Arrow missile is one of the world's few operational anti-ballistic missile systems.{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=56544 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |title=Arrow can fully protect against Iran |last=Katz |first=Yaakov |date=30 March 2007 |access-date=20 March 2012}} The Python air-to-air missile series is often considered one of the most crucial weapons in its military history.Israeli Mirage III and Nesher Aces, By Shlomo Aloni, (Osprey 2004), p. 60 Israel's Spike missile is one of the most widely exported anti-tank guided missiles in the world.[http://www.army-technology.com/projects/gill Spike Anti-Tank Missile, Israel] army-technology.com Israel's Iron Dome anti-missile air defence system gained worldwide acclaim after intercepting hundreds of rockets fired by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip.{{cite news|title=How Israel Developed Such A Shockingly Effective Rocket Defense System|author=Robert Johnson|work=Business Insider |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/how-israel-developed-the-iron-dome-2012-11?op=1#ixzz2Cme6aQn5|date=19 November 2012|access-date=20 November 2012}}{{cite news|title=A Missile-Defense System That Actually Works?|author=Sarah Tory |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2012/11/israel_iron_dome_defense_how_has_missile_defense_changed_battle_in_gaza.html|work=Slate|date=19 November 2012|access-date=20 November 2012}} Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a04p.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100426215752/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol44no5/html/v44i5a04p.htm |archive-date=26 April 2010 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |title=Israel's Quest for Satellite Intelligence |last=Zorn |first=E.L. |date=8 May 2007 |access-date=19 March 2012}} The Ofeq programme has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=64499 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |title=Analysis: Eyes in the sky |last=Katz |first=Yaakov |date=11 June 2007 |access-date=20 March 2012}}

Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons{{cite web |url=http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html |title=Transcript of the Director General's Interview with Al-Ahram News |first=Mohamed |last=ElBaradei |author-link=Mohamed ElBaradei |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |date=27 July 2004 |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418221656/http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/transcripts/2004/alahram27072004.html |archive-date=18 April 2012 }} and per a 1993 report, chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction.{{cite web |url=http://www.vaccines.mil/documents/library/proliferation.pdf |title=Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks |publisher=Office of Technology Assessment |date=August 1993 |access-date=29 March 2012 |pages=65, 84 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528155012/http://www.vaccines.mil/documents/library/proliferation.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2012 }}{{update after|2021|11}} Israel has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/conf/npt/2005/background.html |title=Background Information |date=27 May 2005 |website=2005 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) |publisher=United Nations |access-date=9 April 2012}} and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity towards its nuclear capabilities.Ziv, Guy, "To Disclose or Not to Disclose: The Impact of Nuclear Ambiguity on Israeli Security", Israel Studies Forum, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Winter 2007): 76–94 The Israeli Navy's Dolphin submarines are believed to be armed with nuclear missiles offering second-strike capability.{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/missile/popeye-t.htm |title=Popeye Turbo |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=19 February 2011}} Since the Gulf War in 1991, all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room, Merkhav Mugan, impermeable to chemical and biological substances.{{cite web |url=http://israelhomeowner.brinkster.net/Glossary.asp |title=Glossary |publisher=Israel Homeowner |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517224030/http://israelhomeowner.brinkster.net/Glossary.asp |archive-date=17 May 2012 }}

Since Israel's establishment, military expenditure constituted a significant portion of the country's gross domestic product, with peak of 30.3% of GDP in 1975.{{cite report |date=29 May 2017 |title=Defence Expenditure in Israel, 1950–2015 |url=http://cbs.gov.il/publications17/1680/pdf/t04.pdf |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=22 June 2017 |archive-date=19 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619053457/http://cbs.gov.il/publications17/1680/pdf/t04.pdf }} In 2021, Israel ranked 15th in the world by total military expenditure, with $24.3 billion, and 6th by defence spending as a percentage of GDP, with 5.2%.{{cite report |date=April 2022 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2021 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/fs_2204_milex_2021_0.pdf |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |access-date=21 February 2023}} Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor of military aid.{{cite report |last=Sharp |first=Jeremy M. |date=22 December 2016 |title=U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33222.pdf |publisher=Congressional Research Service |page=36 |access-date=22 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150731092044/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33222.pdf |archive-date=31 July 2015 }} Under a memorandum of understanding signed in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8 billion per year, or around 20% of Israel's defence budget, from 2018 to 2028.{{cite news |last=Lake |first=Eli |date=15 September 2016 |title=The U.S.-Israel Memorandum of Misunderstanding |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2016-09-15/the-u-s-israel-memorandum-of-misunderstanding |publisher=Bloomberg |access-date=17 March 2017}} Israel ranked 9th globally for arms exports in 2022.{{cite web |url=http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/toplist.php |title=Top List TIV Tables |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |access-date=18 April 2023 |archive-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214003447/http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/toplist.php |url-status=dead }} The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported for security reasons.[http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/.premium-1.567693 Israel reveals more than $7 billion in arms sales, but few names] By Gili Cohen | 9 January 2014, Haaretz Israel is consistently rated low in the Global Peace Index, ranking 134th out of 163 nations in 2022.{{cite report |date=June 2022 |title=Global Peace Index 2022 |url=https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/GPI-2022-web.pdf |publisher=Institute for Economics and Peace |page=11 |access-date=21 February 2023}}

{{Main|Judiciary of Israel|Israeli law}}

File:Israel Supreme Court.jpg, Givat Ram, Jerusalem]]

Israel has a three-tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving as both appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel's six districts. The third and highest tier is the Supreme Court, located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing both citizens and non-citizens to petition against the decisions of state authorities.{{cite news |title=Israel's high court unique in region |url=http://bostonherald.com/news_opinion/opinion/editorials/2007/09/israel%E2%80%99s_high_court_unique_region |newspaper=Boston Herald |date=9 September 2007 |access-date=27 March 2013}}

The legal system combines three legal traditions: English common law, civil law, and Jewish law. It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system. Court cases are decided by professional judges.{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Government/Branches%20of%20Government/Judicial/The%20Judiciary-%20The%20Court%20System |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=5 August 2007 |date=1 August 2005 |title=The Judiciary: The Court System }}{{better source needed|date=January 2023}} Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. The election of judges is carried out by a selection committee chaired by the justice minister (currently Yariv Levin).{{cite web |title=Yariv Levin |url=https://www.gov.il/en/departments/people/minister-of-justice |access-date=2023-11-21 |publisher=Ministry of Justice}}. Israel's Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties in Israel. The United Nations Human Rights Council and Israeli human rights organisation Adalah have highlighted that this law does not in fact contain a general provision for equality and non-discrimination.Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee—Israel, CCPR/C/ISR/CO/3, 29 July 2010, para. 2, available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/CCPR.C.ISR.CO.3.doc As a result of "Enclave law", large portions of Israeli civil law are applied to Israeli settlements and Israeli residents in the occupied territories.{{cite book|author1=Orna Ben-Naftali|author2=Michael Sfard|author3=Hedi Viterbo|title=The ABC of the OPT: A Legal Lexicon of the Israeli Control over the Occupied Palestinian Territory|url={{Google books|Is5TDwAAQBAJ|page=PA52|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-15652-4|pages=52–}}

{{Main|Economy of Israel}}

File:Ayalon Highway, Tel Aviv (cropped).jpg in Ramat Gan]]

File:Tel_Aviv_Stock_Exchange_-_New_Building_Lobby_1.jpg]]

Israel is considered the most advanced country in West Asia and the Middle East in economic and industrial development.{{Cite book|title=World On Fire |last=Chua |first=Amy |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-385-72186-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/219 219–220] |url= https://archive.org/details/worldonfirehowex00chua_0/page/219}}{{Cite book |url={{Google books|Up_7Bh8SbDcC|page=|keywords=%22israel+is+the+most+industrialized%22|text=%22israel+is+the+most+industrialized%22|plainurl=yes}} |title=Northern and Western Asia |isbn=978-0-8225-2915-6 |last1=Bramwell |first1=Martyn |year=2000 |publisher=Lerner Publications Company}} {{As of|2023|10}}, the IMF estimated its GDP at 521.7 billion dollars and GDP per capita at 53.2 thousand (ranking 13th worldwide).{{Cite web |work=IMF data mapper |title=Israel |date=October 2023 |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/ISR |access-date=2023-11-21 |publisher=International Monetary Fund}} It is the third richest country in Asia by nominal per capita income {{Cite web |last=Team |first=FAIR |date=2023-09-06 |title=Top 10 Richest Countries in Asia [2023] |url=https://fairbd.net/top-10-richest-countries-in-asia/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=FAIR |language=en-GB}} and has the highest average wealth per adult in the Middle East.{{Cite web |title=Global wealth report |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/about-us/en/reports-research/global-wealth-report.html |access-date=20 September 2022 |website=credit-suisse.com |publisher=Credit Suisse}}The Economist ranked Israel as the 4th most successful economy among the developed countries for 2022.{{Cite web |title=Israel ranked 4th-best-performing economy among OECD countries in 2022 |date=26 December 2022 |first=Sharon |last=Wrobel |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-ranked-4th-best-performing-economy-among-oecd-countries-in-2022/amp/ |access-date=8 February 2023 |website=The Times of Israel}} It has the most billionaires in the Middle East and the 18th most in the world.{{Cite web |last=Chang |first=Richard J. |title=The Countries With The Most Billionaires 2022 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/richardjchang/2022/04/05/the-countries-with-the-most-billionaires-2022/ |access-date=29 March 2023 |website=Forbes |language=en}} In recent years Israel had one of the highest growth rates in the developed world.{{Cite web |title=Israel |website=OECD Data |publisher=OECD |url=http://data.oecd.org/israel.htm |access-date=2023-10-13 |language=en}} In 2010, it joined the OECD.{{cite web |title=Israel's accession to the OECD |url=http://www.oecd.org/israel/israelsaccessiontotheoecd.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516012445/http://www.oecd.org/israel/israelsaccessiontotheoecd.htm |archive-date=16 May 2020 |access-date=12 August 2012 |website=oecd.org |publisher=OECD}}{{cite web |title=List of OECD Member countries — Ratification of the Convention on the OECD |website=oecd.org |url=http://www.oecd.org/general/listofoecdmembercountries-ratificationoftheconventionontheoecd.htm |access-date=12 August 2012 |publisher=OECD}} The country is ranked 20th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report{{cite web |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2019 |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf|access-date=1 December 2021}} and 35th on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business index.{{cite web |title=Rankings |website=World Bank |language=en |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/en/rankings |access-date=1 December 2021}} Economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.{{sfn|OECD|2011}}

Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Imports, totaling $96.5 billion in 2020, include raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, and consumer goods. Leading exports include machinery, equipment, software, cut diamonds, agricultural products, chemicals, textiles, and apparel; in 2020, exports reached $114 billion. The Bank of Israel holds $201 billion of foreign-exchange reserves, the 17th highest in the world. Since the 1970s, Israel has received military aid from the United States, as well as loan guarantees, which account for roughly half of Israel's external debt. Israel has one of the lowest external debts in the developed world, and is a lender in terms of net external debt (assets vs. liabilities abroad), which {{as of|2015|alt=in 2015}} stood at a surplus of $69 billion.{{cite press release |date=20 September 2015 |title=Israel's International Investment Position (IIP), June 2015 |url=http://www.boi.org.il/en/NewsAndPublications/PressReleases/Pages/20-09-2015-IIP-Q2.aspx |publisher=Bank of Israel |access-date=29 January 2017 |archive-date=15 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215171824/https://www.boi.org.il/en/NewsAndPublications/PressReleases/Pages/20-09-2015-IIP-Q2.aspx}}

Israel has the second-largest number of startup companies after the United States{{cite book |title=Intellectual Capital for Communities: Nations, Regions, and Cities |last=Bounfour |first=Ahmed |author2=Edvinsson, Leif |year=2005 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0-7506-7773-8 |page=47 (368 pages)}} and the third-largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies.{{cite magazine |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/richardbehar/2016/05/11/inside-israels-secret-startup-machine/ |title=Inside Israel's Secret Startup Machine |magazine=Forbes |date=11 May 2016 |access-date=30 October 2016 |author=Richard Behar}} It is the world leader for number of start-ups per capita{{Cite web |title=The Israeli technological Eco-system |url=https://www2.deloitte.com/il/en/pages/innovation/article/the_israeli_technological_eco-system.html |access-date=26 February 2023 |website=Deloitte Israel |language=en}} and has been dubbed the "Start-Up Nation".{{Cite web |last=Yerman |first=Jordan |date=2019-05-22 |title=A Startup Nation: Why Israel Has Become The New Silicon Valley |url=https://apex.aero/articles/startup-nation-israel-become-silicon-valley/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=APEX |language=en-US}}{{Cite news |title=Israel's economy is a study in contrasts |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2017/05/18/israels-economy-is-a-study-in-contrasts |access-date=2023-10-22 |issn=0013-0613}}{{Cite web |last=Ioniță |first=Antoanela |date=2023-02-03 |title=Lessons from Tel Aviv: What Has Fueled Israel's Startup Ecosystem's Growth |url=https://therecursive.com/lessons-from-tel-aviv-what-has-fueled-israel-s-startup-ecosystem-s-growth/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=TheRecursive.com |language=en-GB}}{{Cite news |date=2016-01-06 |title=Israel: Start-up nation comes of age |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a5c2ad5a-b471-11e5-b147-e5e5bba42e51 |access-date=2023-10-22}} Intel{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Business/BusinessNews/Article.aspx?id=52876 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=27 February 2007 |access-date=20 March 2012 |title=Intel to expand Jerusalem R&D |last=Krawitz |first=Avi}} and Microsoft{{cite web |url=http://www.microsoftrnd.co.il/about/leadership |publisher=Microsoft |access-date=19 March 2012 |title=Microsoft Israel R&D center: Leadership |quote=Avi returned to Israel in 1991, and established the first Microsoft R&D Center outside the US ... |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313223906/http://www.microsoftrnd.co.il/about/leadership |archive-date=13 March 2012 }} built their first overseas research and development facilities in Israel, and other high-tech multinational corporations have opened research and development centres in the country.

The days which are allocated to working times are Sunday through Thursday (for a five-day workweek), or Friday (for a six-day workweek). In observance of Shabbat, in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day". Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world.{{cite news |url=http://www.themarker.com/career/1.1739743 |newspaper=The Marker |title=Instead of 4 work days: 6 optional days to be considered half day-outs |last=Koren |first=Orah |date=26 June 2012 |access-date=26 June 2012}} (in Hebrew)

{{Main|Science and technology in Israel|List of Israeli inventions and discoveries}}

File:Matam hi-tech park (Haifa).jpg high-tech park in Haifa]]

Israel's development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley.{{cite news |title=Israel keen on IT tie-ups |date=10 January 2001 |newspaper=Business Line |url=http://www.hindu.com/businessline/2001/01/11/stories/151139ue.htm |access-date=19 March 2012 |archive-date=2013-01-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116074212/http://www.hindu.com/businessline/2001/01/11/stories/151139ue.htm}}{{cite news |title=Israel's technology industry: Punching above its weight |date=10 November 2005 |newspaper=The Economist |url=http://www.economist.com/node/5149411 |access-date=20 March 2012}} Israel is first in the world in expenditure on research and development as a percentage of GDP.{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm|title=Research and development (R&D) – Gross domestic spending on R&D |website=OECD Data |publisher=OECD |access-date=10 February 2016}} It is ranked 15th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024,{{Cite web |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2024, 17th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}} and 5th in the 2019 Bloomberg Innovation Index.{{Cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-22/germany-nearly-catches-korea-as-innovation-champ-u-s-rebounds|title=These Are the World's Most Innovative Countries|website=Bloomberg.com |date=22 January 2019|access-date=24 January 2019}} Israel has 140 scientists, technicians, and engineers per 10,000 employees, the highest number in the world{{cite web |last=Shteinbuk |first=Eduard |date=22 July 2011 |url=http://sun.inc.hse.ru/sites/default/files/Shteinbuk.pdf |title=R&D and Innovation as a Growth Engine |publisher=National Research University – Higher School of Economics |access-date=11 May 2013 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808102137/http://sun.inc.hse.ru/sites/default/files/Shteinbuk.pdf}}{{Cite report |author1=Augusto Lopez-Claros |author2=Irene Mia |date=2006 |url=http://www.investinisrael.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/61BD95A0-898B-4F48-A795-5886B1C4F08C/0/israelcompleteweb.pdf |title=Israel: Factors in the Emergence of an ICT Powerhouse |publisher=Foreign Direct Investment Database |place=Geneva |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712025800/http://www.investinisrael.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/61BD95A0-898B-4F48-A795-5886B1C4F08C/0/israelcompleteweb.pdf |archive-date=2015-07-12 |via=InvestinIsrael.gov}} and has produced six Nobel Prize-winning scientists, mostly in chemistry, since 2004{{cite news |author=Haviv Rettig Gur |date=9 October 2013 |title=Tiny Israel a Nobel heavyweight, especially in chemistry |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/tiny-israel-a-nobel-heavyweight-especially-in-chemistry/ |website=The Times of Israel |access-date=30 January 2017}} and has been frequently ranked as one of the countries with the highest ratios of scientific papers per capita.{{cite news |last=Heylin |first=Michael |date=27 November 2006 |title=Globalization of Science Rolls On |work=Chemical & Engineering News |pages=29–31 |url=http://www.achem.univ.kiev.ua/news/pdf/globalization_of_science_rolls_on.pdf |access-date=5 February 2013}}{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-EdContributors/Article.aspx?id=32635 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |last=Gordon |first=Evelyn |title=Kicking the global oil habit |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=24 August 2006}}{{cite news |title=Israel's scientific fall from grace: Study shows drastic decline in publications per capita |author=Yarden Skop |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/.premium-1.544767 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=2 September 2013}} Israeli universities are ranked among the top 50 world universities in computer science (Technion and Tel Aviv University), mathematics (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) and chemistry (Weizmann Institute of Science).

In 2012, Israel was ranked ninth in the world by the Futron's Space Competitiveness Index.{{cite web|title=Futron Releases 2012 Space Competitiveness Index|url=http://spaceref.biz/2012/08/futron-releases-2012-space-competitiveness-index.html|access-date=21 December 2013|archive-date=24 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224114215/http://spaceref.biz/2012/08/futron-releases-2012-space-competitiveness-index.html}} The Israel Space Agency coordinates all space research programmes with scientific and commercial goals, and have designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites.{{cite news |title=Israel's domestic satellite industry saved |first=Arieh |last=O'Sullivan |url=http://www.jpost.com/Features/InThespotlight/Article.aspx?id=276757 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=9 July 2012 |access-date=9 December 2012 |quote=The Amos 6 will be IAI's 14th satellite}} Some satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/21/iran.marktran |title=Israel launches new satellite to spy on Iran |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=21 January 2008 |newspaper=The Guardian |first=Mark |last=Tran}} Shavit is a space launch vehicle produced by Israel to launch small satellites into low Earth orbit.{{cite web |title=Space launch systems – Shavit|publisher=Deagel |url=http://www.deagel.com/Space-Launch-Systems/Shavit_a001901001.aspx|access-date=19 November 2013}} It was first launched in 1988, making Israel the eighth nation to have a space launch capability. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving on the fatal mission of Space Shuttle Columbia.{{cite news |url=http://m.jpost.com/PromoContent/Learning-Hebrew-Online-Colonel-Ilan-Ramon#article=0OTBDN0ZDNEMyQTAzMDUyNTZCQTAxQzhERUM4OTczMkQ= |title=Learning Hebrew Online – Colonel Ilan Ramon |author=e-Teacher |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=9 February 2010 |access-date=1 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208124754/http://m.jpost.com/PromoContent/Learning-Hebrew-Online-Colonel-Ilan-Ramon |archive-date=8 December 2015 }}

The ongoing water shortage has spurred innovation in water conservation techniques, and a substantial agricultural modernisation, drip irrigation, was invented in Israel. Israel is also at the technological forefront of desalination and water recycling. The Sorek desalination plant is the largest seawater reverse osmosis desalination facility in the world.{{cite magazine |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/534996/megascale-desalination/ |title=Megascale Desalination |last=Talbot |first=David |date=2015 |magazine=MIT Technology Review |access-date=13 February 2017}} By 2014, desalination programmes provided roughly 35% of the drinking water, and it is expected to supply 70% by 2050.{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/israel-solves-water-woes-desalination-053359192.html |title=Israel solves water woes with desalination |author=Federman, Josef |agency=Associated Press |date=30 May 2014 |access-date=30 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140602041312/http://news.yahoo.com/israel-solves-water-woes-desalination-053359192.html |archive-date=2 June 2014 }} {{as of|2015}}, over 50 percent of the water for households, agriculture and industry is artificially produced.{{Cite news|title = Aided by the Sea, Israel Overcomes an Old Foe: Drought|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/30/world/middleeast/water-revolution-in-israel-overcomes-any-threat-of-drought.html|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 29 May 2015|access-date = 31 May 2015|first = Isabel|last = Kershner}} In 2011, Israel's water technology industry was worth around $2 billion per year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a net exporter of water.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-desalination-idUSTRE7B50V520111206 |title=Desalination plant could make Israel water exporter |newspaper=Reuters |date=6 December 2011 |first=Ari |last=Rabinovitch}}

File:Solar dish at Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center in Israel.jpg at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center{{cite news |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/01/25/faiman_negev_solar_plan/ |title=Giant solar plants in Negev could power Israel's future |first=John |last=Lettice |newspaper=The Register |date=25 January 2008}}]]

Israel has embraced solar energy; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology,{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15503716 |title=Israel Pushes Solar Energy Technology |publisher=NPR |first=Linda |last=Gradstein |author-link=Linda Gradstein |date=22 October 2007}} and its solar companies work on projects around the world.{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/reportsfromabroad/parry/20070815.html |title=Looking to the sun |first=Tom |last=Parry |date=15 August 2007 |newspaper=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924093635/http://www.cbc.ca/news/reportsfromabroad/parry/20070815.html |archive-date=24 September 2008 }}{{cite news |title=At the Zenith of Solar Energy |first=Neal |last=Sandler |url=http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008-03-26/at-the-zenith-of-solar-energybusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105185413/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008-03-26/at-the-zenith-of-solar-energybusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |archive-date=5 November 2012 |newspaper=Bloomberg Businessweek |date=26 March 2008 |access-date=12 August 2012}} Over 90% of homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita.{{cite web |url=http://www.neaman.org.il/Neaman2011/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DBID=1&TMID=581&LNGID=1&FID=646&IID=7974 |title=Solar energy for the production of heat Summary and recommendations of the 4th assembly of the energy forum at SNI |last1=Grossman |first1=Gershon |last2=Ayalon |first2=Ofira |last3=Baron |first3=Yifaat |last4=Kauffman |first4=Debby |publisher=Samuel Neaman Institute for Advanced Studies in Science and Technology |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083312/http://www.neaman.org.il/Neaman2011/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DBID=1&TMID=581&LNGID=1&FID=646&IID=7974 |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}{{cite web |last1=Del Chiaro |first1=Bernadette |last2=Telleen-Lawton |first2=Timothy |title=Solar Water Heating: How California Can Reduce Its Dependence on Natural Gas |date=3 April 2007 |publisher=Environment California |url=http://www.environmentcalifornia.org/reports/cae/solar-water-heating-how-california-can-reduce-its-dependence-natural-gas |access-date=20 March 2012 |format=PDF}} According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating.{{cite web |url=http://roma.mfa.gov.il/mfm/Data/156237.pdf |title=Solar, what else?! |last=Berner |first=Joachim |date=January 2008 |website=Sun & Wind Energy |publisher=Israel Special |page=88 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721141348/http://roma.mfa.gov.il/mfm/Data/156237.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 |access-date=15 May 2010}} The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev. Israel had a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of charging stations;{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2066975,00.html |title=Will Israel's Electric Cars Change the World? |magazine=Time |access-date=11 April 2012 |date=26 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415081103/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C2066975%2C00.html |archive-date=15 April 2012 }}{{cite news | url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/c0ef35cc-c06a-11df-8a81-00144feab49a.html | title=Electric cars are all the rage in Israel |newspaper=Financial Times | date=17 September 2010 | access-date=11 April 2012}}{{cite news | url=http://www.haaretz.com/business/israel-to-keep-electric-car-recharging-fees-low-1.418128 | title=Israel to keep electric car recharging fees low | newspaper=Haaretz | access-date=11 April 2012| date=13 March 2012 }} however, its electric car company Better Place shut down in 2013.{{cite news | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/better-place-folds-2013-5 |title=Electric Car Company Folds After Taking $850 Million From GE And Others |work=Business Insider |date=26 May 2013}}

{{Main|Energy in Israel}}

Israel began producing natural gas from its own offshore gas fields in 2004. In 2009 Tamar gas field was discovered near the coast, and Leviathan gas field was discovered in 2010.{{cite news|title=Israel Billionaire Tshuva Strikes Gas, Fueling Expansion in Energy, Hotels |first1=David |last1=Wainer |first2=Calev |last2=Ben-David |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-04-21/israel-billionaire-tshuva-strikes-gas-fueling-expansion-in-energy-hotels.html |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=22 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112194937/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-04-21/israel-billionaire-tshuva-strikes-gas-fueling-expansion-in-energy-hotels.html |archive-date=12 January 2011 }} The natural gas reserves in these two fields could make Israel energy-secure for more than 50 years. Commercial production of natural gas from the Tamar field began in 2013, with over 7.5 billion cubic meters (bcm) produced annually.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2249rank.html|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency |website=cia.gov|access-date=11 May 2018|archive-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315051210/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2249rank.html}} Israel had 199 billion bcm of proven reserves of natural gas as of 2016.{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html#is|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615230151/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html#is|archive-date=15 June 2013|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov}} The Leviathan gas field started production in 2019.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-natgas-leviathan/israel-gets-first-gas-from-leviathan-with-exports-to-follow-idUSKBN1YZ0H9 |publisher=Reuters |title=Israel gets first gas from Leviathan with exports to follow |last1=Cohen |first1=Tova |last2=Ari |first2=Rabinovitch |date=31 December 2019 |access-date=26 June 2022}}

Ketura Sun is Israel's first commercial solar field. Built in 2011 by the Arava Power Company, the field will produce about 9 gigawatt-hours of electricity per year,{{cite web |url= http://www.aravapower.com/Technical%20Figures |title= Ketura Sun Technical Figures |access-date= 26 June 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120309003501/http://www.aravapower.com/Technical%20Figures |archive-date= 9 March 2012}} sparing the production of some 125,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide over 20 years.{{cite web |url=http://www.aravapower.com/Environmental%20Figures |title=Ketura Sun Environmental Figures|access-date= 26 June 2011}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=Triggerhippie4 |fix-attempted=yes }}

{{Main|Transport in Israel}}

File:4X-ECC LLBG 09-05-2014b.jpg]]

Israel has {{convert|19224|km|mi}} of paved roads{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st24_10&CYear=2016 |title=Roads, by Length and Area |date=1 September 2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=15 February 2017}} and 3 million motor vehicles.{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/newhodaot/hodaa_template.html?hodaa=201627085 |title=3.09 Million Motor Vehicles in Israel in 2015 |date=30 March 2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=15 February 2017}} The number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons is 365, relatively low among developed countries. The country aims to have 30% of vehicles on its roads powered by electricity by 2030.{{Cite news |date=2023-09-12 |title=Israel expects 30% of cars on its roads to be electric by 2030 |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/israel-expects-30-cars-its-roads-be-electric-by-2030-2023-09-12/}}

Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes,{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton60/st24_04.pdf |title=Bus Services on Scheduled Routes |year=2009 |publisher=Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=5 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610053142/http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton60/st24_04.pdf |archive-date=10 June 2011 }} operated by several carriers, the largest and oldest of which is Egged, serving most of the country.{{cite news|last=Stub|first=Zev|title=Egged's monopoly ends, Superbus taking over Jerusalem lines in late 2021|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/eggeds-monopoly-ending-superbus-to-take-over-j-m-bus-lines-in-late-2021-657673|access-date=1 December 2021|work=The Jerusalem Post}} Railways stretch across {{convert|1277|km|mi}} and are operated by government-owned Israel Railways.{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st24_03&CYear=2016 |title=Railway Services |date=1 September 2016 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=15 February 2017}} Following major investments beginning in the early to mid-1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5 million in 1990, to 53 million in 2015; railways transport 7.5 million tons of cargo per year.

Israel is served by three international airports: Ben Gurion Airport, the country's main hub for international air travel; Ramon Airport; and Haifa Airport. Ben Gurion handled over 21.1 million passengers in 2023.{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2024-01-22 |title=Number of Passengers at Ben-Gurion Airport Rises 10% Despite Cancellations Due to Israel-Hamas War |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2024-01-22/ty-article/number-of-passengers-at-ben-gurion-airport-rises-10-despite-israel-hamas-war/0000018d-3246-d81e-abdf-3a4e9e540000 |work=Haaretz}} There are three main ports: the Port of Haifa, the oldest and largest; Ashdod Port; and the Port of Eilat on the Red Sea.

{{Main|Tourism in Israel}}

{{see also|List of archaeological sites in Israel and Palestine}}

File:Ein Bokek - Dead Sea2.jpg resort on the shore of the Dead Sea]]

Tourism, especially religious tourism, is an important industry, with beaches, archaeological, other historical and biblical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. In 2017, a record 3.6 million tourists visited Israel, yielding a 25 percent growth since 2016 and contributed NIS 20 billion to the economy.{{cite web |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-01/03/c_136867704.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124195618/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-01/03/c_136867704.htm |archive-date=24 January 2018 |title=Israel sees record 3.6 mln inbound tourists in 2017 |last=Yan |date=3 January 2018 |website=Xinhua}}{{cite news |url=http://www.globes.co.il/en/article-record-36m-tourists-visit-israel-in-2017-1001217309 |title=Record 3.6m tourists visit Israel in 2017 |last=Raz-Chaimovich |first=Michal |date=27 December 2017 |newspaper=Globes}}

{{main|Housing in Israel}}

Housing prices are listed in the top third of all countries,{{cite web |title=Housing prices |website=OECD Data |publisher=OECD |language=en |url=https://data.oecd.org/price/housing-prices.htm}} with an average of 150 salaries required to buy an apartment.{{cite web |title=Average salary in Israel |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2022/002/26_22_002b.pdf |website=Central Bureau of Statistics of Israel |access-date=4 January 2022}} As of 2022, there are about 2.7 million properties in Israel, with an annual increase of over 50,000.{{cite web |title=Dwellings and Buildings in Israel |website=Central Bureau of Statistics of Israel |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2021/030/04_21_030b.pdf |access-date=26 January 2022}} However, demand for housing exceeds supply, with a shortage of about 200,000 apartments as of 2021.{{cite news |last1=Tsion |first1=Hila |date=23 June 2021 |title=Housing crisis: about 200,000 apartments are missing |work=Ynet |language=he |url=https://www.ynet.co.il/economy/article/S1KYZ9kh00}} As a result, by 2021 housing prices rose by 5.6%.{{cite web|title=Israeli housing prices show largest increase in the world |url=https://www.israel21c.org/israeli-housing-prices-show-largest-increase-in-the-world/ |website=ISRAEL21c |author=Brian Blum|date=15 September 2021|access-date=28 January 2022 |language=en}} In 2021, Israelis took a record of NIS 116.1 billion in mortgages, an increase of 50% from 2020.{{cite web |title=Report on housing loans |website=Bank of Israel |url=https://www.boi.org.il/he/BankingSupervision/Data/Pages/HousingLoan.aspx |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=26 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126140617/https://www.boi.org.il/he/BankingSupervision/Data/Pages/HousingLoan.aspx}}

{{Main|Demographics of Israel|Israelis}}

File:Aliyah 1948-2015.png in the years 1948–2015. The two peaks were in 1949 and 1990.]]

Israel has the largest Jewish population in the world and is the only country where Jews are the majority,{{cite report |editor1-last=Dashefsky |editor1-first=Arnold |editor-link1=Arnold Dashefsky |editor2-last=Della-Pergola |editor2-first=Sergio |editor-link2=Sergio Della Pergola |editor3-last=Sheskin |editor3-first=Ira |date=2021 |title=World Jewish Population |url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/api/download/?studyId=1185&mediaId=bjdb%5c2021_World_Jewish_Population_AJYB_(DellaPergola)_DB_Public.pdf |publisher=Berman Jewish DataBank |access-date=4 September 2023 |archive-date=6 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906084243/https://www.jewishdatabank.org/api/download/?studyId=1185&mediaId=bjdb%5C2021_World_Jewish_Population_AJYB_(DellaPergola)_DB_Public.pdf |url-status=live }} and the only country in which Jews make up more than 2% of the total national population.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2012-12-18 |title=Jews |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-jew/ |access-date=2024-12-17 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}} {{As of|{{data Israel|pst2|popbaseyear}}|{{padleft:{{data Israel|pst2|popbasemonth}}|2}}|{{data Israel|pst2|popbaseday}}}}, the population was an estimated {{formatnum:{{data Israel|pst2|popbase}}}}. In 2022, the government recorded 73.6% of the population as Jews, 21.1% as Arabs, and 5.3% as "Others" (non-Arab Christians and people who have no religion listed).{{cite report|url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/mediarelease/Pages/2022/Population-of-Israel-on-the-Eve-of-2023.aspx|title=Population of Israel on the Eve of 2023|date=29 December 2022|publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics|access-date=29 December 2022|archive-date=1 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401190603/https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/mediarelease/Pages/2022/Population-of-Israel-on-the-Eve-of-2023.aspx|url-status=live}} Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa, and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally,{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report/85270/ISRAEL-Crackdown-on-illegal-migrants-and-visa-violators |title=ISRAEL: Crackdown on illegal migrants and visa violators |newspaper=IRIN |date=14 July 2009 |access-date=31 March 2012 |archive-date=19 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119084926/http://www.irinnews.org/report/85270/israel-crackdown-on-illegal-migrants-and-visa-violators |url-status=live }} but estimates run from 166,000 to 203,000.Adriana Kemp, "Labour migration and racialisation: labour market mechanisms and labour migration control policies in Israel", Social Identities 10:2, 267–292, 2004 By June 2012, approximately 60,000 African migrants had entered Israel.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-africans-idUSBRE85A0VI20120611 |title=Israel rounds up African migrants for deportation |publisher=Reuters |date=11 June 2012 |access-date=5 July 2021 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816220533/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-africans-idUSBRE85A0VI20120611 |url-status=live }}

About 93% of Israelis live in urban areas.{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=IL|title=Urban population (% of total population) – Israel|website=data.worldbank.org|publisher=World Bank|access-date=11 February 2023|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211181255/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=IL|url-status=live}} 90% of Palestinian Israelis reside in 139 densely populated towns and villages concentrated in the Galilee, Triangle and Negev regions, with the remaining 10% in mixed cities and neighbourhoods.{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/06/04/can-jews-palestinians-live-peacefully-israel-data-mixed-neighborhoods-says-yes/ |access-date=15 February 2022|title=Can Jews and Palestinians live peacefully in Israel? The data on mixed neighborhoods says yes |newspaper=The Washington Post}} The OECD in 2016 estimated the average life expectancy at 82.5 years, the 6th-highest in the world.{{cite web|url=https://data.oecd.org/healthstat/life-expectancy-at-birth.htm|title=Life expectancy at birth|website=OECD Data|publisher=OECD|access-date=30 May 2019|archive-date=2 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202012350/https://data.oecd.org/healthstat/life-expectancy-at-birth.htm|url-status=live}} Israeli Arab life expectancy lags by 3 to 4 years{{Cite web |date=29 March 2020 |title=Arab and Jewish medics together on frontline of Israel's virus fight |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200329-arab-and-jewish-medics-together-on-frontline-of-israel-s-virus-fight |access-date=23 June 2022 |publisher=France 24 |agency=Agence France Presse |language=en |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623114215/https://www.france24.com/en/20200329-arab-and-jewish-medics-together-on-frontline-of-israel-s-virus-fight |url-status=live }}Dov Chernichovsky, Bishara Bisharat, Liora Bowers, Aviv Brill, and Chen Sharony, [https://www.taubcenter.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/healthofthearabisraelipopulation.pdf "The Health of the Arab Israeli Population"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210212846/https://www.taubcenter.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/healthofthearabisraelipopulation.pdf |date=10 February 2022 }}. Taub Center for Social Policy Studies in Israel December 2017 pp.1–50, 13 (2015) and is higher than in most Arab and Muslim countries.{{Cite news |date=9 October 2012 |title=Saudi writer: 'Why is life expectancy in Israel better?' |language=en-GB |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-radio-and-tv-19890597 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623113753/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-radio-and-tv-19890597 |url-status=live }}{{cite news|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-5062493,00.html |access-date=15 February 2022|title=Taub Center report shows discrepancy in Jewish, Arab life expectancy|newspaper=Ynetnews|archive-date=15 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072847/https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-5062493,00.html#:~:text=The%20life%20expectancy%20of%20Israel's,developed%20countries'%20average%20of%2081.6.|url-status=live}} The country has the highest fertility rate in the OECD and the only one which is above the replacement figure of 2.1.{{Cite news |date=21 June 2024 |title=Israel's birth rate remains highest in OECD by far, at 2.9 children per woman |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israels-birth-rate-remains-highest-in-oecd-by-far-at-2-9-children-per-woman |work=Times of Israel}} Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.{{cite book |last=DellaPergola |first=Sergio |author-link=Sergio DellaPergola |contribution=Still Moving: Recent Jewish Migration in Comparative Perspective |editor=Daniel J. Elazar |editor2=Morton Weinfeld |editor2-link=Morton Weinfeld |title=The Global Context of Migration to Israel |year=2000 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-56000-428-8 |pages=13–60}} Jewish emigration from Israel (called yerida), primarily to the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,{{cite magazine |last=Herman |first=Pini |title=The Myth of the Israeli Expatriate |magazine=Moment Magazine |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=62–63| date=1 September 1983}} but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Eric D. |last2=Moav |first2=Omer |year=2007 |title=Israel's Brain Drain |journal=Israel Economic Review |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |ssrn=2180400 }}{{cite news |last=Rettig Gur |first=Haviv |title=Officials to US to bring Israelis home |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=6 April 2008 |url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=97254 |access-date=20 March 2012}}

Approximately 80% of Israeli Jews are born in Israel, 14% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 6% are immigrants from Asia and Africa.{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2022/2.shnatonpopulation/st02_09.pdf |title=Jews, by Continent of Origin, Continent of Birth and Period of Immigration |date=15 September 2022 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=21 February 2023}} Jews from Europe and the former Soviet Union and their descendants born in Israel, including Ashkenazi Jews, constitute approximately 44% of Jewish Israelis. Jews from Arab and Muslim countries and their descendants, including both Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews,{{cite journal |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jss/summary/v015/15.1.goldberg.html |title=From Sephardi to Mizrahi and Back Again: Changing Meanings of "Sephardi" in Its Social Environments|journal=Jewish Social Studies|volume=15|issue=1|pages=165–188|last1=Goldberg |first1=Harvey E. |year=2008 |doi=10.18647/2793/JJS-2008}} form most of the rest of the Jewish population.{{cite web |url=http://www.jewcy.com/post/missing_mizrahim |title=The Missing Mizrahim |date=31 August 2009 |author=Joel Schalit |website=Jewcy}} Jewish intermarriage rates run at over 35% and recent studies suggest that the percentage of Israelis descended from both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews increases by 0.5 percent yearly, with over 25% of schoolchildren now originating from both.{{cite web |url=http://sociology.huji.ac.il/docs/Okun-paper-2006-01.pdf |title=Socioeconomic Status and Demographic Behavior of Adult Multiethnics: Jews in Israel |last1=Okun |first1=Barbara S. |last2=Khait-Marelly |first2=Orna |year=2006 |publisher=Hebrew University of Jerusalem |access-date=26 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210049/http://sociology.huji.ac.il/docs/Okun-paper-2006-01.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2013 }} Around 4% of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as "others", are Russian descendants of Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for citizenship under the Law of Return.{{cite web |url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Jewish_Demographic_Policies.pdf |title=Jewish Demographic Policies |publisher=The Jewish People Policy Institute |year=2011 |last=DellaPergola |first=Sergio}}{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Israel_(people).aspx |title=Israel (people) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |year=2007}}{{cite news|author=Yoram Ettinger|date=5 April 2013 |title=Defying demographic projections |url= http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_opinion.php?id=3913 |access-date=29 October 2013|newspaper=Israel Hayom}}

Israeli settlers beyond the Green Line number over 600,000 (≈10% of the Jewish Israeli population).{{cite magazine |last=Gorenberg |first=Gershom |date=26 June 2017 |title=Settlements: The Real Story |url=http://prospect.org/article/settlements-real-story |magazine=The American Prospect |access-date=25 August 2017}} {{As of|2016|alt=In 2016}}, 399,300 Israelis lived in West Bank settlements, including those that predated the establishment of the State of Israel and which were re-established after the Six-Day War. Additionally there were more than 200,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem and 22,000 in the Golan Heights. Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip, known as Gush Katif, until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.{{cite web |url=http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-gaza-strip-1 |title=Settlements in the Gaza Strip |access-date=12 December 2007 |website=Settlement Information |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826025402/http://www.fmep.org/settlement_info/settlement-info-and-tables/stats-data/settlements-in-the-gaza-strip-1 |archive-date=26 August 2013 }}

Israeli Arabs (including the Arab population of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights) comprise 21.1% of the population or 1,995,000 people.{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/mediarelease/Pages/2021/Population-of-Israel-on-the-Eve-of-2022.aspx |title=Population of Israel on the Eve of 2022 |publisher=Cbs.gov.il |date= |access-date=13 February 2022}} In a 2017 poll, 40% of Arab citizens of Israel identified as "Arab in Israel" or "Arab citizen of Israel", 15% identified as "Palestinian", 8.9% as "Palestinian in Israel" or "Palestinian citizen of Israel", and 8.7% as "Arab"; a poll found that 60% of Israeli Arabs have a positive view of the state.{{cite report|publisher=Konrad Adenauer Foundation|url=https://www.kas.de/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=0e141dca-8ac4-a77f-7045-f3a7d4c30991|title=Citizenship, Identity and Political Participation: Measuring the Attitudes of the Arab Citizens in Israel|date=December 2017|pages=22, 25, 28 |issue=12 |quote=(p.28) "The positions of the participants in the focus groups reflect the strength of Palestinian-Arab identity among Arab citizens and the fact that they do not see a contradiction between Palestinian-Arab national identity and Israeli civic identity. The designation "Israeli-Arab" aroused great opposition in the focus groups, as did Israel's Independence Day. ... The collective position presented in the focus group discussions finds expression in the public sphere and emphasizes the Palestinian national identity. Conversely, the responses of the survey participants reveal individual attitudes that assign a broader (albeit secondary, identity) dimension to the component of Israeli civic identity"; quote (p.25): The designation "Arab citizens of Israel" was acceptable to them on the basis of the understanding that it is impossible to live without citizenship, and as long as Israeli citizenship does not harm the national consciousness. Conversely, the participants spoke out against the designation "Arab-Israeli"...}}{{cite news|last1=Lynfield|first1=Ben|title=Survey: 60% of Arab Israelis have positive view of state|url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Survey-60-percent-of-Arab-Israelis-have-positive-view-of-state-506150|access-date=23 October 2017|work=The Jerusalem Post|date=27 September 2017}}

{{Main list|List of cities in Israel}}

{{wide image|Tel Aviv Panorama.jpg|800px|View over the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area}}

Israel has four major metropolitan areas: Gush Dan (Tel Aviv metropolitan area; population 3,854,000), Jerusalem (population 1,253,900), Haifa (924,400), and Beersheba (377,100).{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_25&CYear=2017 |title=Localities, Population and Density per Sq. Km., by Metropolitan Area and Selected Localities |date=6 September 2017 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=19 September 2017}} The largest municipality, in population and area, is Jerusalem with {{Israel populations|Jerusalem}} residents in an area of {{convert|125|km2|0|abbr=out}}.{{Israel populations|reference}} Statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area of East Jerusalem, the status of which is in international dispute.{{harvnb|Roberts|1990|p=60}} Although East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have been brought directly under Israeli law, by acts that amount to annexation, both of these areas continue to be viewed by the international community as occupied, and their status as regards the applicability of international rules is in most respects identical to that of the West Bank and Gaza. Tel Aviv and Haifa rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of {{Israel populations|Tel Aviv - Yafo}} and {{Israel populations|Haifa}}, respectively.{{Israel populations|reference}} The (mainly Haredi) city of Bnei Brak is the most densely populated city in Israel and one of the 10 most densely populated cities in the world.{{Cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-city-rankings/population-density-by-city|title=Population Density by City 2024|website=worldpopulationreview.com}}

Israel has 16 cities with populations over 100,000. {{As of|2018|alt=As of 2018}} there are 77 localities granted "municipalities" (or "city") status by the Ministry of the Interior,[http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_22&CYear=2018 2.22 Localities and Population, by Municipal Status and District], 2018 four of which are in the West Bank.{{cite web | url=https://www.science.co.il/municipal/Cities.php | title=List of Cities in Israel}}

{{Largest cities of Israel}}

{{Main|Languages of Israel}}

File:שלט רחוב יהודה (3777232251).jpg in Hebrew, Arabic, and English]]

The official language is Hebrew. Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken daily by the majority of the population. Prior to 1948, opposition to Yiddish, the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews, was common among supporters of the Zionist movement, including the Yishuv, who sought to promote Hebrew's revival as a unifying national language.{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/article/9d46cc421298178d834b94bc067c1821 |first=Karin|last=Laub|title=Long Suppressed, Yiddish is Making a Comeback in Israel |date=18 June 1987|work=Associated Press News|location=Jerusalem|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124170549/https://apnews.com/article/9d46cc421298178d834b94bc067c1821|archive-date=24 November 2022}} These sentiments were reflected in the early policies of the Israeli government, which largely banned Yiddish theatre and publications.{{cite news|first=Zach|last=Golden|title=How Yiddish became a 'foreign language' in Israel despite being spoken there since the 1400s|date=11 September 2023|work=The Forward |url=https://forward.com/forverts-in-english/560390/how-yiddish-became-foreign-language-israel/|access-date=14 May 2024}} Until 2018, Arabic was also an official language; in 2018 it was downgraded to having a "special status in the state". Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority, with Arabic and Hebrew taught in Arab schools. Arabic is studied in most Jewish schools and is often used on signage and in transport announcements.{{cite news|title=The sudden, surprising rise of Arabic on Israeli street signs|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21732032-one-area-where-binyamin-netanyahus-government-not-so-hostile-arabs|newspaper=The Economist|date=6 December 2017|access-date=11 December 2017}}

Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia (some 130,000 Ethiopian Jews live in Israel),Israel Central Bureau of Statistics: [http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/newhodaot/hodaa_template.html?hodaa=201211307 The Ethiopian Community in Israel]{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-ethiopia-jews-sb-idUSTRE56F4ZY20090716 |title=Israel may admit 3,000 Ethiopia migrants if Jews |publisher=Reuters |date=16 July 2009}} Russian and Amharic are widely spoken.{{cite news |title=Israel's welcome for Ethiopian Jews wears thin |first=Bill |last=Meyer |url=http://www.cleveland.com/world/index.ssf/2008/08/israels_welcome_for_ethiopian.html |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |date=17 August 2008 |access-date=1 October 2012}} Over one million Russian-speaking immigrants arrived in Israel between 1990 and 2004.{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/study-soviet-immigrants-outperform-israeli-students-1.238970 |title=Study: Soviet immigrants outperform Israeli students |newspaper=Haaretz |date=10 February 2008}} French is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis,{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4156781,00.html |title=French radio station RFI makes aliyah |newspaper=Ynetnews |date=5 December 2011}} mostly originating from France and North Africa (see Maghrebi Jews). English was an official language during the Mandate period;{{cite book|last=Spolsky|first=Bernard|title=Round Table on Language and Linguistics |url={{Google books|ljumbfV_7y0C|page=PA169|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=1999|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=978-0-87840-132-1 |pages=169–170 |quote=In 1948, the newly independent state of Israel took over the old British regulations that had set English, Arabic, and Hebrew as official languages for Mandatory Palestine but, as mentioned, dropped English from the list. In spite of this, official language use has maintained a de facto role for English, after Hebrew but before Arabic.}} it lost this status after the establishment of Israel, but retains a role comparable to that of an official language.{{cite book |first=Hava |last=Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot|editor2-first=Hava|editor2-last=Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot |editor1-first=Dorit |editor1-last=Diskin Ravid|editor1-link=Dorit Ravid|title=Perspectives on Language and Development: Essays in Honor of Ruth A. Berman |chapter-url={{Google books |xMzx6xFB0IgC |page=PA90 |keywords=|text= |plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |date=2004 |page=90 |chapter=Part I: Language and Discourse |isbn=978-1-4020-7911-5 |quote=English is not considered official but it plays a dominant role in the educational and public life of Israeli society. ... It is the language most widely used in commerce, business, formal papers, academia, and public interactions, public signs, road directions, names of buildings, etc.}}{{cite book |first=Elana|last=Shohamy|title=Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches |url={{Google books|5mG09P64jzYC|page=PA72|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-32864-7 |pages=72–73 |quote=While English is not declared anywhere as an official language, the reality is that it has a very high and unique status in Israel. It is the main language of the academy, commerce, business, and the public space.}} Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programmes are broadcast in English with subtitles and the language is taught in elementary school. Israeli universities offer courses in English.{{cite web |title=English programs at Israeli universities and colleges |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/IsraelExperience/AboutIsrael/Education/Pages/English_programs_Israeli_universities_colleges.aspx |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}{{better source needed|date=January 2023}}

{{Main|Religion in Israel}}

{{See also|Abrahamic religions}}

File:Westernwall2.jpg and the Western Wall, Jerusalem|alt=A large open area with people bounded by old stone walls. To the left is a mosque with large golden dome.]]

The estimated religious affiliation as of 2022 was 73.5% Jewish, 18.1% Muslim, 1.9% Christian, 1.6% Druze, and 4.9% other. The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: a 2016 survey by Pew Research indicates that 49% self-identify as Hiloni (secular), 29% as Masorti (traditional), 13% as Dati (religious) and 9% as Haredi (ultra-Orthodox).{{cite web |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/08/in-israel-jews-are-united-by-homeland-but-divided-into-very-different-groups/ |title=In Israel, Jews are united by homeland but divided into very different groups |last1=Starr |first1=Kelsey Jo |last2=Masci |first2=David |date=8 March 2016 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=14 January 2017}} Haredi Jews are expected to represent over 20% of the Jewish population by 2028.{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/at-the-edge-of-the-abyss-1.3538 |author=Shahar Ilan |title=At the edge of the abyss |newspaper=Haaretz |date=24 November 2009}} Muslims constitute the largest religious minority, making up about 18.1% of the population. About 1.9% of the population is Christian, and 1.6% is Druze. The Christian population comprises primarily Arab Christians and Aramean Christians but also includes post-Soviet immigrants, foreign labourers, Armenian Christians, and followers of Messianic Judaism, considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.{{cite news |title=Israel's Christian population numbers 148,000 as of Christmas Eve |first=Moti |last=Bassok |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/israel-s-christian-population-numbers-148-000-as-of-christmas-eve-1.208151 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=25 December 2006 |access-date=26 April 2012}} Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.{{cite web |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton53/st_eng02.pdf |title=National Population Estimates |access-date=6 August 2007 |page=27 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807012547/http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton53/st_eng02.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2011 }} Out of over one million immigrants from the former Soviet Union, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel.{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15675691 |title=Israel's disputatious Avigdor Lieberman: Can the coalition hold together? |date=11 March 2010 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=12 August 2012}}

Israel comprises a major part of the Holy Land, a region of significant importance to all Abrahamic religions. Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims, and Christians, as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount (Al-Aqsa Mosque compound) and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.{{cite book |title=Jerusalem: its sanctity and centrality to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam |last=Levine |first=Lee I. |year=1999 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8264-1024-5 |page=516}} Other locations of religious importance are Nazareth (site of the Annunciation of Mary), Tiberias and Safed (two of the Four Holy Cities in Judaism), the White Mosque in Ramla (shrine of the prophet Saleh), and the Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr, Lod (tomb of Saint George or Al Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in the West Bank, including Joseph's Tomb, the birthplace of Jesus, Rachel's Tomb, and the Cave of the Patriarchs. The administrative center of the Baháʼí Faith and the Shrine of the Báb are located at the Baháʼí World Centre in Haifa; the leader of the faith is buried in Acre.{{cite book | title = Hebrew Phrasebook | publisher = Lonely Planet Publications |year=1999 | page = 156 |isbn=978-0-86442-528-7}}{{cite web |url=http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html |title=The Baháʼí World Centre: Focal Point for a Global Community |publisher=The Baháʼí International Community |access-date=2 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629171538/http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html |archive-date=29 June 2007 }}{{cite web |publisher=Baháʼí Library Online |title=Teaching the Faith in Israel |date=23 June 1995 |url=http://bahai-library.com/uhj_teaching_in_israel |access-date=6 August 2007 }} The Mahmood Mosque is affiliated with the reformist Ahmadiyya movement. Kababir, Haifa's mixed neighbourhood of Jews and Ahmadi Arabs, is one of a few of its kind in the country.{{cite web | url=http://www.haifatrail.com/haifa-trail-segment14-eng.htm#./images/sect-14/Haifa-Trail-Sect14-P1610817.jpg | title=Kababir and Central Carmel – Multiculturalism on the Carmel | access-date=8 January 2015}}{{cite web | url=http://www.visit-haifa.org/eng/Kababir | title=Visit Haifa | access-date=8 January 2015}}

{{Main|Education in Israel}}

File:Brain research labs-Bar Ilan university.jpg at Bar-Ilan University]]

In 2015, Israel ranked third among OECD members for the percentage of 25–64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 49% compared with the OECD average of 35%.{{cite report |date=15 September 2016 |title=Education at a Glance: Israel |url=http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/education/education-at-a-glance-2016/israel_eag-2016-63-en |publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=18 January 2017}} In 2012, the country ranked third in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).{{cite web |url=http://www.american.edu/initeb/as5415a/Israel_ICT/itWork.html |title=Israel: IT Workforce |access-date=14 August 2007 |website=Information Technology Landscape in Nations Around the World |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913013444/http://www.american.edu/initeb/as5415a/Israel_ICT/itWork.html |archive-date=13 September 2006}}

Israel has a school life expectancy of 16 years and a literacy rate of 97.8%. The State Education Law (1953) established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.{{cite book |url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED250227&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED250227 |title=Israeli Schools: Religious and Secular Problems |publisher=Education Resources Information Center |date=10 October 1984 |access-date=20 March 2012 |last1=Franklin |first1=Parker }} Education is compulsory for children between the ages of three and eighteen.{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/knesset-raises-school-dropout-age-to-18-1.225752 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=18 July 2007 |title=Knesset raises school dropout age to 18 |first1=Or |last1=Kashti |first2=Shahar |last2=Ilan}} Schooling is divided into three tiers—primary school (grades 1–6), middle school (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12)—culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, the Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, the English language, history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.{{cite web |url=http://www.moia.gov.il/Publications/education_en.pdf |title=Education |last1=Shetreet |first1=Ida Ben |last2=Woolf |first2=Laura L. |year=2010 |website=Publications Department |publisher=Ministry of Immigrant Absorption |access-date=30 August 2012}}

The Jewish population maintains a relatively high level of educational attainment where just under half of all Israeli Jews (46%) hold post-secondary degrees.{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/12/13/religion-and-education-around-the-world/|title=Religion and Education Around the World |date=13 December 2016}}{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/12/13/jewish-educational-attainment/|title=6. Jewish educational attainment|date=13 December 2016}} Israeli Jews 25 and older have an average 11.6 years of schooling, making them one of the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the world.{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2016/12/13/how-religious-groups-differ-in-educational-attainment/|title=How Religious Groups Differ in Educational Attainment|date=13 December 2016}}{{cite web |url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/world/jews-top-class-first-ever-global-study-religion-and-education|title=Jews at top of class in first-ever global study of religion and education|date=13 December 2016}} In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage, respectively.{{cite web |url=http://www.bibl.u-szeged.hu/oseas/bagrut.html |publisher=United States-Israel Educational Foundation via the University of Szeged University Library |title=The Israeli Matriculation Certificate |access-date=5 August 2007 |date=January 1996 |archive-date=15 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915073741/http://www.bibl.u-szeged.hu/oseas/bagrut.html}} In 2020, 68.7% of 12th graders earned a matriculation certificate.{{cite web |date=2023 |title=Students in Grade 12 – Matriculation Examinees and Those Entitled to a Certificate |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/LochutTlushim/2023/st04_19.pdf |access-date=19 October 2023 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics}}

File:MountScopusDec032022 03.jpg Campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]

Israel has a tradition of higher education where its university education has been largely responsible in spurring modern economic development.{{cite web |url=http://kehilanews.com/2017/05/11/israels-educational-tradition-drives-economic-growth/ |title=Israel's educational tradition drives economic growth |last=Silver |first=Stefan |date=11 May 2017 |website=Kehlia News Israel |access-date=31 July 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207190253/https://kehilanews.com/2017/05/11/israels-educational-tradition-drives-economic-growth/ |url-status=dead }} Israel has nine public universities subsidised by the state and 49 private colleges.{{cite web |url=http://embassies.gov.il/delhi/Departments/Pages/Academic%20Affairs.aspx |title=Higher Education in Israel |access-date=19 March 2012 |publisher=Embassy of Israel In India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725031634/http://embassies.gov.il/delhi/Departments/Pages/Academic%20Affairs.aspx |archive-date=25 July 2012}}{{cite news|last=Paraszczuk|first=Joanna|title=Ariel gets university status, despite opposition |url=http://www.jpost.com/National-News/Ariel-gets-university-status-despite-opposition|access-date=21 December 2013|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=17 July 2012}} The Hebrew University of Jerusalem houses the National Library of Israel, the world's largest repository of Judaica and Hebraica.{{cite web |url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/library/aboutus/past/Building/Pages/history.aspx |publisher=National Library of Israel |title=History of the Library |access-date=22 August 2014}} The Technion and the Hebrew University consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities by ARWU ranking.{{cite web |url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings-2016/Israel.html |title=Israel |date=2016 |publisher=Academic Ranking of World Universities |access-date=6 January 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817025723/http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings-2016/Israel.html }} Other major universities include the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, and the Open University of Israel.

{{Main|Culture of Israel}}

Cultural diversity stems from its diverse population: Jews from various diaspora communities brought their cultural and religious traditions with them.{{cite web |url=http://www.hse.ru/en/news/28331917.html |publisher=National Research University Higher School of Economics |title=Asian Studies: Israel as a 'Melting Pot' |access-date=18 April 2012}} Arab influences are present in many cultural spheres,{{cite book|last1=Mendel|first1=Yonatan|last2=Ranta|first2=Ronald|title=From the Arab Other to the Israeli Self: Palestinian Culture in the Making of Israeli National Identity|url={{Google books|dD_7CwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2016|publisher=Routled|isbn=978-1-317-13171-7|pages=137, 140–141}} being found in architecture,{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFA+Publications/Photo+exhibits/Encounters-+The+Vernacular+Paradox+of+Israeli+Arch-+Intro.htm |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Encounters: The Vernacular Paradox of Israeli Architecture |last=Ran |first=Ami |access-date=6 September 2007 |date=25 August 1998 }} music,{{cite news |work=ISRAEL21c |url=http://www.israel21c.org/culture/israeli-palestinian-and-jordanian-djs-create-bridge-for-peace |title=Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian DJs create bridge for peace |last=Brinn |first=David |date=23 October 2005 |access-date=20 March 2012}} and cuisine.{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20International%20Israeli%20Table |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=The International Israeli Table |access-date=26 June 2009 }} Israel is the only country where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays. The official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath.{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts%20About%20Israel/People/Jewish%20Festivals%20in%20Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Jewish Festivals and Days of Remembrance in Israel |access-date=16 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814055003/http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/people/jewish%20festivals%20in%20israel |archive-date=14 August 2007 }}

File:Shmuel Yosef Agnon, 1924.jpg, laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature]]

Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages. By law, two copies of all works published in Israel must be deposited in the National Library of Israel.{{cite web |url=http://jnul.huji.ac.il/eng/lgd.html |publisher=Jewish National and University Library |title=Depositing Books to The Jewish National & University Library |access-date=21 August 2007 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529153016/http://jnul.huji.ac.il/eng/lgd.html |archive-date=29 May 2012 }} In 2016, 89 percent of the 7,300 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.{{cite web |url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/library/depositing/statistics/Pages/lgd-statistics-2016.aspx |title=The Annual Israeli Book Week Report 2016 |publisher=National Library of Israel |access-date=26 April 2018}}

In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs.{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1966/index.html |publisher=Nobel Foundation |title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1966 |access-date=12 August 2007 }} Leading poets include Yehuda Amichai, Nathan Alterman, Leah Goldberg, and Rachel Bluwstein.{{Cite web |title=Yehuda Amichai |url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/yehuda-amichai |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=Poetry Foundation |language=en}} Internationally famous contemporary novelists include Amos Oz, Etgar Keret and David Grossman.{{Cite web |title=5 Israeli authors you should know – DW – 09/03/2021 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/5-israeli-authors-you-should-know/a-59072065 |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=dw.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Books |first=Five |title=The Best Contemporary Israeli Fiction |url=https://fivebooks.com/best-books/israeli-novels-ayelet-gundar-goshen/ |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=Five Books |language=en}}

{{Further|Dance in Israel}}File:Israel Philharmonic Orchestra.jpg conducted by Zubin Mehta|alt=Several dozen musicians in formal dress, holding their instruments, behind a conductor]]

Israeli music includes Mizrahi and Sephardic music, Hasidic melodies, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock.{{sfn |Broughton |Ellingham |Trillo |1999 |pp=365–369}}{{cite web |title=Israel |url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/country/content.country/israel_36 |publisher=National Geographic Society |website=World Music |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210070052/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/country/content.country/israel_36 |archive-date=10 February 2012 }} The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra{{sfn|Ben-Sasson|1985|p=1095}}{{cite book |title=Whose Master's Voice?: The Development of Popular Music in Thirteen Cultures |last1=Ewbank |first1=Alison J. |last2=Papageorgiou |first2=Fouli T. |year=1997 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-27772-6 |page=117}} has been in operation for over seventy years and performs more than two hundred concerts each year.{{cite web |url=https://www.israel21c.org/us-music-lovers-join-the-birthday-fun-for-israels-greatest-classical-ensemble-the-ipo/ |website=ISRAEL21c |title=US music lovers join the birthday fun for Israel's greatest classical ensemble – the IPO |date=4 February 2007 |last=Davis |first=Barry}} Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman and Ofra Haza are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel. Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition four times and hosting it twice.{{cite web |url=http://www.eurovision.tv/page/history/by-country/country?country=18 |title=Israel |website=Eurovision Song Contest |publisher=European Broadcasting Union |access-date=31 May 2013}}{{cite web |url=http://www.eurovision.tv/page/history/year |title=History |website=Eurovision Song Contest |publisher=European Broadcasting Union |access-date=31 May 2013}} Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987.{{cite web |url=http://www.redseajazzeilat.com/en/about/ |publisher=Red Sea Jazz Festival |title=About the Red Sea Jazz Festival |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312202659/http://www.redseajazzeilat.com/en/about/ |archive-date=12 March 2012 }} The nation's canonical folk songs are known as "Songs of the Land of Israel".{{cite web |url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/israeli_folk_735/en_US |publisher=National Geographic Society |title=Israeli Folk Music |access-date=20 March 2012 |website=World Music |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103145812/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/israeli_folk_735/en_US |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}

{{Main|Cinema of Israel}}

Ten Israeli films have been final nominees for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards. Palestinian Israeli filmmakers have made films dealing with the Arab-Israeli conflict and status of Palestinians within Israel, such as Mohammed Bakri's 2002 film Jenin, Jenin and The Syrian Bride.

Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theatre in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.{{cite web |url=http://www.habima.co.il/ |script-title=he:התיאטרון הלאומי הבימה |publisher=Habima National Theatre |access-date=13 August 2007 |language=he }} Other theatres include Ohel, the Cameri and Gesher.{{Cite web |title=Theatre in Israel |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/theatre-in-israel |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}{{Cite web |title=Israeli Theatre |url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/culture/2/Theatre_and_Dance/Theatre/Israel.shtml |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=My Jewish Learning |language=en-US |archive-date=18 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318093329/http://myjewishlearning.com/culture/2/Theatre_and_Dance/Theatre/Israel.shtml |url-status=dead }}

{{main|Visual arts in Israel}}

Israeli Jewish art has been particularly influenced by the Kabbalah, the Talmud and the Zohar. Another art movement that held a prominent role in the 20th century was the School of Paris. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the Yishuv's art was dominated by art trends emanating Bezalel. Beginning in the 1920s, the local art scene was heavily influenced by modern French art, first introduced by Isaac Frenkel Frenel.{{Cite web |title=1883 {{!}} Encyclopedia of the Founders and Builders of Israel |url=https://www.tidhar.tourolib.org/tidhar/view/4/1883 |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=tidhar.tourolib.org}}{{Cite web |date=2019-01-02 |title=Alexandre FRENEL |url=https://ecoledeparis.org/en/alexandre-frenel/ |access-date=2024-06-03 |website=Bureau d’art Ecole de Paris |language=en}} Jewish masters of the school of Paris, such as Soutine, Kikoine, Frenkel, Chagall heavily influenced the subsequent development of Israeli art.{{Cite web |date=2023-05-25 |title=Chaim Soutine – From Russia to Paris by Ben Uri Research Unit |url=https://issuu.com/benurigallery/docs/chaim_soutine___from_russia_to_paris |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=issuu.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Israel Studies An Anthology: Art in Israel |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/israel-studies-an-anthology-art-in-israel |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=jewishvirtuallibrary.org}} Israeli sculpture took inspiration from modern European sculpture as well Mesopotamian, Assyrian and local art.{{Cite news |date=December 29, 2023 |title=South Africa launches case at top UN court accusing Israel of genocide in Gaza |url=https://apnews.com/article/south-africa-israel-un-court-palestinians-genocide-ffe672c4eb3e14a30128542eaa537b21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102144544/https://apnews.com/article/south-africa-israel-un-court-palestinians-genocide-ffe672c4eb3e14a30128542eaa537b21 |archive-date=January 2, 2024 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |work=Associated Press |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Israel – Art, Music, Dance |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Israel/Cultural-life |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=britannica.com |language=en}} Avraham Melnikov's roaring lion, David Polus' Alexander Zaid and Ze'ev Ben Zvi's cubist sculpture exemplify some of the different streams in sculpture.{{Cite journal |date=2008-01-18 |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica (2nd edition) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09504120810843177 |journal=Reference Reviews |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=51–53 |doi=10.1108/09504120810843177 |issn=0950-4125}}{{Cite web |date=2023-04-11 |title=1938-1941 - Alexander Zaid, David Polus |url=https://israeled.org/1938-1941-alexander-zaid-david-polus/ |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=CIE |language=en}}

Common themes in art are the mystical cities of Safed and Jerusalem, the bohemian café culture of Tel Aviv, agricultural landscapes, biblical stories and war. Today Israeli art has delved into optical art, AI art, digital art and the use of salt in sculpture.

{{main|Architecture of Israel}}

File:מוזיאון הבאוהאוס1.jpg]]

Due to the immigration of Jewish architects, architecture has come to reflect different styles. In the early 20th century Jewish architects sought to combine Occidental and Oriental architecture producing buildings that showcase a myriad of infused styles.{{Cite web |title=Eclectic–Modern \ Tel Aviv Museum of Art |url=https://www.tamuseum.org.il/en/exhibition/eclecticmodern/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=tamuseum.org.il |language=en}} The eclectic style gave way to the modernist Bauhaus style with the influx of German Jewish architects (among them Erich Mendelsohn) fleeing Nazi persecution.{{Cite web |title="Erich Mendelsohn: Berlin – Jerusalem" Photography by Carsten Krohn {{!}} Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv |url=https://bauhaus-center.com/gallery-art-exhibition/erich-mendelsohn-berlin-jerusalem-photography-by-carsten-krohn/ |access-date=2023-10-27 |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title=Erich Mendelsohn |url=https://wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il/about/erich-mendelsohn |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=Weizmann Wonder Wander |language=en}} The White City of Tel Aviv is a UNESCO heritage site.{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=White City of Tel-Aviv – the Modern Movement |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1096/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}} Following independence, multiple government projects were commissioned, a grand part built in a brutalist style with heavy emphasis on the use of concrete and acclimatisation to the desert climate.{{Cite web |last=Constantinoiu |first=Marina |date=2021-04-21 |title=In Tel Aviv, amazing Brutalist architecture hides in plain sight |url=https://www.israel21c.org/in-tel-aviv-amazing-brutalist-architecture-hides-in-plain-sight/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=ISRAEL21c |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=2019-01-12 |title=Beyond Bauhaus – The allure of Israeli Brutalism |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/brutally-beautiful-576859 |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en-US}}

Several novel ideas such as the Garden City were implemented in Israeli cities; the Geddes plan of Tel Aviv became renowned internationally for its revolutionary design and adaptation to the local climate.{{Cite web |title=Sir Patrick Geddes Plan for Tel-Aviv |url=https://magazine.esra.org.il/posts/entry/sir-patrick-geddes.html |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=ESRAmagazine |language=en-gb}} The design of kibbutzim also came to reflect ideology, such as the planning of the circular kibbutz Nahalal by Richard Kauffmann.{{Cite journal |last1=Amir |first1=Eyal |last2=Churchman |first2=Arza |last3=Wachman |first3=Avraham |date=October 2005 |journal=Housing, Theory and Society |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=147–165 |doi=10.1080/14036090510040313 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248979674 |title=The Kibbutz Dwelling: Ideology and Design|s2cid=145220156 }}

{{Main|Media of Israel}}

Media is diverse, reflecting the spectrum of audiences. Notable newspapers include the leftwing Haaretz,{{cite web |date=16 September 2008 |title=Israel — Hebrew- and English-Language Media Guide |url=https://fas.org/irp/dni/osc/israelmedia.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508142637/https://fas.org/irp/dni/osc/israelmedia.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2021 |access-date=15 July 2022 |publisher=Open Source Center}} centrist Yedioth Ahronoth,{{Cite web |date=2005-02-25 |title=Israeli Newspaper Brawl Moving to the Internet |url=https://forward.com/news/2979/israeli-newspaper-brawl-moving-to-the-internet/ |access-date=2024-07-24 |website=The Forward |language=en}} and center-right Israel Hayom.{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Israel |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=9781442271852 |editor1=Bernard Reich |page=271 |editor2=David H. Goldberg}} There are several major TV channels which cater to different audiences, from Russian-language Channel 9Russian TV channel Israel Plus sees loss, Haaretz, 2 December 2013 to Arabic-language Kan 33.{{Cite news |last=Tucker |first=Nati |date=12 September 2019 |title=Israel's Only Private Arabic TV Channel Thrives After Help From Surprising Ally |work=Haaretz}} The 2024 Freedom House report found Israeli media is "vibrant and free to criticise government policy".{{Cite web |title=Israel: Freedom in the World 2024 Country Report |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/israel/freedom-world/2024 |access-date=2024-07-24 |website=Freedom House |language=en}} In the 2024 Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, Israel was placed 101st of 180 countries, second in the Middle East and North Africa.{{cite web |date=2024 |title=2024 World Press Freedom Index |url=https://rsf.org/en/index?year=2024 |access-date=30 May 2024 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}{{cite web |date=2024 |title=Middle East – North Africa Journalism throttled by political pressure |url=https://rsf.org/en/classement/2024/middle-east-north-africa |access-date=30 May 2024 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders}} Reporters Without Borders noted that the Israel Defence Forces had killed more than 100 journalists in Gaza. Since the Gaza war, Israel had been "been trying to suppress the reporting coming out of the besieged enclave while disinformation infiltrates its own media ecosystem". In May 2024, Israel shut down the local offices of Al Jazeera.{{Cite news |last=Sharon |first=Jeremy |date=May 7, 2024 |title=Shin Bet report that led to closure of Al Jazeera is 'classified,' won't be released |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/shin-bet-report-that-led-to-closure-of-al-jazeera-is-classified-wont-be-released/ |work=Times of Israel}} Israel later briefly seized equipment belonging to the Associated Press, saying that its video stream of Gaza was being provided to Al Jazeera; after an intervention by the U.S. government the equipment was returned.{{Cite news |last=Beaumont |first=Peter |date=2024-05-30 |title=Israeli journalist describes threats over reporting on spy chief and ICC |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/may/30/journalist-threatened-over-reporting-on-spy-chief-and-icc-israeli-newspaper-says |access-date=2024-05-30 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}{{cite web | author=The Associated Press | title=Israeli officials seize AP equipment and take down live shot of northern Gaza, citing new media law | website=The Associated Press | date=May 21, 2024 | url=https://www.ap.org/media-center/ap-in-the-news/2024/israeli-officials-seize-ap-equipment-and-take-down-live-shot-of-northern-gaza-citing-new-media-law/ | access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cite web | last=Rasgon | first=Adam | title=Israel Says It Will Return Camera It Seized From AP | website=The New York Times | date=May 21, 2024 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/21/world/middleeast/israel-ap-al-jazeera-cameras.html | access-date=August 5, 2024}}

{{Main list|List of Israeli museums}}

File:Billy Rose Art Garden (14755133799).jpg, repository of the Dead Sea Scrolls in Jerusalem]]

The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions{{cite web |url=http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/page_1465?c0=14896&bsp=14393 |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |title=About the Museum |access-date=13 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302154234/http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/page_1465?c0=14896&bsp=14393 |archive-date=2 March 2013 }} and houses the Dead Sea Scrolls,{{cite web |url=http://www.imj.org.il/eng/shrine/index.html |publisher=The Israel Museum, Jerusalem |title=Shrine of the Book |access-date=13 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709044752/https://www.imj.org.il/eng/shrine/index.html |archive-date=9 July 2007 }} along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art. The Yad Vashem is the world central archive of Holocaust-related information.{{cite web |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/about/index.asp |publisher=Yad Vashem |title=About Yad Vashem |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314132026/http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/about/index.asp |archive-date=14 March 2012 }} ANU - Museum of the Jewish People is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.{{cite web |url=http://www.bh.org.il/about-us.aspx |publisher=Beth Hatefutsoth |title=Museum Information |access-date=13 August 2007 }}

Israel has the highest number of museums per capita.{{Cite web |last=Ahituv |first=Netta |date=2017-07-12 |title=10 of Israel's best museums |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/best-israel-museums/index.html |access-date=2024-08-01 |website=CNN |language=en}} Several museums are devoted to Islamic culture, including the Rockefeller Museum and the L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art, both in Jerusalem. The Rockefeller specialises in archaeological remains from Middle East history. It is also the home of the first hominid fossil skull found in West Asia, called Galilee Man.{{cite book|url={{Google books|4Z0YrPfeHa8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|title=Through the Ages in Palestinian Archaeology: An Introductory Handbook |page=50|first=Walter E.|last=Rast|year=1992|isbn=978-1-56338-055-6|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group}} "Galilee man" (lowercase "m") in this source is a typo – ref. Solo Man, Peking Man and so forth.

File:Food in Israel.jpg, hummus, French fries and Israeli salad]]

Israeli cuisine includes local dishes as well as Jewish cuisine brought to the country by immigrants. Particularly since the late 1970s, a fusion cuisine has developed. The cuisine has adapted elements of the Mizrahi, Sephardi, and Ashkenazi styles of cooking. It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in the Levantine, Arab, Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines, such as falafel, hummus, shakshouka, couscous, and za'atar. Schnitzel, pizza, hamburgers, French fries, rice and salad are common.

Roughly half of the Jewish population attests to keeping kosher at home.Uzi Rebhun, Lilakh Lev Ari, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CG-WQZDJdo8C&pg=PA113 American Israelis: Migration, Transnationalism, and Diasporic Identity,] Brill, 2010 pp. 112–113.{{harvnb|Bernstein|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FYXlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA227 227], [https://books.google.com/books?id=FYXlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233 233–234]}} Kosher restaurants make up around a quarter of the total {{As of|2015|lc=y}}.Yael Raviv, [https://books.google.com/books?id=KjuYCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT119 Falafel Nation,] University of Nebraska Press, 2015 Together with non-kosher fish, rabbits and ostriches, pork—often called "white meat" in Israel{{harvnb|Bernstein|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FYXlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA232 231–233]}}—is produced and consumed, though it is forbidden by both Judaism and Islam.{{cite news |author=Jeffrey Yoskowitz |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/faithbased/2012/08/israel_s_pork_problem_and_what_it_means_for_the_country_s_christian_arabs_.single.html|work=Slate|title=Israel's Pork Problem|date=8 August 2012 |access-date=28 December 2015}}

{{Main|Sport in Israel}}

File:ירוק עולה.jpg fans at Sammy Ofer Stadium in the city of Haifa]]

The most popular spectator sports in Israel are association football and basketball.{{sfn|Torstrick|2004|p=141}} The Israeli Premier League is the country's premier football league, and the Israeli Basketball Premier League is the premier basketball league.{{cite web |url=http://www.basket.co.il/Data.asp?id=1&lang=en |publisher=Winner Basketball Super League |title=Basketball Super League Profile |access-date=13 August 2007 }} Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are the largest football clubs. Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in the UEFA Champions League and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the UEFA Cup quarter-finals. Israel hosted and won the 1964 AFC Asian Cup; in 1970 the Israel national football team qualified for the FIFA World Cup, the only time it participated. The 1974 Asian Games, held in Tehran, were the last Asian Games in which Israel participated, plagued by Arab countries that refused to compete with Israel. Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games and since then has not competed in Asian sport events.{{cite web |url=http://www.jta.org/1976/07/26/archive/israel-barred-from-asian-games |title=Israel Barred from Asian Games |publisher=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |date=26 July 1976 |access-date=11 April 2014}} In 1994, UEFA agreed to admit Israel, and its football teams now compete in Europe. Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball six times.{{cite web|url=http://www.euroleague.net/final-four/milan-2014/maccabi-electra-tel-aviv |title=Maccabi Electra Tel Aviv – Welcome to EUROLEAGUE BASKETBALL |access-date=30 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625083458/http://www.euroleague.net/final-four/milan-2014/maccabi-electra-tel-aviv |archive-date=25 June 2014 }}

Israel has won nine Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics.{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/israel |publisher=International Olympic Committee |title=Israel |access-date=20 March 2012}} Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games and is ranked 20th in the all-time medal count. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel.{{cite web |url=http://www.paralympic.org/paralympic-games/tel-aviv-1968 |title=Tel Aviv 1968 |publisher=International Paralympic Committee |access-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320024849/http://www.paralympic.org/paralympic-games/tel-aviv-1968 |archive-date=20 March 2012 }} The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish and Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since. Krav Maga, a martial art developed by Jewish ghetto defenders, is used by the Israeli security forces and police.{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988284,00.html|url-access=subscription|title=Choke! Gouge! Smash!|last=Ellis|first=Judy|magazine=Time |date=4 May 1998|access-date=1 January 2017}}

Chess is a leading sport. There are many Israeli grandmasters and Israeli chess players have won a number of youth world championships.{{cite news | url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/pawn-stars-shine-in-new-national-sport-1.317002 | title=Pawn stars shine in new 'national sport' | newspaper=Haaretz | access-date=21 May 2012| date=4 October 2010 }} Israel stages an annual international championship and hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005.

• Index of Israel-related articles
• Outline of Israel

{{Reflist|group=fn}}

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

{{Refbegin|2}}

• {{cite book | last=Ben-Ami | first=Shlomo | title=Scars of war, wounds of peace: the Israeli-Arab tragedy | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town | date=2007 | isbn=978-0-19-532542-3}}
• {{cite book | last=Finkelstein | first=Norman | title=Gaza | publisher=Univ of California Press | publication-place=Oakland, California | date=2018-01-09 | isbn=978-0-520-96838-7}}
• {{cite book|last=Dieckhoff|first=Alain| title=The Invention of a Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1m_w5J0X7lUC&pg=PA|year=2003|publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-12766-0}}
• {{cite book|last=Avineri|first=Shlomo|author-link =Shlomo Avineri|title=The Making of Modern Zionism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1UovgAACAAJ&pg=PA|year=2017|publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-09479-0}}
• {{cite book|last=Shimoni| first =Gideon|title=The Zionist ideology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nthtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA|year=1995|publisher=University Press of New England/Brandeis University Press |isbn=978-0-87451-703-3}}
• {{cite book |title=Israel's Quest for Recognition and Acceptance in Asia: Garrison State Diplomacy|last=Abadi|first=Jacob|isbn=978-0-7146-5576-5|publisher=Routledge|year=2004}}
• {{cite book|title=The Original Story: God, Israel and the World|last1=Barton|first1=John|last2=Bowden|first2=Julie |author-link=John Barton (theologian)|isbn=978-0-8028-2900-9|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|year=2004}}
• {{cite book | last = Bascomb | first = Neal | author-link = Neal Bascomb | title = Hunting Eichmann: How a Band of Survivors and a Young Spy Agency Chased Down the World's Most Notorious Nazi | year = 2009 | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-618-85867-5 | title-link = Hunting Eichmann }}
• {{cite book |title=A History of the Jewish People |last=Ben-Sasson |first=Hayim |year=1985 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Bernstein |first=Julia |year=2010 |title=Food for Thought: Transnational Contested Identities and Food Practices of Russian-Speaking Jewish Migrants in Israel and Germany |publisher=Campus Verlag |isbn=978-3-593-39252-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYXlAgAAQBAJ}}
• {{cite book|title=A History of Israel|last=Bregman|first=Ahron |isbn=978-0-333-67631-8|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2002 |author-link=Ahron Bregman |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofisrael0000breg}}
• {{cite book|last1=Broughton|first1=Simon|last2=Ellingham |first2=Mark|last3=Trillo|first3=Richard|year=1999|title=World Music: The Rough Guide |isbn=978-1-85828-635-8|publisher=Rough Guides |url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetoworl00simo}}
• {{cite book|title=Holocaust City: The Making of a Jewish Ghetto|last=Cole|first=Tim|isbn=978-0-415-92968-4|year=2003 |publisher=Routledge}}
• {{cite book | last=Fischbach | first=Michael | title=Jewish Property Claims Against Arab Countries | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2008 |isbn=978-0-231-51781-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38xyBIqKgkwC&pg=PA27 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Faust |first1=Avraham |chapter=The Exodus Group |editor-last1=Levy |editor-first1=Thomas E. |editor-last2=Schneider |editor-first2=Thomas |editor-last3=Propp |editor-first3=William H. C. |title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience |date=28 March 2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-04768-3 |language=en}}
• {{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |title=The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts |date=6 March 2002 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-2338-6 |language=en}}
• {{cite book|last=Fraser|first=T.G.|title=The Arab-Israeli Conflict|url={{Google books|IBJrQgAACAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=12 May 2013|year=2004|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Limited|isbn=978-1-4039-1338-8}}
• {{cite book|title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War|last=Gelvin|first=James L.|author-link=James L. Gelvin |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-521-85289-0}}
• {{cite book|title=The Routledge Atlas Of The Arab–Israeli conflict|last=Gilbert|first=Martin|isbn=978-0-415-35900-9|year=2005 |publisher=Routledge|edition=8th}}
• {{cite book|title=The Climate of Israel: Observation, Research and Application|last=Goldreich|first=Yair|isbn=978-0-306-47445-3|year=2003 |publisher=Springer}}
• {{cite book|title=Warfare and the Third World|last1=Harkavy|first1=Robert E.|last2=Neuman|first2=Stephanie G.|year=2001|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-24012-7}}
• {{cite book|title=Brassey's International Intelligence Yearbook|edition=2003|last=Henderson|first=Robert D'A.|publisher=Brassey's Inc. |year=2003|isbn=978-1-57488-550-7}}
• {{cite book|title=The Jewish State|last=Herzl|first=Theodor|author-link=Theodor Herzl|publisher=American Zionist Emergency Council |year=1946|isbn=978-0-486-25849-2}}
• {{cite journal |last=Imseis |first=Ardi |date=Winter 2021 |title=The United Nations Plan of Partition for Palestine Revisited: On the Origins of Palestine's International Legal Subalternality |journal=Stanford Journal of International Law |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=1–54 |url=https://law.queensu.ca/sites/lawwww/files/files/Professors/UN%20Plan%20of%20Partition%20Revisited.pdf}}
• {{cite book|title=Society and Settlement: Jewish Land of Israel in the Twentieth Century|last=Kellerman|first=Aharon|year=1993 |publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1295-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/societysettlemen0000kell}}
• {{cite book |last=Killebrew |first=Ann E. |title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300-1100 B.C.E. |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-58983-097-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC}}
• {{cite book|title=Theodor Herzl: From Assimilation to Zionism|last=Kornberg|first=Jacques|isbn=978-0-253-33203-5 |publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1993}}
• {{cite book|title=For the Land and the Lord: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel|last=Lustick|first=Ian|isbn=978-0-87609-036-7 |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations Press|year=1988 |url=https://archive.org/details/forlandlordjewis0000lust}}
• {{cite book|title=Israel's Higher Law: Religion and Liberal Democracy in the Jewish State|last=Mazie|first=Steven |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006|isbn=978-0-7391-1485-8}}
• {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Benny |author-link=Benny Morris |date=2008 |title=1948: A History of the First Arab–Israeli War |url={{Google books|J5jtAAAAMAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-14524-3}}
• {{cite book|title=Triumph of the File: The Media's War in the Persian Gulf — A Global Perspective|last1=Mowlana|first1=Hamid |last2=Gerbner|first2=George|last3=Schiller|first3=Herbert I.|year=1992|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-1610-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/triumphofimageme0000unse}}
• {{cite report |author-link=OECD|author=OECD|date=2011 |title=Study on the Geographic Coverage of Israeli Data |publisher=OECD |url=https://www.oecd.org/els/48442642.pdf}}
• {{cite book |last1=Redmount |first1=Carol A. |chapter=The Literary and Historical Character of the Exodus Narrative |editor-last1=Coogan |editor-first1=Michael D. |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |date=7 June 2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-988148-2 |language=en}}
• {{cite journal|last=Roberts|first=Adam|author-link=Adam Roberts (scholar)|title=Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967|journal=The American Journal of International Law|volume=84|issue=1|year=1990|pages=44–103 |doi=10.2307/2203016 |jstor=2203016 |s2cid=145514740}}
• {{cite book|title=A Historical Atlas of Israel|last=Romano |first=Amy|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8239-3978-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000roma_r5h5}}
• {{cite book|title=The Economic Consequences of Zionism|last=Rosenzweig|first=Rafael|year=1997|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-90-04-09147-4}}
• {{cite book|title=Understanding Jewish History|last=Scharfstein|first=Sol|isbn=978-0-88125-545-4|year=1996|publisher=KTAV Publishing House}}
• {{cite book|title=1967: Israel, the War, and the Year that Transformed the Middle East|last=Segev|first=Tom|isbn=978-0-8050-7057-6|year=2007 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company}}
• {{cite book |title=Palestine: A Guide |last=Shahin |first=Mariam |year=2005 |publisher=Interlink Books |isbn=978-1-56656-557-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/palestine00mari}}
• {{cite book|title=The Land Beyond Promise: Israel, Likud and the Zionist Dream|last=Shindler|first=Colin |isbn=978-1-86064-774-1|year=2002 |publisher=I.B.Tauris Publishers}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Shlay |first1=Anne B. |last2=Rosen |first2=Gillad |title=Making Place: The Shifting Green Line and the Development of "Greater" Metropolitan Jerusalem |journal=City & Community |date=December 2010 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6040.2010.01344.x |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-6040.2010.01344.x |language=en |issn=1535-6841}}
• {{cite book|title=Deterring America: Rogue States and the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction|isbn=978-0-521-86465-7 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|last=Smith|first=Derek |url=https://archive.org/details/deterringamerica0000smit}}
• {{cite book|title=The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel|last=Stein|first=Leslie|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-275-97141-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/hopefulfilledris00lesl}}
• {{cite book|title=The Arabs in Israel|last=Stendel|first=Ori|isbn=978-1-898723-23-3|year=1997|publisher=Sussex Academic Press |url=https://archive.org/details/arabsinisrael00sten}}
• {{cite book|title=Critical Essays on Israeli Social Issues and Scholarship|last1=Stone|first1=Russell A.|last2=Zenner|first2=Walter P. |isbn=978-0-7914-1959-5|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1994}}
• {{cite book|title=Culture and Customs of Israel|last=Torstrick|first=Rebecca L.|isbn=978-0-313-32091-0|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Press}}

{{Refend}}

• {{cite web| title = Israel's apartheid against Palestinians

| publisher = Amnesty International

| url = https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2022/02/israels-system-of-apartheid/ | url-status = live

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231107210818/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2022/02/israels-system-of-apartheid/

| date = 1 February 2022 | access-date = 7 March 2024 | archive-date = 7 November 2023

| ref = {{harvid|Amnesty International: apartheid|2022}}

}}

• {{cite web| title = Apartheid

| publisher = B'Tselem

| url = https://www.btselem.org/apartheid | url-status = live

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240126010520/https://www.btselem.org/apartheid

| date = 12 January 2021 | access-date = 27 January 2024 | archive-date = 26 January 2024

| ref = {{harvid|B'Tselem: apartheid}}

}}

• {{Cite report| title = A Threshold Crossed: Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution

| last = Shakir | first = Omar

| publisher = Human Rights Watch

| url = https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/27/threshold-crossed/israeli-authorities-and-crimes-apartheid-and-persecution | url-status = live

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230117152618/https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/04/27/threshold-crossed/israeli-authorities-and-crimes-apartheid-and-persecution

| date = 27 April 2021 | access-date = 9 January 2024 | archive-date = 17 January 2023

}}

• {{cite web| title = Al-Haq Launches Landmark Palestinian Coalition Report: 'Israeli Apartheid: Tool of Zionist Settler Colonialism'

| publisher = Al-Haq

| url = https://www.alhaq.org/advocacy/20931.html | url-status = live

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240127194531/https://www.alhaq.org/advocacy/20931.html

| date = 29 November 2022 | access-date = 7 March 2024 | archive-date = 27 January 2024

| ref = {{harvid|Al-Haq|2022}}

}}

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• {{official website|https://www.gov.il/en/departments/prime_ministers_office/govil-landing-page}} of the Israel Prime Minister's Office
• {{official website|https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/Pages/default.aspx}} of the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
• [https://www.nli.org.il/en/discover/israel The Israel Collection] at the National Library of Israel
• [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14628835 Israel] at BBC News Online
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