loitering munition

File:Northrop AGM-136A Tacit Rainbow.jpg AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow on display at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force in Dayton, Ohio.]]Initially, loitering munitions were not referred to as such but rather as "suicide UAVs" or "loitering missiles". Different sources point at different projects as originating the weapon category. The failed US AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow program[https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/188865/Ethical%20Autonomy%20Working%20Paper_021015_v02.pdf An Introduction to Autonomy in Weapon Systems], pages 13–14, By: Paul Scharre and Michael C. Horowitz, CNAS Working paper, Feb 2015Loitering munitions fit in the niche between cruise missiles and unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs or combat drones), sharing characteristics with both. They differ from cruise missiles in that they are designed to loiter for a relatively long time around the target area, and from UCAVs in that a loitering munition is intended to be expended in an attack and has a built-in warhead. As such, they can also be considered a nontraditional ranged weapon.

[http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/1988/October%201988/1088uav.pdf Canan, James W. "Unmanned Aerial Vehicles." Air Force Magazine (1988).], page 87 or the 1980s initial Israeli Delilah variants[http://defense-update.com/20090614_loitering_weapons.html Loitering Weapons are making a Comeback], Defense Update, June 2009 are mentioned by some sources.[https://books.google.com/books?id=DB7xDQAAQBAJ&dq=Harpy+UAV&pg=PA106 Drone Strike!: UCAVs and Aerial Warfare in the 21st Century], By Bill Yenne, {{ISBN|9781580072526}}, pages 106–107 The Iranian Ababil-1 was produced in the 1980s but its exact production date is unknown.{{Cite web|url=https://www.pahpad.com/fa/news/348/%da%86%d9%87%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%85%db%8c%d9%86-%d9%82%d8%af%d8%b1%d8%aa-%d9%be%d9%87%d9%be%d8%a7%d8%af%db%8c-%d8%af%d9%86%db%8c%d8%a7-%d8%a7%d8%b2-%d8%b3%db%8c%d9%86%d9%85%d8%a7-%d8%aa%d8%a7-%d8%ac%d9%87%d8%a7%d9%86-%d9%86%d9%85%d8%a7|title=چهارمین قدرت پهپادی دنیا ؛ از سینما تا جهان نما|date=2021-08-13|website=موسسه پرنده های هدایت پذیر از دور}} The Israeli IAI Harpy was produced in the late 1980s.

File:Paris Air Show 2007-06-24 n25.jpg first-generation loitering munition for SEAD role.]]

Early projects did not use the "loitering munition" nomenclature, which emerged much later; they used terminology existing at the time. For instance the AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow was described in a 1988 article: {{Blockquote|text=the Tacit Rainbow unmanned jet aircraft being developed by Northrop to loiter on high and then swoop down on enemy radars could be called a UAV, a cruise missile, or even a standoff weapon. But it is most definitely not an RPV.|source=Canan, James W. [http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/1988/October%201988/1088uav.pdf "Unmanned Aerial Vehicles."] Air Force Magazine (1988), page 87}}

File:HERO DSEI IMG 6905.jpg

In response to the first generation of fixed-installation surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) such as S-75 and S-125, the U.S. military developed SEAD doctrine and Wild Weasel weapons, including anti-radiation missiles (ARMs) such as AGM-45 Shrike. The Soviet Union countered with mobile SAMs such as 2K12 Kub and intermittent use of radar.{{cite book|title=Principles of Modern Radar|url=https://archive.org/details/principlesmodern00eave|url-access=limited|first=Edward K.|last=Reedy|editor-first1=Jerry L.|editor-last1=Eaves|editor-first2=Edward K.|editor-last2=Reedy|date=1 January 1987|publisher=Springer US|pages=[https://archive.org/details/principlesmodern00eave/page/n677 681]–699|doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-1971-9_22|chapter = Radar ECCM Considerations and Techniques|isbn = 978-1-4612-9170-1}} In Israel's 1982 Operation Mole Cricket 19, UAVs and air-launched Samson decoys were used over suspected SAM areas to saturate enemy SAMs and to bait them to activate their radar systems, which were then attacked by ARMs.[http://www.iaf.org.il/625-19927-he/IAF.aspx Six Days in June (Hebrew)], IAF bulletin, issue 145, June 2002[http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-SAM-Effectiveness.html Surface to Air Missile Effectiveness in Past Conflicts], Technical Report APA-TR-2010-1001, Dr Carlo Kopp, AFAIAA, SMIEEE, PEng, October 2010

In the 1980s, programs such as the IAI Harpy and AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow integrated anti-radiation sensors into a drone or missile coupled with command and control and loitering capabilities. This allowed the attacking force to put relatively cheap munitions over suspected SAM sites, then attack when the SAM battery was spotted.[http://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/4760/meet-israels-suicide-squad-of-self-sacrificing-drones Meet Israel's 'Suicide Squad' of Self-Sacrificing Drones], August 2016, The Drive[http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a552529.pdf ADAPTIVE DISCRETE EVENT SIMULATION FOR ANALYSIS OF HARPY SWARM ATTACK]{{dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Brandon J. Cobb, Naval Postgraduate School, Thesis, September 2011{{cite web|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA420687.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170412145128/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA420687|url-status=live|archive-date=12 April 2017|title=Suminsby, Robert E. Fear no Evil: Unmanned combat air vehicles for suppression of enemy air defenses. AIR UNIV MAXWELL AFB AL AEROSPACE STUDIES INST, 2002.}}[http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2001/June/Pages/Loitering7024.aspx Loitering, Smart Cruise Missile Marketed to U.S. Navy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170412062613/http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2001/June/Pages/Loitering7024.aspx |date=12 April 2017 }}, National Defense, June 2001

File:NLOS-LS missile test launch from truck.jpg US prototype capable of launching LAM (loitering attack munition).]]

Starting in the 2000s, loitering weapons have been developed for additional roles from relatively long-range strikes and fire support[http://defense-update.com/20110914_fire-shadow-afghanistan.html British Army Sets to Deploy Fire Shadow Loitering Weapons to Afghanistan by Early 2012] Defense Update, September 2011 to tactical, very-short-range tactical use.[http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2011/July/Pages/MilitaryInvestigatesKillerDronesThatCanFitinRucksacks.aspx Military Investigates Killer Drones That Can Fit in Rucksacks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020170449/http://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/archive/2011/July/Pages/MilitaryInvestigatesKillerDronesThatCanFitinRucksacks.aspx |date=20 October 2011 }} National Defense, July 2011[https://medium.com/war-is-boring/a-tiny-missile-that-waits-overhead-silent-patient-and-deadly-6f5a0093cab0 A Tiny Missile That Waits Overhead—Silent, Patient and Deadly, WarIsBoring], January 2014[http://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2016/10/03/AeroVironment-producing-Switchblade-missiles-for-Army/1391475510902/ AeroVironment producing Switchblade missiles for Army] UPI, October 2016[http://defense-update.com/features/du-1-07/armedUAVs_8.htm Loitering Autonomous Weapons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205125341/http://defense-update.com/features/du-1-07/armedUAVs_8.htm |date=2013-02-05 }}, Defense Update, January 2007 In the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, an IAI Harop was used against a bus used as a troop transport for Armenian soldiers.[https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2016/04/05/israeli-made-kamikaze-drone-spotted-in-nagorno-karabakh-conflict/ Israeli-made kamikaze drone spotted in Nagorno-Karabakh conflict], Washington Post, April 2016 The ZALA Lancet and several Shahed drones, including the HESA Shahed 136, have been used by Russia in the Russian invasion of Ukraine, while Ukraine has fielded loitering munitions such as the UJ-25 Skyline and the American-made AeroVironment Switchblade, which is deployed to platoons and fits in a backpack.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

During conflicts in the 2010s and 2020s, conventional armies and non-state militants began modifying common commercial racing drones into "FPV loitering munitions" by the attachment of a small explosive, so-named because of the first-person view (FPV) they provide the operator. Explosive ordnance such as an IED, grenade, mortar round or an RPG warhead are fitted to an FPV drone then deployed to aerial bomb tactical targets. FPV drones also allow direct reconnaissance during the drone's strike mission.{{cite news |title=Why Ukraine's kamikaze racing drones are causing a buzz on and off the battlefield |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-04-01/fpv-racing-drone-kamikaze-attacks-ukraine-russia-war/102155702 |work=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=31 March 2023 |access-date=14 March 2023}}{{cite news |title=Ukraine Racing Drone Converted Into Loitering Munition Makes Precision Strike Through Doorway |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2022/08/01/ukraine-racing-drone-converted-into-loitering-munition-makes-precision-strike-through-doorway/?sh=69a1be2f6157 |work=Forbes |date=1 August 2022 |access-date=14 March 2023}}

After the Russian invasion of Ukraine began in 2022, both Russian and Ukrainian forces were producing thousands of FPV drones every month by October 2023, many of which were donated by volunteer groups.{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2023/10/11/russia-adds-thermal-imaging-to-fpv-kamikaze-drones/?sh=25b26dae4f7b|work=Forbes|title=Russia Adds Thermal Imaging To FPV Kamikaze Drones|date=11 October 2023|access-date=19 November 2023}} Escadrone Pegasus and the Vyriy Drone Molfar are two examples of the low-cost drones that rapidly evolved in 2022–23 during the war.{{cite news |title=Drones: Ukraine's Escadrone On The Skill Of Flying FPV Kamikazes |last=Hambling|first=David |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2023/05/05/pilots-not-dronesukraines-escadrone-on-the-skill-of-flying-fpv-kamikazes/?sh=32fb7e4c12b7 |work=Forbes |date=5 May 2023 |access-date=15 March 2023}} In 2022, the UK Government announced it was providing "hundreds of loitering munitions" to Ukraine.{{Cite web |title=UK to send scores of artillery guns and hundreds of drones to Ukraine |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-to-send-scores-of-artillery-guns-and-hundreds-of-drones-to-ukraine |access-date=2024-09-13 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}} On 9 November 2023, Ukrainian soldiers claimed to have used a civilian-donated FPV drone to destroy a Russian Tor missile system on the Kupiansk front, showcasing the potential cost-effectiveness of fielding such munitions. A Tor missile system costs some $24 million dollars to build, which could buy 14,000 FPV drones.{{Cite news |date= 9 November 2023 |url= https://defence-blog.com/ukraines-tiny-drone-blows-up-russian-tor-air-defense-system/ |title= Ukraine's tiny drone blows up Russian Tor air defense system|first1=Dylan | last1=Malyasov |access-date= 10 November 2023 |work=Defense Blog}}{{Cite news |date= 8 November 2023 |url= https://bulgarianmilitary.com/2023/11/08/ukrainian-fpvs-killed-their-most-expensive-russian-target-tor-sam/|title= Ukrainian FPVs killed their most expensive Russian target – TOR SAM |first1=Boyko |last1=Nikolov |access-date= 10 November 2023 |work=Bulgarian Military}}

File:Delilah missile side.jpg.]]

Loitering munitions may be as simple as an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with attached explosives that is sent on a potential kamikaze mission, and may even be constructed with commercially-available quadcopters with strapped-on explosives.[http://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a23350/isis-using-kamikaze-drones-in-iraq/ ISIS Using Kamikaze Drones in Iraq], Popular Mechanics, October 2016

Purpose-built munitions are more elaborate in flight and control capabilities, warhead size and design, and onboard sensors for locating targets.[http://www.dror-aero.com/ac/iclean/iclean_fr.pdf iClean – Loitering Attack UCAV], Artzi Dror, Technion Institute of Technology, 2012 Some loitering munitions use a human operator to locate targets whereas others, such as IAI Harop, can function autonomously searching and launching attacks without human intervention.[http://defense-update.com/products/h/harop.html Israel Unveils Loitering Anti-Missile Drone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315003749/http://defense-update.com/products/h/harop.html |date=2018-03-15 }}, Defense Update, 2009[http://defense-update.com/directory/harpy.htm Harpy Air Defense Suppression System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211211849/http://defense-update.com/directory/harpy.htm |date=2017-12-11 }}, Defense Update, 2006 Another example is UVision HERO solutions – the loitering systems are operated remotely, controlled in real time by a communications system and equipped with an electro-optical camera whose images are received by the command and control station.{{Cite web|title=Loitering Munitions – High Precision Systems|url=https://uvisionuav.com/our-technology/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=UVision|language=en-US|archive-date=6 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506190110/https://uvisionuav.com/our-technology/|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|title=Unmanned Aerial Loitering Systems for Various Missions|url=https://uvisionuav.com/products/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=UVision|language=en-US}}

Some loitering munitions may return and be recovered by the operator if they are unused in an attack and have enough fuel; in particular this is characteristic of UAVs with a secondary explosive capability.[http://defense-update.com/20160216_rotem.html IAI's ROTEM – Tactical Multirotor Killer Drone], Defense Update, 2016 Other systems, such as the Delilah[http://www.iaf.org.il/2158-28495-he/IAF.aspx The Secrets of Delialah (Hebrew)], IAF bulletin, issue 184, December 2008[http://defense-update.com/20090614_delilah-loitering-missile.html Delilah – The IAF Loitering Missile], Defense Update, June 2009 do not have a recovery option and are self-destructed in mission aborts.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Russia uses ZALA Lancet drones in Ukraine. Since spring 2022 Ukrainian forces have been building cages around their artillery pieces using chain link fencing, wire mesh and even wooden logs as part of the construction. One analyst told Radio Liberty that such cages were "mainly intended to disrupt Russian Lancet munitions."{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} A picture supposedly taken from January 2023 shows the rear half of a Lancet drone that failed to detonate due to such cages. Likewise Ukrainian forces have used inflatable decoys and wooden vehicles, such as HIMARS, to confuse and deceive Lancet drones.{{Cite web |title=The Makeshift Armor Of The Ukraine War |author=Amos Chapple |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/makeshift-armor-ukraine-war-invasion-mad-max/32369222.html |date=18 April 2023 |website=rferl.org}}{{Cite web |title=Inflatable tanks and wooden HIMARS: Fake, but work exceptionally well |url=https://www.europeantimes.news/2023/04/inflatable-tanks-and-wooden-himars-fake-but-work-exceptionally-well/ |date=19 April 2023 |access-date=2023-04-21 |website=europeantimes.news}}

Ukrainian soldiers report shooting down Russian drones with sniper rifles.{{Cite web |title= Ukrainians say Russian drones pose growing threat, more Stingers needed |url= https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukrainians-say-russian-drones-pose-growing-threat-more-stingers-needed-2023-03-23/ |author= Mike Collett-White |date=24 March 2023 |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=reuters.com}} Russian soldiers use electronic warfare to disable or misdirect Ukrainian drones and have reportedly used the Stupor anti-drone rifle, which uses an electromagnetic pulse that disrupts a drone's GPS navigation.{{Cite web |title= How are 'kamikaze' drones being used by Russia and Ukraine? |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-62225830.amp |date=3 January 2023 |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=bbc.com}} A Royal United Services Institute study in 2022 found that Russian Electronic Warfare units, in March and April 2022, knocked out or shot down 90% of Ukrainian drones that they had at the start of the war in February 2022. The main success was in jamming GPS and radio links to the drones.{{Cite web |title= Russia's Electronic-Warfare Troops Knocked Out 90 Percent Of Ukraine's Drones |url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidaxe/2022/12/24/russia-electronic-warfare-troops-knocked-out-90-percent-of-ukraines-drones/?sh=685ea817575c | author= David Axe|date=24 December 2022 |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=forbes.com}}

Both Ukraine and Russia rely on electronic warfare to defeat FPV drones. Such jammers are now used on Ukrainian trenches and vehicles.{{Cite web |title= Ukrainian EW developer on anti-drone warfare – interview |url= https://english.nv.ua/nation/ukrainian-ew-developer-on-countering-russian-drones-interview-50389565.html|date=3 February 2024|access-date=2024-03-25|website= New Voice of Ukraine}} Russian forces have built jammers that can fit into a backpack.{{Cite web |title= Russia Deploys Radio-Jammers To Ground Ukraine's Drones. Just One Problem: The Jammers Don't Work.|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidaxe/2024/01/31/russia-deployed-radio-jammers-to-ground-ukraines-drones-just-one-problem-the-jammers-dont-work/?sh=51e3ae7320e6|date=31 January 2024|access-date=2024-03-25|website= Forbes}} Pocket-size jammers for soldiers were also developed.{{Cite web |title= The Invisible War: Inside the electronic warfare arms race that could shape course of war in Ukraine|url=https://kyivindependent.com/the-invisible-war-inside-the-electronic-warfare-arms-race-that-could-shape-course-of-the-war/|date=21 March 2024|access-date=2024-03-25|author=Oleksandr Tartachnyi|website= The Kyiv Independent}} As of June 2023 Ukraine was losing 5-10,000 drones a month, or 160 per day, according to

Ukrainian soldiers.{{cite web | url=https://breakingdefense.com/2023/06/dumb-and-cheap-when-facing-electronic-warfare-in-ukraine-small-drones-quantity-is-quality/ | title=Dumb and cheap: When facing electronic warfare in Ukraine, small drones' quantity is quality|author= SYDNEY J. FREEDBERG JR|date=13 June 2023| publisher=Breaking Defense }}

This has led to Russia creating wire guided FPV drones, similar to a wire-guided missile or even wire-guided torpedoes. Those drones typically have fibre optic cables 5-20 km in length. Such guidance makes the link between operators and FPV drone immune to jamming.{{cite web | url=https://www.twz.com/air/russia-now-looks-to-be-using-wire-guided-kamikaze-drones-in-ukraine | title=Russia Now Looks To Be Using Wire-Guided Kamikaze Drones In Ukraine|author= JOSEPH TREVITHICK|author2= TYLER ROGOWAY |date=8 March 2024| publisher=TWZ }} It also allows for much faster and better quality updates from the drone, even from locations where radio contact would be poor, and doesn't reveal operator's or drone's location by radio signals.{{Cite web |last=Mittal |first=Vikram |title=Ukraine And Russia Battle To Defeat "Un-jammable" Fiber-Optic Drones |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/vikrammittal/2025/01/19/ukraine-and-russia-battle-to-defeat-un-jammable-fiber-optic-drones/ |access-date=2025-01-26 |website=Forbes |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Panella |first=Chris |title=Russia appears to be using wired, unjammable fiber-optic drones that could fix a big problem its operators have faced in this war |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/russia-fiber-optic-unjammable-drones-fix-a-big-problem-war-2024-8 |access-date=2025-01-11 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}} They also need less power to communicate, and so can be used to idle on the ground for ambushes.{{Cite web |last=Hambling |first=David |title=New Drone Tactics Sealed Russian Victory In Kursk |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2025/03/17/new-drone-tactics-sealed-russian-victory-in-kursk/ |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=Forbes |language=en}} They have reduced range, payload and manoeuvrability compared to wireless drones,{{Cite web |title=Institute for the Study of War |url=https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-october-30-2024 |access-date=2024-10-31 |website=Institute for the Study of War|quote=A spokesperson of a Ukrainian brigade operating in the Zaporizhia Oblast reported on October 29 that Russian forces began using first person view drones with fiber optic wires stretching up to 10 kilometers in length against Ukrainian forces in the Zaporizhia direction. The spokesperson added that these drones are reportedly immune to Ukrainian electronic warfare (EW) systems and that Ukrainian personnel had to shoot down these drones with small arms. The spokesperson observed that these drones are susceptible to air defense systems, have greatly limited ranges, and are ineffective in dense urban settings. |language=en}}{{Cite news |last=Barnes |first=Joe |date=2025-01-10 |title=How Russia created 'unjammable' drone with a retro twist |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2025/01/10/russia-fibre-optic-drone-ukraine-war/ |access-date=2025-01-11 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}} although in practice, range and agility of the wired drones can be even higher than those of the radio-controlled ones, given their reduced control latency and increased surviability.{{Cite news |last=O'Grady |first=Siobhán |last2=Khudov |first2=Kostiantyn |last3=Korolchuk |first3=Serhii |last4=Horton |first4=Alex |last5=Burianova |first5=Tetiana |last6=Morgunov |first6=Serhiy |last7=Karklis |first7=Laris |date=2025-05-23 |title=Ukraine scrambles to overcome Russia’s edge in fiber-optic drones |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2025/05/23/ukraine-russia-drones-fiberoptic-jamming/ |access-date=2025-05-27 |work=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}} Ukraine has also responded by using autonomous drones tasking to ensure that a jammed drone can hit a target. In March 2024 footage put on social media showed a Ukrainian FPV drone being jammed just before it struck a target. Despite the loss of operator control it still managed to strike the target.{{cite web | url=https://www.twz.com/news-features/automated-terminal-attack-capability-appears-to-be-making-its-way-into-ukraines-fpv-drones | title=Automated Terminal Attack Capability Appears To Be Making Its Way Into Ukraine's FPV Drones|author=THOMAS NEWDICK|author2= TYLER ROGOWAY |date=21 March 2024| publisher=TWZ }}

Russian tanks have been fitted with rooftop slat armor at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine which could provide protection against loitering munitions in some circumstances. Some Ukrainian tanks taking part in the 2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive were also spotted using roof screens.{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/naalsio26/status/1684559477549199360|title=T-72M1 with a roof screen|website=Twitter}}{{Cite web |title= Russia is already putting ERAs on the tanks anti-drone grids |url= https://bulgarianmilitary.com/amp/2023/05/08/russia-is-already-putting-eras-on-the-tanks-anti-drone-grids/ | author= Boyko Nikolov |date=8 May 2023|access-date=2023-05-11|website= bulgarianmilitary.com}}{{Cite web |title= Automated Terminal Attack Capability Appears To Be Making Its Way Into Ukraine's FPV Drones |url= https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/russian-tank-debuts-cope-cage-covered-in-explosive-reactive-armor | author= STETSON PAYNE |date=6 May 2023|access-date=2023-05-11|website= thedrive.com}}

On 21 March 2024, recent footage of the submarine Tula showed that it has been fitted with a slat armor to prevent drone strikes, the first ocean-going asset to carry such a modification.{{cite news | url=https://interestingengineering.com/military/russian-submarines-getting-anti-drone-cages | title=Ukraine UAV attacks force Russia to fit anti-drone cages on submarines|first1=Christopher |last1=McFadden|date=21 March 2024| work=Interesting Engineering }}

Loitering munitions fit in the niche between cruise missiles and unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs).Gilli, Andrea, and Mauro Gilli (2015). [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09636412.2016.1134189 "The Diffusion of Drone Warfare? Industrial, Organizational and Infrastructural Constraints: Military Innovations and the Ecosystem Challenge"], pages 21–22, 25–31

The following table compares similar size-class cruise missiles, loitering munitions, and UCAVS:{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Whereas some cruise missiles, such as the Block IV Tomahawk, have the ability to loiter and have some sensory and remote control features,Kris Osborn, 18 May 2016, [http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/the-us-navy-has-big-plans-the-lethal-tomahawk-missile-16261?page=2 The U.S. Navy Has Big Plans for the Lethal Tomahawk Missile], The National Interest. their primary mission is typically strike and not target acquisition. Cruise missiles, as their name implies, are optimized for long-range flight at constant speed both in terms of propulsion systems and wings or lifting body design. They are often unable to loiter at slow fuel-efficient speeds which significantly reduces potential loiter time even when the missile has some loiter capabilities.Takahashi, Timothy, et al. "A multi-disciplinary survey of advanced subsonic tactical cruise missile configurations." 43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. 2005.

Conversely almost any UAV could be piloted to crash onto a target and most could be fitted with an improvised explosive warhead. However the primary use of a UAV or UCAV would be for recoverable flight operations carrying reconnaissance equipment and/or munitions. While many UAVs are explicitly designed with loitering in mind, they are not optimized for a diving attack, often lacking forward facing cameras, lacking in control response-speed which is unneeded in regular UAV flight, and are noisy when diving, potentially providing warning to the target. UAV's, being designed as multi-use platforms, often have a unit cost that is not appropriate for regular one-time expendable mission use.{{cite journal|url=https://rusi.org/sites/default/files/200808_op_unmanned_combat_air_vehicles.pdf|last=Franklin|first=Michael|title=Unmanned combat air vehicles: opportunities for the guided weapons industry?|journal=RUSI Occasional Paper|date=September 2008|access-date=15 June 2017|archive-date=12 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512181839/https://rusi.org/sites/default/files/200808_op_unmanned_combat_air_vehicles.pdf|url-status=dead}}

File:Launcher of Chien hsiang loitering munition.jpg, an example of an expendable loitering munition.]]

The primary mission of a loitering munition is reaching the suspected target area, target acquisition during a loitering phase, followed by a self-destructive strike, and the munition is optimized in this regard in terms of characteristics (e.g. very short engine lifetime, silence in strike phase, speed of strike dive, optimization toward loitering time instead of range/speed) and unit cost (appropriate for a one-off strike mission).{{cite web|url= http://www.atlantis-press.com/php/download_paper.php?id=25855976| last = Liu | first = Xuancen | others = et al. | title = Optimal Design of Loitering Munition Trajectory in Complex Battlefield Environment | year = 2016 |publisher=Atlantis Press}}{{cite web|url= http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA551913|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410050836/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA551913|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 April 2017|title= Design Requirements for Weaponizing Man-Portable UAS in Support of Counter-Sniper Operations|first=Derek J. |last=Snyder|date=25 April 2017| publisher = Defense Technical Information Center}}

{{Main|Lethal autonomous weapon#Ethical and legal issues}}

Loitering munitions that can make autonomous attack decisions (man out of the loop) raise moral, ethical, and international humanitarian law concerns because a human being is not involved in the decision to attack and potentially kill humans. A distinction is often drawn with fire-and-forget missiles in common use since the 1960s, which may lock-on after launch or be sensor-fuzed, but whose flight time is typically limited and a human launches them at an area where enemy activity is strongly suspected. An autonomous loitering munition, on the other hand, may be launched at an area where enemy activity is only probable, and loiter searching autonomously for targets for hours after the initial launch decision, though it may be able to request final authorization for an attack from a human. The IAI Harpy and IAI Harop are frequently cited as aerial systems that set a precedent in this way—though some note that naval mines also loiter and may kill indiscriminately.Garcia, Denise. "Killer robots: Why the US should lead the ban." Global Policy 6.1 (2015): 57–63.Sharkey, Noel. "Saying 'no!' to lethal autonomous targeting." Journal of Military Ethics 9.4 (2010): 369–383.{{cite web|url=http://munin.uit.no/bitstream/handle/10037/9931/thesis.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y|title=Mortensen, Erika Steinholt. Autonomous weapon systems that decide whom to kill. How international humanitarian law and international human rights law regulate the development and use of offensive autonomous weapon systems during international armed conflicts. MS thesis. UiT Norges arktiske universitet, 2016.}}Alston, Philip. "Lethal robotic technologies: the implications for human rights and international humanitarian law." JL Inf. & Sci. 21 (2011): 35.{{Cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/38978331/Autonomous-Systems-Publication_Print.pdf#page=120|title=Crootof, Rebecca. "The Varied Law of Autonomous Weapon Systems." (2015).|accessdate=29 June 2024 |last1=Mayer |first1=Chris |last2=Williams |first2=Andrew }}{{Cite journal|last=Evan Wallach and Erik Thomas|date=2016|title=The Economic Calculus of Fielding Autonomous Fighting Vehicles Compliant with the Laws of Armed Conflict|journal=Yale Journal of Law & Technology|volume=18|pages=1–25|url=http://yjolt.org/sites/default/files/Wallach_18YJoLT1.pdf|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-date=10 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410050957/http://yjolt.org/sites/default/files/Wallach_18YJoLT1.pdf|url-status=dead}}

{{As of|2023}}, loitering munitions are used by the armed forces of several countries, including:

• {{flag|Albania}} – YIHA-III
• {{flag|Argentina}} – HERO 30, HERO 120{{Cite web|url=https://www.pucara.org/post/argentina-compra-municiones-merodeadoras-a-israel|title=Argentina compra municiones merodeadoras a Israel|first=Santiago|last=Rivas|date=27 December 2022|website=Pucará Defensa}}
• {{flag|Armenia}} – HRESH, BEEB 1800,{{Cite web|title=Armenian manufacturer boasts cutting-edge multifunctional combat UAVs and loitering munitions | place = AM |url = https://armenpress.am/eng/news/928341.html|access-date=2020-07-19|website= Armen press| date = 31 March 2018 }} AW21[https://www.airrecognition.com/index.php/news/defense-aviation-news/2023-news-aviation-aerospace/december/9424-edex-2023-witnesses-airworker-s-aw21-loitering-munition-presentation.html EDEX 2023 witnesses AirWorker's AW21 loitering munition presentation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209235446/https://www.airrecognition.com/index.php/news/defense-aviation-news/2023-news-aviation-aerospace/december/9424-edex-2023-witnesses-airworker-s-aw21-loitering-munition-presentation.html |date=9 December 2023 }}. Air Recognition. 5 December 2023.
• {{flag|Australia}} – Drone 40,[https://www.c4isrnet.com/unmanned/2019/06/05/a-drone-with-a-can-doom-attitude/ A drone with a can-doom attitude]. C4ISRNET. 5 June 2019. Innovaero OWL
• {{flag|Azerbaijan}} – IAI Harpy, IAI Harop, Orbiter 1K, SkyStriker, STM Kargu,{{cite web|url= https://www.defenceturk.net/stmnin-yerli-kamikaze-ihasi-kargu-azerbaycanda-goruldu|title=STM'nin yerli kamikaze İHA'sı Kargu Azerbaycan'da görüldü|date=29 October 2020|language=tr}}{{cite web|url= https://www.cnnturk.com/dunya/ilk-kez-libyada-kullanilmisti-bu-kez-azerbaycanda-goruntulendi|title=İlk kez Libya'da kullanılmıştı! Bu kez Azerbaycan'da görüntülendi|date=28 September 2020|language=tr |publisher= CNN Türk}} Qirği, Quzgün{{Cite web |date= 10 September 2022|title=ADEX 2022: Smart Point unveils 'attack' UAVs|url= https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/adex-2022-smart-point-unveils-attack-uavs |website= Janes Information Services|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220911123709/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/adex-2022-smart-point-unveils-attack-uavs |archive-date=11 September 2022|url-status=live}}
• {{flag|Belarus}} – UBAK-25 Chekan{{cite web|url= https://defence-blog.com/belarus-made-armed-drone-shot-down-in-ukraine/ |title=Belarus-made armed drone shot down in Ukraine|website= Defence blog |date=11 July 2022}}
• {{flag|Brazil}} – Anshar[https://www.defensenews.com/unmanned/uas/2023/11/17/brazilian-firm-mac-jee-unveils-exploding-drone-with-demo-in-months/ Brazilian firm Mac Jee unveils exploding drone, with demo in months]. Defense News. 17 November 2023.
• {{flag|China}} – IAI Harpy, CH-901, WS-43, ASN-301[http://www.janes.com/article/59623/dsa-2016-china-details-ch-901-uav-and-loitering-munition DSA 2016: China details CH-901 UAV and loitering munition], Jane’s, April 2016[http://www.janes.com/article/68341/idex-2017-catic-reveals-details-about-harpy-type-loitering-munition Idex 2017: Catic reveals details about Harpy-type loitering munition], Jane’s, March 2017
• {{flag|France}} - Switchblade, Colibri, Larinae
• {{flag|Georgia}} - Delta-WB Warmate[http://www.wbgroup.pl/en/aktualnosci/wb-unmanned-systems-for-georgia/ WB GROUP unmanned systems for Georgia]. WB Group. 18 May 2022.[http://mod.gov.ge/en/news/read/9320/defense-forces-of-georgia-received-uavs-produced-in-georgia-and-american-radars Defense Forces of Georgia Received UAVs Produced in Georgia and American Radars]. Ministry of Defence of Georgia. 14 December 2023.
• {{flag|Greece}} – Attalus,[https://www.edrmagazine.eu/attalus-a-greek-loitering-munition-from-intracom-defense DEFEA 2023 – Attalus, a Greek Loitering Munition from Intracom Defense]. European Defence Review. 12 May 2023. Aihmi AHM-1X[https://www.airrecognition.com/index.php/news/defense-aviation-news/2023-news-aviation-aerospace/december/9431-edex-2023-greek-company-sas-technology-displays-aihmi-ahm-1x-70mm-loitering-munition.html EDEX 2023: Greek company SAS Technology displays Aihmi AHM-1X 70mm loitering munition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209235445/https://www.airrecognition.com/index.php/news/defense-aviation-news/2023-news-aviation-aerospace/december/9431-edex-2023-greek-company-sas-technology-displays-aihmi-ahm-1x-70mm-loitering-munition.html |date=9 December 2023 }}. Air Recognition. 6 December 2023.
• {{flag|Indonesia}} – Rajata,{{cite web | url= https://dahana.id/berita/dahana-gelar-soft-launching-loitering-munition-bernama-rajata/ | title= Gelar soft launching munition Bernama Rajata | publisher= Dahana | access-date= 20 November 2022 | archive-date= 20 March 2023 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230320194336/https://dahana.id/berita/dahana-gelar-soft-launching-loitering-munition-bernama-rajata/ | url-status= dead }} Minibe{{Cite web |last=Yanwardhana |first=Emir |title=Indonesia Produksi Drone 'Bunuh Diri', Begini Kekuatannya |url=https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20221102192140-4-384686/indonesia-produksi-drone-bunuh-diri-begini-kekuatannya |access-date=2025-02-05 |website=CNBC Indonesia |language=id}}
• {{flag|India}} – Solar Group Nagastra,{{Cite news |date=2024-06-14 |title=Army unleashes 'silent killer' indigenous Nagastra-1 suicide drones along Pakistan, China borders: Key features revealed |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/army-unleashes-silent-killer-indigenous-nagastra-1-suicide-drones-along-pakistan-china-borders-key-features-revealed/articleshow/110996803.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-06-15 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}} IAI Harpy, IAI Harop,[http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/harop-loitering-munitions-system-for-the-iaf/ Harop Loitering Munitions System for the IAF], India Defence Review, January 2014{{Cite news |date= 2019-08-12|title=Laser weapons, swarm drones on DRDO menu|language= en-IN |work=The Hindu|url= https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/drdo-focus-on-stealth-weapons-drones/article28988571.ece|access-date= 2020-08-11|issn=0971-751X}} [https://elbitsystems.com/product/skystriker/ SkyStriker], Warmate, Trinetra, ALS-50,{{Cite news|date= 2022-09-22 |last=Pubby|first=Manu|title= Indigenous loitering munition successfully hits target at Pokhran |url= https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/indigenous-loitering-munition-successfully-hits-target-at-pokhran/articleshow/94383125.cms|newspaper=The Economic Times|location=New Delhi |access-date=2022-09-23}} [https://www.johnnette.com/jm1.html Johnnette JM-1], Shaurya-1, [http://www.kadet-uav.com/ Kadet] Loitering Aerial Munition,{{Cite web |title=India's first kamikaze drone developed; 5,000 units can be made in 2-3 yrs |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2024/05/08/indias-first-kamikaze-drone-developed-5000-units-can-be-made-in-2-3-yrs.html |access-date=2024-05-09 |website=The Week |language=en}} Overwatch PHOLOS, Zulu DRAP, Sureshastra Mk1
• {{flag|Iran}} – Karrar, Shahed 131, Shahed 136 (loitering capabilities disputed),{{Cite web |last=Sof |first=Eric |date=2022-10-20 |title=HESA Shahed 136: A cheap and deadly Iranian kamikaze drone |url=https://special-ops.org/hesa-shahed-136-kamikaze-drone/ |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=Spec Ops Magazine |language=en-US}}{{cite web |url=https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/russias-iranian-made-uavs-technical-profile |title=Russia's Iranian-Made UAVs: A Technical Profile |work=Royal United Services Institute |date=13 January 2023 }} Hesa Ababil-2, Raad 85, Arash-2, Meraj-521, Meraj-532, Zhubin, Shahin-1, Shahed 238 and possibly others[https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/10/26/irans-navy-unveils-suicide-drone/92761598/ Iran's navy touts 'suicide drone'], USA Today, October 2016[http://nationalinterest.org/blog/iran-tests-kamikaze%E2%80%99-suicide-drone-11934 Iran Tests 'Kamikaze' Suicide Drone], The National Interest [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/31/world/middleeast/isis-drone-documents.html Papers Offer a Peek at ISIS' Drones, Lethal and Largely Off-the-Shelf], New York Times, January 2017[https://www.pressreader.com/india/sps-landforces/20160915/281779923685619 Portable Attack Drones or Loitering Munitions], SPS Landforces, September 2016[https://eurasiantimes.com/us-switchblade-drone-knock-off-meraj-521-unveiled-by-iran-comes/ US Switchblade Drone ‘Knock Off’ Meraj-521 Unveiled By Iran; Comes After Grand Success Of Its UAVs In Ukraine]. EurAsian Times. 21 October 2022.
• {{flag|Israel}} – IAI Harpy, IAI Harop, IAI Harpy NG, IAI Green Dragon, IAI Rotem L, Orbiter 1K,[https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/aeronautics-introduces-orbiter-1k-loitering-munition-412651/ Aeronautics introduces Orbiter 1K loitering munition], Flight Global, May 2015 Delilah, SkyStriker,[http://www.janes.com/article/63526/elbit-announces-new-skystriker-loitering-munition Elbit announces new SkyStriker loitering munition], Jane's Defence Weekly, September 2016 Spike Firefly, HERO loitering munitions series,[https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/israeli-companies-pitching-loitering-munitions-for-u-423808/ Israeli companies pitching loitering munitions for US Army programme], FlightGlobal, April 2016{{Cite web|last=Soylu|first=Ragip|date=2021-03-25|title=US Army, Marines, Special Forces Eye Israeli 'Hero' Attack Drones|url=https://breakingdefense.sites.breakingmedia.com/2021/03/us-army-marines-special-forces-eye-israeli-hero-attack-drones/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=Breaking Defense|language=en-US|archive-date=19 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219153159/https://breakingdefense.sites.breakingmedia.com/2021/03/us-army-marines-special-forces-eye-israeli-hero-attack-drones/|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|last=Trevithick|first=Joseph|title=Marines Pick Loitering Munition To Arm Light Vehicles And Drone Boats|url=https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/41219/marines-pick-loitering-munition-to-arm-light-vehicles-and-drone-boats|access-date=2021-09-01|website=The Drive|date=23 June 2021 |language=en}}{{Cite web|title=Israeli UVision to Supply Hero-120 Loitering Munition to U.S. Marine Corps|url=https://www.defenseworld.net/news/29856/Israeli_UVision_to_Supply_Hero_120_Loitering_Munition_to_U_S__Marine_Corps|access-date=2021-09-01|website=www.defenseworld.net|date=21 June 2021|archive-date=26 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026154634/https://www.defenseworld.net/news/29856/Israeli_UVision_to_Supply_Hero_120_Loitering_Munition_to_U_S__Marine_Corps|url-status=dead}} Viper,{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=6 October 2022|title=SpearUAV unveils Viper micro-tactical loitering munition|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/spearuav-unveils-viper-micro-tactical-loitering-munition|access-date=|website=Janes Information Services|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018183931/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/spearuav-unveils-viper-micro-tactical-loitering-munition|archive-date=18 October 2022|url-status=live}} Lanius,[https://newatlas.com/military/lanius-ai-suicide-drone-bomb/ AI-driven combat drone can search buildings and execute suicide attacks]. New Atlas. 20 November 2022. Point Blank,[https://www.edrmagazine.eu/israel-aerospace-industries-unveils-point-blank-a-hand-launched-electro-optical-guided-missile Israel Aerospace Industries unveils Point Blank – a hand-launched electro-optical guided missile]. European Defence Review. 19 January 2023. SpyX,[https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2023/6/20/new-loitering-munition-promises-to-go-the-distance PARIS AIR SHOW NEWS: New Loitering Munition Promises to Go the Distance]. National Defense Magazine. 20 June 2023. and upgraded variants.[http://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/8219/vietnam-eyes-israels-delilah-standoff-missile-and-f-16s-could-be-next Vietnam Eyes Israel's Delilah Standoff Missile, and F-16s Could Be Next], The Warzone, March 2017
• {{flag|Lithuania}} – Switchblade{{cite web |date=22 December 2022 |title='First in the world': Lithuania signs contract to acquire Switchblade combat drones from US |url= https://www.lrt.lt/en/news-in-english/19/1851474/first-in-the-world-lithuania-signs-contract-to-acquire-switchblade-combat-drones-from-us |access-date=22 December 2022 |website= LRT}}
• {{flag|Morocco}} – IAI Harop, IAI Harpy, SpyX
• {{flag|Pakistan}} – E- RAD, Rover LM, Xpear MX-150, NASTP Dark Angel Series, YIHA-III, GIDS Blaze series, NASTP KaGeM V3
• {{flag|Poland}} – WB Electronics Warmate[https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/warmate-expendable-uav-in-production-for-two-custome-424735/ Warmate expendable UAV in production for two customers], Flight Global, April 2016
• {{PRT}} – UAVision Elanus{{Cite AV media |title=Vai, ataca alvos a 200 km/h, e já não volta. Elanus, o primeiro drone armado português |type=News |url=https://cnnportugal.iol.pt/videos/vai-ataca-alvos-a-200-km-h-e-ja-nao-volta-elanus-o-primeiro-drone-armado-portugues/650d8b660cf25f9953837686 |access-date=2023-09-24 |publisher=CNN Portugal |language=pt}}
• {{flag|Russia}} – ZALA Kub-BLA ("Cube"), ZALA Lancet,[https://iz.ru/1242367/aleksei-ramm-bogdan-stepovoi/pod-kryshei-drona-vmf-usilivaetsia-bpla-kamikadze?destination=node/1242367 Под крышей дрона: ВМФ усиливается БПЛА-камикадзе], Izvestia, 20 October 2021[https://www.thedefensepost.com/2021/11/02/russia-ships-kamikaze-drones/ Russian Naval Ships to Be Armed With Kamikaze Drones], The Defense Post, 2 November 2021{{cite web | url=https://www.19fortyfive.com/2022/05/russia-attacked-u-s-supplied-howitzers-in-ukraine-with-kamikaze-drones-and-rockets/ | title=Russia Attacked U.S. Supplied Howitzers in Ukraine With Kamikaze Drones and Rockets | date=19 May 2022}} Geran-1, Geran-2
• {{flag|Serbia}} – Gavran,[https://www.defensenews.com/unmanned/2022/11/21/serbia-may-become-biggest-operator-of-military-drones-in-balkans/ Serbia may become biggest operator of military drones in Balkans]. Defense News. 21 November 2022. Osica,[https://www.armyrecognition.com/defense_news_september_2023_global_security_army_industry/serbia_s_osica_loitering_munition_underlines_rising_relevance_of_such_system.html Serbia's OSICA loitering munition underlines rising relevance of such system] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106195933/https://www.armyrecognition.com/defense_news_september_2023_global_security_army_industry/serbia_s_osica_loitering_munition_underlines_rising_relevance_of_such_system.html |date=6 January 2024 }}. Army Recognition. 29 September 2023. Komarac,[https://www.armyrecognition.com/defense_news_october_2023_global_security_army_industry/yugoimport_develops_raven_145_loitering_area_denial_weapon_system.html Yugoimport develops Raven 145 loitering area denial weapon system]. Army Recognition. 3 October 2023. Vila 1[https://www.armyrecognition.com/defense_news_october_2023_global_security_army_industry/discover_the_vila_1_modular_loitering_munition_from_serbian_vlatacom_institute.html Discover Vila 1 modular loitering munition from Serbian Vlatacom Institute]. Army Recognition. 3 October 2023.
• {{flag|Singapore}} – IAI Harop
• {{flag|Slovakia}} – AX-2 Predator
• {{Flag|South Africa|2000}} – Paramount N-Raven{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Guy |date=2023-02-22 |title=Paramount putting N-Raven loitering munition into production |url=https://www.defenceweb.co.za/aerospace/aerospace-aerospace/paramount-putting-n-raven-loitering-munition-into-production/ |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=defenceWeb |language=en-ZA}}
• {{flag|South Korea}} – Devil Killer,[https://gizmodo.com/5950970/south-koreas-kamikaze-uav-aims-to-ruin-kim-jong-uns-week South Korea's Kamikaze UAV Could Scare the Ojom Out of Kim Jong-un] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012202319/https://gizmodo.com/5950970/south-koreas-kamikaze-uav-aims-to-ruin-kim-jong-uns-week |date=12 October 2017 }}, Gizmodo, October 2012[https://www.foxnews.com/tech/south-korea-developing-kamikaze-attack-drone/ South Korea developing 'kamikaze' attack drone], Fox News, October 2012 IAI Harpy
• {{flag|Spain}} - Q-SLAM-40
• {{flag|Sudan}} – Kamin-25
• {{flag|Taiwan}} – NCSIST Chien Hsiang,{{cite web |last1= Wong |first1=Kelvin |title=TADTE 2019: Taiwan's NCSIST rolls out indigenous anti-radiation loitering munition |url = https://www.janes.com/article/90511/tadte-2019-taiwan-s-ncsist-rolls-out-indigenous-anti-radiation-loitering-munition |website= Jane’s |access-date= 21 October 2019}} NCSIST Fire Cardinal
• {{flag|Turkey}} - Robit UAV AZAB,{{Cite web|url=http://robit.com.tr|title=Robit}} IAI Harpy,[http://defense-update.com/newscast/0609/news/harop_new_140609.html IAI Gets $100 Million Contract for HAROP Killer Drones] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170720115709/http://www.defense-update.com/newscast/0609/news/harop_new_140609.html |date=20 July 2017}}, Defense Update, 2009 STM Kargu,{{Cite web|url= https://www.janes.com/article/88686/turkey-s-stm-delivering-kargu-loitering-munitions-to-tsk|title=Turkey's STM delivering Kargu loitering munitions to TSK |website= Jane's 360 |access-date= 2020-03-23}} STM Alpagu,{{Cite web|url= https://www.stm.com.tr/en/alpagu |title=ALPAGU® Fixed Wing Loitering Munition System|website= STM | place = TR}} Transvaro-Havelsan Fedai,{{Cite web|url= https://www.unmannedairspace.info/counter-uas-systems-and-policies/turkish-firms-develop-kamikaze-drone-designed-to-neutralise-drone-borne-threats/|title=Turkish firms develop kamikaze drone designed to neutralise drone-borne threats |website= Unmanned air space |date=29 October 2021}} LENTATEK Kargı,{{Cite web|url= https://www.turkishdefencenews.com/lentatek-unveils-kargi-anti-radiation-uav-for-the-first-time/|title= Lentatek Unveils Kargi Anti-Radiation UAV For the First Time|website= Turkish 0defence news|date= 6 June 2022|access-date= 11 July 2022|archive-date= 21 October 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221021154834/https://www.turkishdefencenews.com/lentatek-unveils-kargi-anti-radiation-uav-for-the-first-time/|url-status= dead}} Roketsan-STM Alpagut{{Cite web|url= https://www.armyrecognition.com/defense_news_october_2022_global_security_army_industry/stm_and_roketsan_from_turkiye_unveil_new_alpagut_loitering_munition.html|title= STM and Roketsan from Türkiye unveil new Alpagut loitering munition

|website= Army recognition|date=28 October 2022}}[https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2022/10/28/turkish-firms-unveil-a-new-loitering-munition/ Turkish firms unveil a new loitering munition]. Defense News. 28 October 2022.

• {{flag|Turkmenistan}} – SkyStriker
• {{flag|UAE}} – QX-1,[https://www.armyrecognition.com/weapons_defence_industry_military_technology_uk/adasi_edge_presents_qx-1_new_loitering_munition_fully_developed_in_uae.html ADASI EDGE presents QX-1 new loitering munition fully developed in UAE]. Army Recognition. 9 April 2021.[https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/idex/2021/02/22/edge-group-unveils-kamikaze-drones-at-idex/ Edge Group unveils kamikaze drones at Idex]. Defense News. 22 February 2021. Hunter SP,[https://edgegroup.ae/solutions/hunter-2-single-tube-launched-drone-ground Hunter SP]. EDGE Group. Hunter 2-S,[https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/44395/uae-shows-off-a-compact-box-launcher-concept-full-of-21-ai-enabled-swarming-suicide-drones UAE Shows Off A Compact Box Launcher Concept Full Of 21 AI-Enabled Swarming Suicide Drones]. The Drive/The War Zone. 21 February 2022.[https://www.defensenews.com/industry/2022/02/22/following-first-demonstration-edge-unveils-swarming-drones-based-on-ai-technology/ Following first demonstration, Edge unveils swarming drones based on AI technology]. Defense News. 22 February 2022. Hunter 5, Hunter 10,{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=17 November 2021|title=Dubai Airshow 2021: Halcon unveils Hunter family of ISR UAVs|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/dubai-airshow-2021-halcon-unveils-hunter-family-of-isr-uavs|access-date=|website=Janes Information Services|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117154825/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/dubai-airshow-2021-halcon-unveils-hunter-family-of-isr-uavs|archive-date=17 November 2021|url-status=live}} Shadow 25, Shadow 50,[https://www.armyrecognition.com/weapons_defence_industry_military_technology_uk/halcon_edge_from_uae_has_designed_shadow_jet-engine_powered_uavs_loitering_munitions.html Halcon Edge from UAE has designed Shadow jet-engine powered UAVs loitering munitions]. Army Recognition. 9 April 2021.[https://breakingdefense.com/2022/06/as-uav-tech-spreads-gulf-firms-bet-on-upgrades-with-drone-to-satellite-links/ As UAV tech spreads, Gulf firms bet on upgrades with drone-to-satellite links]. Breaking Defense. 3 June 2022. RW-24,[https://www.armyrecognition.com/defense_news_may_2021_global_security_army_industry/adasi_from_uae_unveils_rw-24_smart_loitering_precision_attack_munitions.html HALCON from UAE unveils RW-24 Smart Loitering Precision Attack munitions]. Army Recognition. 10 May 2021. N-Raven[https://www.armyrecognition.com/defense_news_february_2023_global_security_army_industry/paramount_aerospace_systems_to_start_this_year_production_of_n-raven_loitering_munition.html Paramount Aerospace Systems to start this year production of N-Raven loitering munition]. Army Recognition. 27 February 2023.
• {{flag|United Kingdom}} – Switchblade, Overwatch PHOLOS
• {{flag|United States}} – ALTIUS-600M, AeroVironment Switchblade, Phoenix Ghost, Raytheon Coyote,[http://www.janes.com/article/66954/surface-navy-2017-coyote-earmarked-for-isr-and-offensive-roles Surface Navy 2017: Coyote earmarked for ISR and offensive roles], Jane’s, January 2017 HERO 120, Point Blank, Northrop Grumman Lumberjack.{{cite web | url=https://www.twz.com/air/lumberjack-jet-powered-one-way-attack-munition-can-drop-its-own-precision-bomblets | title=Lumberjack Jet-Powered One-Way Attack Munition Can Drop Its Own Precision Bomblets (Updated) | date=29 April 2025 }}
• {{flag|Ukraine}} – RAM II, Switchblade, ST-35 Silent Thunder, Phoenix Ghost, Warmate, Bober, AQ-400 Scythe, UJ-25 Skyline, Overwatch PHOLOS, QinetiQ Banshee, ALTIUS-600M
• {{flag|Yemen}} – (Houthis) – Qasef-1/2K,[http://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/8586/suicide-drones-have-migrated-to-the-conflict-in-yemen Suicide Drones Have Migrated to The Conflict in Yemen], The Warzone, March 2017 Shahed 131, Shahed 136, Samad-2/3, Shahed-101

In March 2025, North Korean state media said leader Kim Jong Un oversaw testing of AI-equipped reconnaissance and suicide drones produced by the country's Unmanned Aerial Technology Complex, inspected a new reconnaissance drone and an early warning and control (AEW) aircraft, and pushed to expand the production of unmanned systems, citing their importance in modern warfare.{{Cite web |title=North Korea's Kim Jong Un oversees tests of new AI-equipped suicide drones |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/27/north-koreas-kim-jong-un-oversees-tests-of-new-ai-equipped-suicide-drones |access-date=2025-04-01 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}

• Boeing Persistent Munition Technology Demonstrator
• Flying bomb
• Low Cost Autonomous Attack System
• Sypaq Corvo Precision Payload Delivery System
• Television guidance
• V-1 flying bomb
• XM501 Non-Line-of-Sight Launch System
• Copperhead (UUV), a family of autonomous unmanned undersea vehicles with loitering munitions capability.

{{Reflist}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Voskuijl |first=Mark |date=March 2022 |title=Performance analysis and design of loitering munitions: A comprehensive technical survey of recent developments |journal=Defence Technology |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=325–343 |doi=10.1016/j.dt.2021.08.010 |doi-access=free |issn=2214-9147}}

{{Commons category-inline}}

Category:Aerial warfare

Category:Loitering munitions

Category:Military technology

Category:Military equipment

Category:Weapon development