mapinguari

Casudo and later commentators speculate the name mapinguari to be a Tupi-Guarani compound mbaé-pi-guari (Guarani: {{lang|gn|mbae}} "that, the thing" + {{lang|gn|pĭ}} "foot"Vocabulario s.v. {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6EzAQAAMAAJ&pg=383|2=pî s.}} "{{lang|pt|pé, pés, assento, base}}" + {{lang|gn|guarî}} "crooked, twisted"Vocabulario s.v. {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6EzAQAAMAAJ&pg=136|2=guarî adj.}} "{{lang|pt|torto, contorto, retorcido}}") meaning "the thing that has a clubbed, twisted, or backwards-turned foot".{{sfnp|Cascudo|1983|p=191}}Cascudo (2002), p. 223 cited by {{harvp|Vander Velden|2016|p=211}}, n 5.

Mapingurai is known to the Karitiana people as {{lang|ktn|kida harara}} (Karitiâna: "laughing beast"), {{lang|ktn|kida so'emo}} ("beast with black face") or {{lang|ktn|Owoj/Owojo}} (lit. "maternal grandfather" or "mother's brother's son").{{sfnp|Vander Velden|2016|p=211}}

The Mapunguari also answers to the segamai of the Machiguenga people, according to some commentators. However, ethnologist Glenn H. Shepard, who conducted the fieldwork among the Machiguenga of Peru and obtained testimonies about the segamai{{sfnp|Oren|2001|p=3}} had focused on a different Machiguenga mythical being as comparable to the Mapinguari, namely the so-called oshetoniro ("mother of spider monkeys"), a large monkey-like creature "equipped with demonic powers and gigantic penises. They can summon wind and darkness, cause panic and confusion, and are said to rape and kill human victims". Shepard not only stated the oshetoniro may be a variant of the Brazilian Mapinguari, but added these may both be folkloric memories of the ground sloth (cf. {{section link||Cryptozoology}}).{{efn|As Shepard (2002) explains in note 3, names like 'mother of squirrel monkey' does not imply this creature is taxonomically close to a squirrel monkey, hence, "mother of spider monkey" is not necessarily even a primate.}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|name="lizarralde-shaaroba"|In the same anthology, Manuel Lizarralde (2002) remarks on the shaaroba which Barí people of Venezuela variously describes as a 500–800 kg giant red monkey, similar to a spider monkey with jaguar-like claws, or a cross between cow and jaguar: this shaaroba, like Shepard's mythological creature might be a memory of the giant sloth, in Lizarralde's opinion.}}

The juma has been listed as an alias for mapinguari,{{sfnp|Oren|2001|p=2}} but Candace Slater distinguish the two as different beings, though both of them together with "Matinta-Perera" (alias of Saci) are grouped together as "Curupiras" by her.

There are various depictions of the mapinguari. It is a man-eater, and may eat the victim head-first, plunging the victim's head in the long gaping oral cavity (that runs from nose to stomach, cf. {{section link||Mouth in abdomen}}) and chewing slowly.{{sfnp|Cascudo|1976a|p=18}}{{Refn|name="torres"}} While legend says it only devours the head,{{Refn|Cascudo: "Mas devora somente a cabeça"{{sfnp|Cascudo|1983|p=191}}{{sfnp|Cascudo|2002|p=224}}}} one documented rubber tapper witness has seen the creature devour the entire body piecemeal: the head, limbs, entrails, and torso of a man fallen victim.{{Refn|Cascudo too noted it can tear the flesh in many pieces, as described in this tale (edited by Silva Campos).{{harvp|Cascudo|2002|p=223}}: "No conto de J. da Silva Campos, o Mapinguari arranca a carne de sua vítima em largos pedaços".}}

It was still believed to haunt the forests of Pará, Amazonas and Acre into the 20th century.

The lore of the {{linktext|anthropophagous}} giant mapinguari may well be a composite, taking on the characteristics of the Gorjala (a giant or gigantes), the Pé de Garrafa ("bottle footed"), the invulnerability, the inverted feet of the Curupira and Matutiú (black-haired, long-armed and clawed giant).{{Refn|Matutiú as described by Father Cristóvão de Acunha.{{sfnp|Cascudo|1976a|p=18}}}} Its giant stature is cloaked by long black hair, it has long arms and clawed hand, etc.{{harvp|Cascudo|1976a|p=17}}; {{harvp|Cascudo|1983|p=189}}

It is not nocturnal like other monsters, but lies in wait in the dim light of the depth of the forest by daylight, and lunges to attack. It also announces itself with heavy screaming, frightening the humans into terrified flight.{{sfnp|Cascudo|1976a|p=17}} Cascudo suspects this to be relatively young lore, found in the narrative of the rubber tappers, since the old chroniclers of the colonial period do not mention it.{{sfnp|Cascudo|1976a|p=18}}

The mapinguari (mapinguary) in the Purus River basin of Amazonas is described as a gigantic monkey, as hairy as a {{lang|pt|coatá}} (spider monkey), with donkey hooves for feet that are turned backwards (like the Curupira),{{Refn|Silva Campos (1928) Brasil, pp. 321–322, apud Cascudo.{{sfnp|Cascudo|1983|p=191}}}}{{Refn|name="torres"|An independent informant, Genésio Xavier Torres, court clerk formerly rubber-tapper gives a more succinct but description similar to the tale edited by Silva Campo, that Mapinguari is a monkey larger than man with hooves turned in reverse direction, that its mouth was split from nose to stomach, and it chewed the victim's head like chewing tobacco.}} This description was by a witness who was a {{linktext|seringueiro}} at a rubber plantation who liked to go hunting, and one Sunday, dragged along his co-worker roommate with who he shared the same hut or tent,{{efn|"{{linktext|barraca}}".}} though the latter was against not observing the day of rest (cf. {{section link||Christian element}}). They got separated in the woods, and then the man saw his tent-companion devoured by such a mapinguari, which had jaguar-like claws and a mouth (lower jaw?) "as big as lapel",{{efn|"grande como uma solapa".}} "torn" to the level of the stomach (interpreted to mean a mouth split from around the face to its stomach).

The lore of the state of Acre tells that Indians who attain an advanced age transform into this monster, and describes it as having an alligator-like hard-shelled skin, with identical feet like the (ends of) a pestle or Brazil nut capsules.{{efn|ouriço de castanha is literally "chestnut burr" but "castanha-do-acre" or Brazil nut must be meant here.}}{{Refn|Francisco Peres de Lima (1938) Folclore acreano, p. 103 apud Cascudo}}

The mapinguari has been recorded in the belief among the Macuna of Colombia as a man-eater, greatly feared. It was supposed that men who grow too old turned into these. The custom existed among the Indians of the Yotahy (Jotahy) River of killing the superannuated for fear they will turn into Mapinguaris.

In a book on rubber farming, one informant has told it to be an "ancient king of the region".{{Refn|Cascudo's dictionary and {{harvp|Cascudo|1983|p=191}}: "o Mapinguari era o “antigo rei da região' [the Mapinguari is the 'ancient king of the region']”according to an old tuixaua (indigenous chief) who was already semi-civilized, reported by Guedes, Mário (1920) [1914] Os Seringaes, pp. 221-222.}}

Some folklore also describe it as a former human shaman turned into a hairy humanoid cyclops.{{cite web |last1=Dunning |first1=Brian |author-link=Brian Dunning (author) |title=On the Trail of the Mapinguari |url=https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4888 |website=Skeptoid |publisher=Skeptic Media |access-date=15 June 2023}}{{better source|date=March 2023}}

Cf. also Quibungo (aged black Brazilians turned monster) described below.

This traditional mapinguari is often said to have a gaping mouth on its abdomen,{{cite news |last=Rohter |first=Larry |date=2007-07-08 |title=A Huge Amazon Monster Is Only a Myth. Or Is It? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/08/world/americas/08amazon.html |access-date=2020-04-12}} with its feet turned backwards, as already testified by the rubber-tapper of the Purus River basin, Amazonas. Creatures with such feet, which confuse those trying to track it, are found in folklore around the world.

A parallel can be found in the legendary Quibungo, a monster which old black men turned into,{{harvp|Cascudo|1983|p=205}}: "Quibungo, Negro africano, quando fica muito velho, vira Quibungo. É um macacão todo peludo, que come crianças. (Recôncavo da Bahia)" citing da Silva Campos, João (1928) “Contos e Fábulas populares da Bahia”, in O Folclore no Brasil, p. 219 which also has a strange gaping mouth running from nose to stomach{{sfnp|Cascudo|1976a|p=18}} (or throat to stomach{{harvp|Cascudo|1983|p=9}}: "Uma característica do Quibungo é sua bocarra aberta verticalmente da garganta ao estômago") from which the Mapinguari may have borrowed the trait.{{sfnp|Cascudo|1983|p=189}}{{harvp|Cascudo|1983|p=191}}: "Do africano Quibungo, o Mapinguari tem a posição anômala da boca" Though the Quibungo according to some accounts has its mouth on its back.{{sfnp|Zarka|2022}}

Thus the alternative description is not a mouth at the stomach, but an oral cavity that slits vertically from face/throat to navel, as already touched upon in the rubber-tapper's testimony above.

Also, the spot around its navel is the only place where a gunshot would penetrate, and elsewhere his dense hair makes him invulnerable to bullets.

The hunter's encounter with the Mapniguari contextualized as punishment for breaking Sabbath on Sunday is seen as a Christian influence.{{sfnp|Galeano|2014|p=145}} The hunter goes out to hunt game saying "one goes hungry even on a Sunday" despite his wife's warning — tale published by Galeano (2014), as well as the version edited by Silva Campos (1928), where the tapper defended his hunting habit saying "one still must eat on Sunday". The "Catholic catechism" had already been noted by Cascudo (1976) who writes that the Mapniguari deliberately chooses a holiday or Sunday to do its prowling, so that the hunter who hunts on those days is risking death.{{harvp|Cascudo|1976a|p=18}}: "Caçador que encontrar matando caça nesses dias proibidos e de preceito é homem morto"; {{harvp|Cascudo|1983}} [1976], p. 191; Cascudo (2002), p. 223 apud {{harvp|Bezerra|2011|pp=91–92}}

Cascudo noted that like the ogre of Europe, the Labatut,{{harvp|Cascudo|1983|p=199}}: Labatut is an imaginary being in the folklore of the mountainous Chapada do Apodi region in the state of Rio Grande do Norte and parts of the adjoining state of Ceará the Mapinguari, and the Capelobo of Brazilian lore were all ascribed a single eye.{{sfnp|Cascudo|1983|p=187}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Galeano writes that the Capé-lobo in Pará and Maranhão is a variant of the Mapinguari.{{sfnp|Galeano|2014|p=145}}}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|The curupira was also ascribed one-eyedness locally in the Tapajós basin in Pará.}}

Some additional ethnography from other tribal peoples attest to the Mapinguari being described as single-eyed,Cf. infra like a cyclops,{{sfnp|Galeano|2014|p=145}} as follows:

The woodsmen of Amazonas have known of the Mapnguari as a hairy man, sometimes with an eye on the belly, sometimes a single eye on the forehead like a cyclops, according to {{illm|Mário Ypiranga Monteiro|pt|Mário Ypiranga Monteiro}} (1977).

A collective narrative tale describes a hunter who lives in the Amazon near Tefé, Amazonas who went out to hunt on a Sunday against advise, and encountered a Mapinguari which was like a hairy black ape, with a single green eye. It also had a shell like a turtle's.

As another example, the lore among the present-day Mura people is that the Mapinguari has a single eye on its head and a mouth on its belly, according to the gloss given by indigenous writer Márcia Nunes Maciel (aka Márcia Mura).

{{illm|Mário Ypiranga Monteiro|pt|Mário Ypiranga Monteiro|lt=Monteiro}} (1977) conjectured that the Amazon natives were reporting on their fears for the Amazonian bear or spectacled bear, known in Quechua as the {{lang|qu|[h]ucumari}} ("bear that hugs").

Cascudo (1962) commented there was close similarity between the Mapinguari and the Mongolian "wild man" or {{transl|mn|kümün görügesü}}.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Cascudo gives "Khoun-gouraissou" (without hyphenation) which is the French transliteration in Przhevalsky, Nikolay (1880) {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fSPpsvj6WAC&pg=PA304|2=Mongolie et pays des Tangoutes}}, p. 304. But an English translation "kung-gurresu" as 'man-beast' occurs in Przhevalsky (1876) {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5P_0XYQ9EoC&pg=PA249|2=Mongolia, the Tangut Country}} 2: 249. The orthography is taken from Rinčen (1964).}} This creature is otherwise designated by its Russian name Almas, and discussed (as cryptid) by Ivan T. Sanderson's Abominable Snowmen (1961).{{sfnp|Rinčen|1964|p=188}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Hence other commentators such as geneticist Bryan Sykes writes of almas as the Russian name for the Yeti, which is the more famous example of a cryptid. Sykes's team conducted the DNA analysis in 2014 that debunked the purported Yeti hair samples to be those of bears, etc.}}

Bernard Heuvelmans (1958) and other cryptozoologists also speculated that the mapinguari might be an unknown primate, akin to Bigfoot.{{Refn|Paleontologist Richard Cerutti (private communication to Oren).{{sfnp|Oren|2001|p=3}}}}

Then David C. Oren in a 1993 paper, suggested it might be a modern-day sighting of a giant ground sloth, an animal estimated to have gone extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene.{{sfnp|Oren|2001|p=3}}

Oren, an ornithologist, who during his research (1970s–1990s in the Tapajós River basin) heard stories about recent huntings of this creature (including anecdotes that some hunters kept the hair and claws but were discarded due to the stench), and hypothesized they might be the extinct ground sloths. One of Oren's arguments was that some ground sloths had bony plates like protective armor (cf. mylodontid pelt below), which coincided with the lore that the mapinguari was invulnerable to projectile weapons on most parts of its body. Oren's conjecture was met by criticism by scientists at the time, but an article Oren's 1993 announcement was picked up by major news papers despite no evidence.

Ethnologist Gerard H. Shepard (2002), focused not on the segamai of the Machiguenga (syn. mapinguari) but rather the oshetoniro ("mother of spider monkeys") as a likely variant of the Mapinguari lore, which might be folkloric memory of a ground sloth. Manuel Lizarralde (2002) writing in the same essay collection compares his findings on the legendary red-colored "giant monkey" shaaroba{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|name="lizarralde-shaaroba"}} of the Barí people to Shepard's creature insofar as it may also be the memory of a living ground sloth encounter in the remote past.{{Refn|Lizarralde goes on to say that what the Barí calls a "monkey" may be something different; when asked what beasts they count as "monkey" (mono in Spanish), the Barí people's answers named monkeys species but also included kinkajou and olingo of the raccoon family.}}

Long before Oren, Florentino Ameghino (1898) claimed the ground sloth was still living in South America. He obtained a samples of scales from a pelt he considered fresh, and he published his opinion that ground sloth were recently alive, fortified by the testimony of a trained geologist about witnessing a pangolin-like creature in Patagonia (Santa Cruz Province, Argentina). But the identical pelt sample bearing osteoderms from a mylodontid ground sloth{{efn|The sample, derived from Cueva del Milodón, Chile, but held at the La Plata Museum.}} has recently dated to 13,200 years ago, in the late Pleistocene. The investigation was conducted by the team of Néstor Toledo.{{Refn|Benialgo (2020 & 2021) citing Toledo et al. (2020); in English (2021)}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|A different sample at Berlin had been rehydrated with water vapor and remounted before being X-rayed for a 1906 study.}}

Skeptical geobiologist Paul S. Martin has also argued against any credible possibility of such survival (in the face of encroachment by mankind), pointing out that there have not been any ground sloth remains found in any of the modern (Holocene) fossil records spanning many thousands of years. While the youngest dated ground sloth fossil found on the South American mainland is from Brazil, from 13,000 BP (Pleistocene), the ground sloth did survive much later into the Holocene in the Caribbean, to anywhere from 5,600 to 2,500 years ago based on radiocarbon dating.{{Refn|4,000 years ago given by Dunning.}}

A 2021 published study headed by paleontologist Julia Tejada (now at CaltechDajose, Lori (Fall 2024,) "{{URL|1=https://magazine.caltech.edu/post/ioc8k90zywsgmifedo7oh2de79csod |2=Signatures from the Past: How isotope research digs digs deep to solve mysteries from ancient Earth and beyond". Caltech Magazine, pp. 16–17 (14–20).) indicates that the ground sloth was not a strict herbivore as had been assumed, but was an omnivorous creature.

A 2023 academic study of the 1995 discovery of giant sloth bones “modified into primordial pendants”suggested that humans lived in the Americas contemporaneously with the giant sloth, though these artefacts date back to 25,000 and 27,000 years of age. The reporter comments that though the ground sloth went extinct 11,000 BP (or BC),{{efn|Presumbly 11,000 BC is meant, which fits the 13,000 BP science.}} their fossils are plentifully to be found, so they may very well have "served as inspiration for the Mapinguari, a mythical beast that, in Amazonian legend, had the nasty habit of twisting off the heads of humans and devouring them".{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/14/science/archaeology-sloths-human-migration.html|work=The New York Times |last=Lidz |first=Franz |author-link=Franz Lidz |title=When Were We Here? Ask the Sloth Bones: A discovery revives a longtime debate about the arrival of the earliest Americans.|date=18 July 2023 |accessdate=28 July 2023|page=D3 |url-access=subscription |postscript=;}} reprinted as "{{URL|1=https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/when-did-humans-first-occupy-the-americas-ask-the-sloth-bones/?amp=1|2=When did humans first occupy the Americas? Ask the sloth bones}}" in The Seattle Times, 23 July 2023

A reference to Mapinguari occurs in the 2020 animated film The Red Scroll, during the final scene when the character Wupa transforms into a giant sloth monster.{{cite web |date=20 September 2021 |last=Santos |first=Rodrigo |author-link=|title=O Pergaminho Vermelho |url=https://rodrigosantosescritor.com.br/site/o-pergaminho-vermelho-16-referencias-que-voce-nao-viu-na-primeira-animacao-brasileira-da-disney-plus/ |website=Rodrigo Santos Escritor |accessdate=2025-03-31 |lang=pt}}

• List of legendary creatures
• Capelobo - resembles Mapinguari but with snout like giant anteater (Xenarthra)
• {{annotated link|Homo floresiensis|Homo floresiensis}}, aka "Hobbit" man
• {{annotated link|Mylodon|Mylodon}}
• {{illm|Pai do Mato|pt|Pai do Mato}} - "Father of Forest", compare to Mapinguari, part of "ciclo dos monstros" (Cascudo)
• Quibungo - resembles Mapinguari, same mouth at (reaching to) stomach, transformed from aged black men.

{{notelist}}

{{reflist|2|refs=

{{cite journal|last=Ameghino |first=Florentino |author-link=Florentino Ameghino |title=An existing ground sloth in Patagonia |journal=Natural Science |volume=13 |date=1898 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fk3PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA324 |pages=324–326 }}

{{cite book|last=Barbosa Rodrigues |first=João |author-link=João Barbosa Rodrigues |chapter=O Korupira |title=Poranduba amazonense: ou, Kochiyma-uara porandub, 1886-1887 |volume= |location=Rio de Janeiro |publisher=Typ. de G. Leuzinger & Filhos |date=1890 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ik4TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6 |page=6 |series=Annaes da Bibliotheca Nacional de Rio de Janeiro 14, Fasciculo No. 2 |lang=pt}}

{{cite journal|last=Benialgo |first=Mercedes |author-link= |title=Secretos de una joya del Museo de La Plata: científicos del CONICET dataron con precisión la piel momificada de un perezoso gigante |journal=Conicet La Plata |date=9 December 2020|url=https://laplata.conicet.gov.ar/secretos-de-una-joya-del-museo-de-la-plata-cientificos-del-conicet-dataron-con-precision-la-piel-momificada-de-un-perezoso-gigante/|publisher=CONICET, National Scientific and Technical Research Council, La Plata |accessdate=2025-03-31|lang=es}}; tr. English: "{{URL|1=https://slothconservation.org/the-mummified-skin-of-a-giant-sloth-proves-that-they-coexisted-with-the-first-humans-of-south-america/ |2=The ‘mummified’ skin of a giant sloth proves that they coexisted with the first humans of South America}}" @ slothconservation.org

{{cite journal|last=Benialgo |first=Mercedes |author-link= |title=Examinan con rayos X la piel de un perezoso gigante para desentrañar el misterio de su “armadura”interna |journal=Conicet La Plata |date=3 March 2021 |url=https://laplata.conicet.gov.ar/examinan-con-rayos-x-la-piel-de-un-perezoso-gigante-para-desentranar-el-misterio-de-su-armadura-interna/|publisher=CONICET, National Scientific and Technical Research Council, La Plata |accessdate=2025-03-29|lang=es}} tr. English: "{{URL|1=https://slothconservation.org/the-hidden-armor-found-in-the-skin-of-a-giant-ground-sloth/ |2=The hidden “armor” found in the skin of a giant ground sloth}}" @ slothconservation.org

{{cite book|last=Cascudo |first=Luís da Câmara |author-link=Luís da Câmara Cascudo |chapter=Mapinguari |title=Dicionário do folclore brasileiro |volume=2 (J–Z) |edition=2 |date=1962 |orig-date=1954 |location=Brasília |publisher=Instituto Nacional do Livro |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1UNAQAAMAAJ&q=mapinguari |page=456–457 |language=pt}}

{{harvp|Cascudo|1962}} 1: 353 "{{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVUNAQAAMAAJ&q=Gorjala |2=Gorjala}}"

{{harvp|Cascudo|1962}} 2: 583 "{{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVUNAQAAMAAJ&q="de Garrafa"|2=Pé de Garrafa}}"

{{cite book|last=Cascudo |first=Luís da Câmara |author-link=Luís da Câmara Cascudo |chapter=Mapinguari |title=Geografia dos mitos brasileiros |publisher=Livraria J. Olympio Editora |date=1976b |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9d8MAAAAYAAJ&q=%22mapinguari+pelas%22|pages=192 |language=pt}}

{{cite news|author=Earth Institute |title=Ecology Now-Extinct Giant South American Sloth Likely Devoured Meat With Its Vegetables |newspaper=Climate Change News |date=7 October 2021 |url=https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2021/10/07/now-extinct-giant-south-american-sloth-likely-devoured-meat-with-its-vegetables/ |publisher=Columbia Climate School }}

{{cite journal|last=Deleyto |first=José María |author-link= |title=Mundo de la Amazonia |journal=Revista Española de Indigenismo |number=8 |date=September 1966|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YUMSAQAAIAAJ&q=Mapinguari |page=17 |publisher= |lang=es |quote=Los Macuna también creen en monstruos , de los cuales va- rios pasaron al al folklore . Mui temido es el Mapinguari , un ser gigantesco y cabelludo que come gente. Se dice que gente demasiado vieja se transforma en Mapinguaris. Esta creencia parece venir de los indios del río Yotahy , donde se mata a los viejos para que no alcancen edad avanzada y no se conviertan en Mapinguaris}}

{{cite encyclopedia|last=DeMello |first=Margo |author-link= |entry=Mapinguary |title=Bigfoot to Mothman: A Global Encyclopedia of Legendary Beasts and Monsters |location= |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |year=2024 |entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V_PiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113 |page=113 |isbn=9781440877261}}

{{cite book|last=Galeano |first=Juan Carlos |author-link= |chapter=Mapinguari |title=Cuentos amazónicos |location=Iquitos, Perú |publisher=Tierra Nueva |date=April 2014 |chapter-url=https://myweb.fsu.edu/jgaleano/pdf/amazonia2014.pdf |pages=71–72|language=es |postscript=;}} Galeano (2009) "{{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOfWAAAAMAAJ&q=mapinguari |2=Mapinguari the One-eyed Ogre}}" Folktales of the Amazon, Bloomsbury. pp. 39–40

{{cite book |last=Guedes |first=Mario |author-link= |chapter=Mapinguary |editor1-last=Fuentes |title=Os Seringaes: pequenas notas |location=Rio de Janeiro |publisher=Typ. de Martins de Araujo |year=1914|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZg_AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246 |pages=245–246 |lang=pt}}

{{cite journal|last=Holloway |first=Marguerite |author-link= |title=Beasts in the Mist |journal=Discover |volume=20 |date=September 1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdfaAAAAMAAJ&q=Ameghino |page=62 }}

{{cite book |last=Lizarralde |first=Manuel |author-link= |chapter=Chapter 5. Ethnoecology of monkeys among the Barí of Venezuela: perception, use and conservation |editor1-last=Fuentes |editor1-first=Agustín |editor1-link=Agustín Fuentes |editor2-last=Wolfe |editor2-first=Linda D. |editor2-link= |title=Primates Face to Face: The Conservation Implications of Human-nonhuman Primate Interconnections |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zYg3eOqjq4UC&q=shaaroba |pages=89–90|isbn=9781139441476}}

{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Paul S. |author-link=Paul Schultz Martin |date=2005 |title=Twilight of the mammoths: ice age extinctions and the rewilding of America |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d7owDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |pages=98–99 |isbn=978-0-520-94110-6 |oclc=62860983}}

{{cite book |last=McDonald |first=H. Gregory |author-link= |chapter=Ground Sloths |editor1-last=Reid |editor1-first=Basil A. |editor1-link= |editor2-last=Gilmore |editor2-first=R. Grant III |editor2-link= |title=Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2014|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a37SEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 |pages=171–172 |isbn=9780813048536}}

{{cite book|last=Monteiro |first=Mário Ypiranga |author-link=:pt:Mário Ypiranga Monteiro |title=História da cultura amazonense |volume=1 |location=Manaus |publisher=Edição do Governo do Estado do Amazonas, Administração Ministro Henoch da Silva Reis|date=1977|url=https://books.google.com/books?&id=KHMYAAAAYAAJ&q=mapinguari|pages=88–89|language=pt}}

{{cite book |last=Nunes Maciel |first=Márcia |author-link= |chapter=Povo Mura |editor1-last=Negro |editor1-first=Mauricio |editor1-link= |editor2-last=Dorrico |editor2-first=Trudruá |editor2-link=:pt:Trudruá Dorrico |title=Originárias: Uma antologia feminina de literatura indígena |publisher=Companhia das Letrinhas |year=2023 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bc_KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT59 |page= |isbn=9786581776879}}

{{cite book|last1=Magalhães |first1=Basílio de |author1-link=:pt:Basílio de Magalhães |last2=Silva Campos |first2=João da |author2-link= |chapter=LXXVI O Mapinguary |title=Ditados Populares: a verdade que o povo consagrou |location= |publisher=Editora Dialética |date=1928|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-7vjAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA321 |pages=321–322 |lang=pt |postscript=;}} --; -- (1960) {{URL|1=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXTYAAAAMAAJ&mapinguari |2=LXXVI O mapinguari}} p. 335

{{cite dictionary|last=Ramiz Galvão |first=Benjamim Franklin de |author-link=Ramiz Galvão |chapter=mbaê |title=Vocabulario das Palavras Guaranis usadas pelo traductor da «Conquista Espritual» do Padre A. Ruiz de Montoya |location=Rio de Janeiro |publisher=Typographia Nacional |date=1879 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6EzAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA223 |page=223|series=Anais da Biblioteca nacional do Rio de Janeiro 7|language=pt}}

{{cite journal |last=Rinčen |first=P. R. |author-link=Byambyn Rinchen |date=1964 |title=Almas still exists in Mongolia |journal=Genus |volume=20 |issue=1/4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NUsAQAAIAAJ&q=kümün |pages=187–189 |issn=0016-6987 |jstor=29787582}}

{{cite book |last=Shepard |first=Glenn H. |author-link= |chapter=Chapter 6. Primates in Matsigenka subsistence and world view |editor1-last=Fuentes |editor1-first=Agustín |editor1-link=Agustín Fuentes |editor2-last=Wolfe |editor2-first=Linda D. |editor2-link= |title=Primates Face to Face: The Conservation Implications of Human-nonhuman Primate Interconnections |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zYg3eOqjq4UC&pg=PA131|at=pp. 111–112. p. 131, n4|isbn=9781139441476}}

{{cite book |last=Slater |first=Candace |author-link=Candace Slater |others=Translated by Astrid Figueiredo |title=A Festa do boto: transformação e desencanto na imaginação amazônica |publisher=Funarte |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4q1uAAAAMAAJ&q=curupiras |page=206 |isbn=9788585781804}}

{{cite book |last=Slater|first=Candace |author-link=Candace Slater |title=Entangled Edens: Visions of the Amazon |publisher=University of California Press |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7AwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA250 |page=250, n42|isbn=9780520226425}}

{{cite book |last=Souza Carneiro |first=Antônio Joaquim de |author-link= |title=Os mitos africanos no Brasil: ciencia do folk-lore |publisher=Companhia Editora Nacional |year=1937|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-9ZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22nas+costas%22 |page=316 |lang=pt}}

{{cite book |last=Sykes |first=Bryan |author-link=Bryan Sykes |title=Bigfoot, Yeti, and the Last Neanderthal: A Geneticist's Search for Modern Apemen |publisher=Red Wheel/Weiser |year=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uoRNCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |page=250, n42|isbn=9781938875151}}

{{cite journal|last1=Toledo |first1=Néstor |author1-link= |last2=Boscaini|first2=Alberto |author2-link= |last3=Pérez |first3=Leandro Martín |author3-link= |title=The dermal armor of mylodontid sloths (Mammalia, Xenarthra) from Cueva del Milodón (Última Esperanza, Chile) |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=282 |issue=4 |date=April 2021 |pages=612–627 |doi=10.1002/jmor.21333}}

{{cite journal|last=Vander Velden|first=Felipe Ferreira |author-link= |title=Sobre caes e indios: domesticidade, classificacao zoologica e relacao humano-animal entre os Karitiana |journal=Avá: Revista de Antropología |volume=15 |date=2009 |url=https://www.scielo.org.ar/pdf/ava/n15/n15a06.pdf |page=131, n9 |doi=10.1590/1981.81222016000100011 |lang=es}}

{{cite book |last1=Veracini |first1=Cecilia |author1-link= |last2=Camphora |first2=Lucia |author2-link=|chapter=Ch. 4. The Americas: 4.2.1.1 Spider Monkeys |editor1-last=Veracini |editor1-first=Cecilia |editor1-link= |editor2-last=Wood |editor2-first=Bernard |editor2-link= |title=Primates in History, Myth, Art, and Science |publisher=CRC Press |year=2024 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TC0BEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT168 |at=|isbn=9781351981873}}

}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite thesis|type=MA |last=Bezerra |first=Sandra Nancy Ramos Freire |author-link= |title=Oralidade, memória e tradição nas narrativas de assombrações na Região do Cariri |trans-title=Orality, memory and tradition in the narratives of apparitions in the Cariri |publisher=Universidade Federal do Ceará |date=2011|url=https://repositorio.ufc.br/bitstream/riufc/3015/1/2011_dis_snrfbezerra.pdf |page= |postscript=;}} ({{URL|1=http://repositorio.ufc.br/handle/riufc/3015 |2=repository}})

• {{cite book|last=Cascudo |first=Luís da Câmara |author-link=Luís da Câmara Cascudo |chapter=Mapinguari |title=Mitos brasileiros |publisher=Ministério da Educação e Cultura, Departamento de Assuntos Culturais, Fundação Nacional de Arte, Campanha de Defesa do Folclore Brasileiro |date=1976a |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpoMAAAAYAAJ&mapinguari |pages= |series=Cadernos de folclore 6 |language=pt}}
• {{cite book|last=Cascudo |first=Luís da Câmara |author-link=Luís da Câmara Cascudo |chapter=Mapinguari |title=Geografia dos mitos brasileiros |publisher=Livraria J. Olympio Editora |date=1983 |orig-date=1976 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-EMAAAAYAAJ&q=mapinguari|pages=189–192 |language=pt}}
• {{cite book|last=Cascudo |first=Luís da Câmara |author-link=Luís da Câmara Cascudo |chapter=Mapinguari |title=Geografia dos mitos brasileiros |publisher=Global |date=2002 |orig-date=1976 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3kSAQAAIAAJ&q=mapinguari|pages=222–223 |language=pt}}
• {{cite journal|last=Oren |first=David C. |author-link= |title=Does the Endangered Xenarthran Fauna of Amazonia Include Remnant Ground Sloths? |journal=Edentata: A Newsletter of the IUCN Edentate Specialist Group |number=4 |date=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pelGAAAAYAAJ&q=mapinguari |page=2–5|postscript=;}} {{URL|1=https://www.scribd.com/document/421880062/Edentata-4|2=fulltext}} @scribd

• {{cite journal|last=Vander Velden|first=Felipe Ferreira |author-link=|title=Realidade, ciência e fantasia nas controvérsias sobre o Mapinguari no sudoeste amazônico |trans-title=Reality, science and fantasy in the controversies about the Mapinguari in southwestern Amazonia |journal=Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi Ciências Humanas |volume=11 |number=1 |date=January–April 2016 |url=https://www.scielo.br/j/bgoeldi/a/SH8jW3RF4Z7zv8RQD57JSvk/?format=pdf&lang=pt|lang=pt}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite episode|credits= |last=Zarka |first=Emily |author-link= |author-mask=Zarka, Emily, hosted by |others=Commentary by Andriolli Costa, Ph.D. |title=Mapinguari: Fearsome Beast and Protector of the Amazon |series=Monstrum |series-link= |season=4 |number=6 |network=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/video/mapinguari-fearsome-beast-and-protector-of-the-amazon-xnse9d/ |date=2 June 2022}}

{{refend}}

Category:Brazilian folklore

Category:Cryptozoology

Category:Forest spirits

Category:Hominid cryptids

Category:Indigenous Amazonian legendary creatures

Category:Indigenous South American legendary creatures