lighthouse of Alexandria

Pharos was a small island located on the western edge of the Nile Delta. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria on an isthmus opposite Pharos. Alexandria and Pharos were later connected by a mole{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Sir William|title=Everyman's Smaller Classical Dictionary|year=1952|publisher=J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd|page=222}} spanning more than {{convert|1200|m|mi|abbr=off}}, which was called the Heptastadion ("seven stadia"—a stadion was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180 m).

The east side of the mole became the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west side lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour. Today's city development between the present Grand Square and the modern Ras el-Tin quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras el-Tin promontory, where Ras el-Tin Palace was built in the 19th century, represents all that is left of the island of Pharos,{{cite book|title=Vintage Alexandria: Photographs of the City, 1860–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ks2Q6szR2DwC|first=Michael|last=Haag|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|year=2008|isbn=9789774161926|page=113}} the site of the lighthouse at its eastern point having been weathered away by the sea.

File:Philip Galle - Lighthouse of Alexandria (Pharos of Alexandria) - 1572.jpg; 1572, Rijksmuseum]]

The lighthouse was constructed in the third century BC. After Alexander the Great died, Ptolemy the First (Ptolemy I Soter) declared himself king in 305 BC and commissioned its construction shortly thereafter. The building was finished during the reign of his son, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, and took twelve years to complete at a total cost of 800 talents of silver.Over twenty-three tons of silver. "This was an enormous sum, a tenth of the treasury when Ptolemy I assumed the throne. (In comparison, the Parthenon is estimated to have cost at least 469 talents of silver.)"[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/pharos.html] The light was produced by a furnace at the top, and the tower was said to have been built mostly with solid blocks of limestone and granite.{{cite web|last1=Cartwright|first1=Mark|title=Lighthouse of Alexandria|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria/|website=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=2020-11-10}}

In his encyclopedic manuscript Geographica, Strabo, who visited Alexandria in the late first century BC, reported that Sostratus of Cnidus had a dedication to the "Saviour Gods" inscribed in metal letters on the lighthouse. Writing in the first century AD, Pliny the Elder stated in his Natural History that Sostratus was the architect, although this conclusion is disputed.{{cite book|last=Tomlinson|first=Richard Allan|title=From Mycenae to Constantinople: the evolution of the ancient city|year=1992|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-05998-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNEOAAAAQAAJ&q=pliny+Sostratus++lighthouse&pg=PA105|pages=104–105}} In his second century AD educational treatise How to Write History, Lucian claimed that Sostratus hid his name under plaster which bore the name of Ptolemy, so that when the plaster eventually fell off, Sostratus's name would be visible in the stone.{{cite book|last=Mckenzie|first=Judith|title=Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt 300 B.C. A.D 700|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-11555-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KFNCaZEZKYAC&pg=PA41|page=41}}Lucian How to Write History, LXII

After he [Sostratus] had built the work he wrote his name on the masonry inside, covered it with gypsum, and having hidden it inscribed the name of the reigning king. He knew, as actually happened, that in a very short time the letters would fall away with the plaster and there would be revealed: 'Sostratus of Cnidos, the son of Dexiphanes, to the Divine Saviours, for the sake of them that sail at sea.' Thus, not even he had regard for the immediate moment or his own brief lifetime: he looked to our day and eternity, as long as the tower shall stand and his skill abide. History then should be written in that spirit, with truthfulness and an eye to future expectations rather than with adulation and a view to the pleasure of present praise.

The blocks of sandstone and limestone used in the construction of the lighthouse have been scientifically analysed to discover where they originated, with mineralogical and chemical analysis pointing to the Wadi Hammamat quarries, in the desert to the east of Alexandria.{{cite web|title=Characterization and Source of Sedimentary Rocks of the Alexandria Lighthouse Archaeological Objects, Egypt|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252071415|website=ResearchGate|access-date=2020-11-10}}

File:PHAROS_Scale_Comparison.jpg

Arab descriptions of the lighthouse are consistent despite it undergoing several repairs after earthquake damage. Given heights vary only fifteen percent from {{convert|103|to|118|m|abbr=on|disp=b|ft}}, on a {{convert|30|by|30|m|abbr=on|disp=b|ft}} square base.

The Arab authors indicate that the lighthouse was constructed from large blocks of light-coloured stone. The tower was made up of three tapering tiers: a lower square section with a central core; a middle octagonal section; and, at the top, a circular section.{{Cite web|title=lighthouse of Alexandria {{!}} History, Location, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/lighthouse-of-Alexandria|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}} Al-Masudi wrote in the 10th century that the seaward side featured an inscription dedicated to Zeus.{{cite book|author=Paul Jordan|title=Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|url=https://archive.org/details/sevenwondersofan0000jord|url-access=registration|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-86885-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/sevenwondersofan0000jord/page/44 44]}} Geographer Al-Idrisi visited the lighthouse in 1154 and noted openings in the walls throughout the rectangular shaft with lead used as a filling agent in between the masonry blocks at the base. He reckoned the total height of the lighthouse to be 300 dhira rashashl (162 m).

At its apex was a mirror which reflected sunlight during the day; a fire was lit at night. Extant Roman coins struck by the Alexandrian mint show that a statue of Triton was positioned on each of the building's four corners, and a statue of Poseidon or Zeus stood on top.Haas 1997, p. 144.

The fullest description of the lighthouse comes from Arab traveller Abou Haggag Youssef Ibn Mohammed el-Balawi el-Andaloussi, who visited Alexandria in 1166.Clayton & Price 1988, p. 153. Balawi provided a description and measurement of the interior of the lighthouse's rectangular shaft. The inner ramp was described as roofed with masonry at 7 shibr (189 cm, 6.2 ft), noted as to allow two horsemen to pass at once. In clockwise rotation, the ramp held four storeys with eighteen, fourteen, and seventeen rooms on the second, third, and fourth floors, respectively.

Balawi reported the base of the lighthouse to be 45 ba (30 m, 100 ft) long on each side with connecting ramp 600 dhira (300 m, 984 ft) long by 20 dhira (10 m, 32 ft) wide. The octagonal section was 24 ba (16.4 m, 54 ft) in width, and the diameter of the cylindrical section 12.73 ba (8.7 m, 28.5 ft). The apex of the lighthouse's oratory was measured with diameter 6.4 ba (4.3 m 20.9 ft).{{Cite journal|last=Behrens-Abouseif|first=Doris|date=2006-01-01|title=The Islamic History of the Lighthouse of Alexandria|journal=Muqarnas Online|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1163/22118993-90000093|issn=0732-2992}}

Later accounts of the lighthouse after the destruction by the 1303 Crete earthquake include Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan scholar and explorer, who passed through Alexandria in 1326 and 1349. Battuta noted that the wrecked condition of the lighthouse was then only noticeable by the rectangle tower and entrance ramp. He stated the tower to be 140 shibr (30.8 m, 101 ft) on each side. Battuta detailed Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad's plan to build a new lighthouse near the site of the collapsed one, but these went unfulfilled after the Sultan's death in 1341.

File:PhareAlexandrie.jpg|The lighthouse on coins minted in Alexandria in the second century AD (1: reverse of a coin of Antoninus Pius, and 2: reverse of a coin of Commodus)

File:Leuchtturm von Alexandria.png|A 3D reconstruction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria

The lighthouse was partially cracked and damaged by earthquakes in 796 and 951, followed by structural collapse in the earthquake of 956, and then again in 1303. Earthquakes propagate from two well known tectonic boundaries, the African–Arabian and Red Sea Rift zones, respectively 350 and 520 km from the lighthouse's location. Documentation shows the 956 earthquake to be the first to cause structural collapse of the top 20 metres of the construction.{{Cite journal|last1=Abdelnaby|first1=Adel E.|last2=Elnashai|first2=Amr S.|date=October 2013|title=Integrity assessment of the Pharos of Alexandria during the 1303 CE earthquake|journal=Engineering Failure Analysis|volume=33|pages=119–138|doi=10.1016/j.engfailanal.2013.04.013}}

Documented repairs after the 956 earthquake include the installation of an Islamic-style dome after the collapse of the statue that previously topped the structure. The most destructive earthquake in 1303 had an estimated intensity of VIII+ originating from Crete (280–350 km from Alexandria).{{Cite journal|last1=Abdelnaby|first1=Adel E.|last2=Elnashai|first2=Amr S.|date=October 2013|title=Integrity assessment of the Pharos of Alexandria during the 1303 CE earthquake|journal=Engineering Failure Analysis|volume=33|pages=119–138|doi=10.1016/j.engfailanal.2013.04.013}} The stubby remnant disappeared in 1480, when the sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay, built a medieval fort on the larger platform of the lighthouse site using the fallen stone.

The 10th-century Arab writer al-Mas'udi reports a legendary tale of the lighthouse's destruction, according to which Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ({{reign|705|715}}) the Byzantines sent a eunuch agent, who adopted Islam, gained the caliph's confidence and secured permission to search for hidden treasure at the base of the lighthouse. The search was cunningly made in such a manner that the foundations were undermined, and the Pharos collapsed. The agent managed to escape in a ship waiting for him.{{sfn|Eickhoff|1966|p=40}}

File:AlexLighthouse01.jpg]]

Gaston Jondet made the first detailed description of the submerged ruins of the old port of Alexandria in 1916. He was followed by Raymond Weill in the same year, and by Sir Leopold Halliday Savile in 1940.[http://www.ancientportsantiques.com/a-few-ports/alexandria-pharos-island/ Alexandria Pharos island][https://escholarship.org/content/qt9h10f4qf/qt9h10f4qf_noSplash_3376dcd0ed7bb96927ab96c113388f2a.pdf The Nile River Delta Coast and Alexandria Seaport, Egypt: A Brief Overview of History, Problems, and Mitigation]

In 1968, the lighthouse was rediscovered. UNESCO sponsored an expedition to send a team of marine archaeologists, led by Honor Frost, to the site. She confirmed the existence of ruins representing part of the lighthouse. Due to the lack of specialised archaeologists and the area becoming a military zone, exploration was put on hold.Frost, H. (2000). From Byblos to Pharos: some archaeological considerations. In N. Grimal, M. H. Mostafa, & D. Nakashima (Authors), Underwater archaeology and coastal management: Focus on Alexandria (pp. 64–68). Paris: UNESCO.

A team of French archaeologists led by Jean-Yves Empereur re-discovered the physical remains of the lighthouse in late 1994 on the floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour. He worked with cinematographer Asma el-Bakri who used a 35 mm camera to take the first underwater pictures of the scattered remains of collapsed columns and statues. Empereur's most significant findings consisted of blocks of granite 49–60 tonnes in mass often broken into multiple pieces, 30 sphinxes, 5 obelisks and columns with carvings dating back to Ramses II (1279–1213 BC).

The cataloguing of over 3,300 pieces was completed by Empereur and his team at the end of 1995 using a combination of photography and mapping. Thirty-six pieces of Empereur's granite blocks and other discoveries have been restored and are on display in Alexandria museums.{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/raising-alexandria-151005550/|title=Raising Alexandria|last=Lawler|first=Andrew|website=Smithsonian|access-date=2019-04-29}} Satellite imaging has revealed further remains. In the early 1990s, the underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio began exploration at the opposite side of the harbour from where Empereur's team had worked.Franck Goddio's [https://www.franckgoddio.org/projects/sunken-civilizations/alexandria.html/ Excavations in Alexandria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927004211/https://www.franckgoddio.org/projects/sunken-civilizations/alexandria.html |date=September 27, 2021 }}

Satellite and sonar imaging has revealed the additional remains of wharves, houses and temples which had all fallen into the Mediterranean as a result of earthquakes and other natural disasters.{{Cite journal|last=Boukhari|first=Sophie|date=February 1997|title=Swimming With Sphinxes|journal=UNESCO|volume=87}} It is possible to go diving and see the ruins. In 2012 the secretariat of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was working with the Government of Egypt on an initiative to add the Bay of Alexandria (including the remains of the lighthouse) to a World Heritage List of submerged cultural sites.{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/museums-and-tourism/ |title=Museums and Tourism – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |work=unesco.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110234435/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/museums-and-tourism |archive-date=November 10, 2012 }}{{clear left}}

File:Mosaic Ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria.jpg, c. 4th century AD]]

Legend has it that the people of the island of Pharos were wreckers; hence, Ptolemy I Soter had the lighthouse built to help guide ships into port at night.Clayton, Price, & Price, Martin. (1988). The seven wonders of the ancient world. London; New York: Routledge.

The etymology of "Pharos" is uncertain. The word became generalised in modern Greek to mean "lighthouse" (φάρος 'fáros'), and was borrowed by many Romance languages such as Catalan or Romanian (far), French (phare), Italian and Spanish (faro) – and thence into Esperanto (faro), and Portuguese (farol), and even some Slavic languages like Bulgarian (far). In French, Portuguese, Turkish, Serbian and Russian, a derived word means "headlight" (phare, farol, far, фар, фара).

Since 1978 proposals have been made to replace the lighthouse with a modern reconstruction. In 2015, the Egyptian government and the Alexandria governorate suggested building a skyscraper on the site of the lighthouse as part of the regeneration of the eastern harbour of Alexandria Port.{{cite web|title=A frightening vision: on plans to rebuild the Alexandria Lighthouse|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/north-africa-west-asia/amro-ali/frightening-vision-on-plans-to-rebuild-alexandria-lighthouse|work=openDemocracy|date=July 7, 2015|author=Amro Ali|access-date=July 14, 2017|archive-date=June 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612144016/https://www.opendemocracy.net/north-africa-west-asia/amro-ali/frightening-vision-on-plans-to-rebuild-alexandria-lighthouse|url-status=dead}}

The lighthouse remains a civic symbol of the city of Alexandria and of the Alexandria Governorate with which the city is more or less coterminous. A stylised representation of the lighthouse appears on the flag and seal of the Governorate and on many public services of the city, including the seal of Alexandria University.

• A well-preserved ancient tomb in the town of Abusir, {{convert|48|km}} southwest of Alexandria, is thought to be a scaled-down model of the Alexandria Pharos. Known colloquially under various names – the Pharos of Abusir, the Abusir funerary monument and Burg al-Arab (Arab's Tower) – it consists of a 3-storey tower, approximately {{convert|20|m}} in height, with a square base, an octagonal midsection and cylindrical upper section, like the building upon which it was apparently modelled. It dates to the reign of Ptolemy II (285–246 BC), and is therefore likely to have been built at about the same time as the Alexandria Pharos.
• The design of minarets in many early Egyptian Islamic mosques followed a three-stage design similar to that of the Pharos, attesting to the building's broader architectural influence.{{cite book|last=Petersen|first=Andrew|title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIaEAgAAQBAJ|page=188|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=9781134613663}}
• The George Washington Masonic National Memorial, located in Alexandria, Virginia, is fashioned after the ancient Lighthouse."*Ferris, Gary W. Presidential Places: A Guide to the Historic Sites of U.S. Presidents. Winston-Salem, N.C.: J.F. Blair, 1999. p.21"
• A fictionalized version of the structure – known as the "Pharos Lighthouse" – serves as the park icon, centerpiece, and identifier of Universal Islands of Adventure theme park, opened in 1999 at the Universal Orlando Resort. The real, functioning lighthouse resides in the park's Port of Entry area.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

• Julius Caesar, in his Civil Wars (Part III, 111–112), describes the Pharos and its strategic importance. Gaining control of the lighthouse helped him subdue Ptolemy XIII's armies (48 BC):

{{blockquote|source= Caesar, .civ.; or Anon.,.Alex |quote= Now because of the narrowness of the strait there can be no access by ship to the harbour without the consent of those who hold the Pharos. In view of this, Caesar took the precaution of landing his troops while the enemy was preoccupied with fighting, seized the Pharos and posted a garrison there. The result was that safe access was secured for his corn supplies and reinforcements.It was common for Caesar in his writings to refer to himself in the third person.}}

• The Romano-Jewish historian Josephus (37 – c. 100 AD) describes it in his book The Jewish War (4.10.5) when he gives a geographical overview of Egypt.
• It was described in the Zhu fan zhi ("Records of Foreign Peoples") by Zhao Rugua (1170–1228), a Chinese customs inspector for the southern port city of Quanzhou during the Song dynasty.Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. p. 662.
• Ibn Battuta visited the lighthouse in 1326, finding "one of its faces in ruins," yet he could enter and noted a place for the guardian of the lighthouse to sit and many other chambers. When he returned in 1349, he "found that it had fallen into so ruinous a condition that it was impossible to enter it or to climb up to the doorway".{{cite book|last1=Battutah|first1=Ibn|title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah|date=2002|publisher=Picador|location=London|isbn=9780330418799|pages=6–7}}

• In classical antiquity, an annual Jewish festival was held on the island of Pharos to honour the translation of the Jewish Scriptures into Greek, traditionally believed to have been completed there under Ptolemy II. On this occasion, a large Jewish crowd, along with some non-Jewish visitors, would gather on the beach for a grand picnic. Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BCE – c. 50 CE) shed light on the site's symbolism, writing that the Jews honoured "the place where the light of that translation first shone out," expressing gratitude to God for this gift.{{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M. G. |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |date=1998 |publisher=T&T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-08651-8 |edition= |location=Edinburgh |pages=424}}
• Pharos, the largest known impact crater and only named surface feature on Neptune's moon Proteus, is named after the island of Pharos.{{cite web | title = Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Pharos on Proteus | publisher = USGS Astrogeology | work = Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature | url = https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/4684?__fsk=-1708907535 | access-date = 4 November 2021

}}

File:Flag_of_Alexandria.svg|Flag of the Alexandria Governorate, featuring the lighthouse

File:Book of Wonders folio 36a cropped.jpg|The lighthouse as depicted in the Book of Wonders, a late 14th-century Arabic text

File:Pharos at Abuqir.jpg|The Pharos of Abusir, an ancient funerary monument thought to be modelled after the Pharos at Alexandria, with which it is approximately contemporaneous

• List of tallest structures built before the 20th century
• Minar (Firuzabad)
• Tower of Hercules, a Roman lighthouse in Spain

{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

Notes

{{Reflist}}

Bibliography

{{Refbegin|30em}}

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• Harris, William V., and Giovanni Ruffini (2004). Ancient Alexandria Between Egypt and Greece. Leiden: Brill.
• {{cite book |last1=Higgins |first1=Michael Denis|year=2023 |title=The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: Science, Engineering and Technology |place=New York, NY |publisher=Oxford University Press|ISBN=9780197648155}}

• {{cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=Michael Denis |date=2023 |title=A Reverse History of the Pharos Lighthouse of Alexandria: From the Underwater Remains to the First Structure. |url=https://anetoday.org/higgins-pharos-lighthouse-alexandria/ |journal=The Ancient Near East Today |volume=11 |issue=10 }}
• Jordan, Paul (2002). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Harlow: Longman.

• Polyzōidēs, Apostolos (2014). Alexandria: City of Gifts and Sorrows: From Hellenistic Civilization to Multiethnic Metropolis. Chicago: Sussex Academic Press, 2014.
• Thompson, Alice (2002). Pharos. London: Virago.
• Tkaczow, Barbara, and Iwona Zych (1993). The Topography of Ancient Alexandria: An Archaeological Map. Warszawa: Zaklad Archeologii Śródziemnomorskiej, Polskiej Akadmii Nauk.

{{Commons|Pharos of Alexandria|Lighthouse of Alexandria}}

• [https://www.worldhistory.org/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria/ Lighthouse of Alexandria]—World History Encyclopedia
• [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924023289345#page/n161/mode/2up Description of Alexandria and the Pharos] in the Zhu fan zhi
• [https://www.opendemocracy.net/north-africa-west-asia/amro-ali/frightening-vision-on-plans-to-rebuild-alexandria-lighthouse A frightening vision: on plans to rebuild the Alexandria Lighthouse] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612144016/https://www.opendemocracy.net/north-africa-west-asia/amro-ali/frightening-vision-on-plans-to-rebuild-alexandria-lighthouse |date=June 12, 2018 }})
• [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sunken/ PBS Nova episode about the recovery of artifacts from the site]

{{Seven Wonders of the Ancient World}}

{{Ancient Egypt topics}}

{{Ancient seafaring}}

{{Egypt topics}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lighthouse Of Alexandria}}

Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 3rd century BC

Category:Buildings and structures demolished in the 14th century

Category:1968 archaeological discoveries

Category:Buildings and structures in Alexandria

Category:Demolished buildings and structures in Egypt

Category:Hellenistic architecture

Category:Ancient lighthouses

Alexandria

Category:Ptolemaic Alexandria

Category:Transport in Alexandria

Category:Former towers

Category:Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

Category:Buildings and structures destroyed by earthquakes

Category:Maritime history of Egypt