pangolin

The name of order Pholidota comes from Ancient Greek {{lang|el|Φολιδωτός}} – "clad in scales"{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Roland Wilbur |title=The Composition of Scientific Words |date=1956 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington, D.C. |page=604}} from {{lang|el|φολίς}} pholís "scale".{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=foli/s |title=φολίς |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott|first2=Robert |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |date= 1940 }}

The name "pangolin" comes from the Malay word pengguling meaning "one who rolls up"{{cite book |editor-last=Pearsall |editor-first=Judy |year=2002 |title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary |edition=10th |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxfordshire, England |isbn=978-0-19-860572-0 |page=1030}} from guling or giling "to roll"; it was used for the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica).{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-60272783/view?partId=nla.obj-436318167#page/n572/|title=tĕnggiling |dictionary=A Malay-English dictionary (romanised) |last=Wilkinson |first=Richard James |publisher=Salavopoulos & Kinderlis |location=Mytilene, Greece |date=1932 |volume=II |page=567 |via=TROVE, National Library of Australia}} However, the modern name is tenggiling. In Javanese, it is terenggiling; and in the Philippine languages, it is goling, tanggiling, or balintong (with the same meaning).{{cite book |last1=Vergara |first1=Benito S. |last2=Idowu |first2=Panna Melizah H. |last3=Sumangil |first3=Julia H. |last4=Gonzales |first4=Juan Carlos |last5=Dans |first5=Andres |title=Interesting Philippine Animals |publisher=Island Publishing House, Inc. |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=9718538550 |url=http://scinet.dost.gov.ph/union/UploadFiles/download.php?b=nast_Vergara%20BS%202000%20Interesting%20Philippine%20Animals_423.pdf&f=../Downloads/nast_Vergara%20BS%202000%20Interesting%20Philippine%20Animals_423.pdf&t=application/pdf |access-date=14 December 2019 |archive-date=27 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327210150/http://scinet.dost.gov.ph/union/UploadFiles/download.php?b=nast_Vergara%20BS%202000%20Interesting%20Philippine%20Animals_423.pdf&f=..%2FDownloads%2Fnast_Vergara%20BS%202000%20Interesting%20Philippine%20Animals_423.pdf&t=application%2Fpdf |url-status=dead }}

In ancient India, according to Aelian, it was known as the phattáges (φαττάγης).Aelian, On Animals, 16:6 Loeb Classical Library, translated A. F. Scholfield 1959 vol. 3, pp. 266-268.

File:Pangolin skeletons.JPGs at the Museum of Osteology (2009)]]

File:Pangolin scale histology.jpg

The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large, hardened, overlapping, plate-like scales, which are soft on newborn pangolins, but harden as the animal matures.{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hui-Ming |last2=Liu |first2=Ping |last3=Zhang |first3=Xiu-Juan |last4=Li |first4=Lin-Miao |last5=Jiang |first5=Hai-Ying |last6=Yan |first6=Hua |last7=Hou |first7=Fang-Hui |last8=Chen |first8=Jin-Ping|display-authors=4 |date=2020-09-03 |title=Combined proteomics and transcriptomics reveal the genetic basis underlying the differentiation of skin appendages and immunity in pangolin |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=14566 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-71513-w |pmid=32884035 |issn=2045-2322|pmc=7471334 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1014566L }} They are made of keratin, the same material from which human fingernails and tetrapod claws are made, and are structurally and compositionally very different from the scales of reptiles.{{Cite journal |last=Spearman |first=R.I.C. |title=On the nature of the horny scales of the pangolin |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxfordshire, England |volume=46 |issue=310 |pages=267–273 |year=2008 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1967.tb00508.x}} The pangolin's scaled body is comparable in appearance to a pine cone. It can curl up into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as armor, while it protects its face by tucking it under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense from predators.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Bin |last2=Yang |first2=Wen |last3=Sherman |first3=Vincent R. |last4=Meyers |first4=Marc A. |title=Pangolin armor: Overlapping, structure, and mechanical properties of the keratinous scales |journal=Acta Biomaterialia |publisher=Elsevier |location=Oxfordshire, England |volume=41 |pages=60–74 |year=2016 |doi=10.1016/j.actbio.2016.05.028 |pmid=27221793}}

Pangolins can emit a noxious-smelling chemical from glands near the anus, similar to the spray of a skunk.{{cite web |url=http://pangolins.org/|title= Meet the Pangolin! |year=2015 |publisher=Pangolins.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222010139/http://pangolins.org/ |archive-date=22 February 2015 |url-status=live}} They have short legs, with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into ant and termite mounds and for climbing.{{cite web |url=http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Manis_tricuspis/ |last1=Andrews |first1=James |title=Manis tricuspis: tree pangolin |year=2011 |website=Animal Diversity Web |publisher=University of Michigan |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221202454/http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Manis_tricuspis/ |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=live}}

The tongues of pangolins are extremely long, and like those of the giant anteater and the tube-lipped nectar bat, the root of the tongue is not attached to the hyoid bone but is in the thorax between the sternum and the trachea.{{cite journal |last=Chan |first=Lap-Ki |title=Extrinsic Lingual Musculature of Two Pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae) |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxfordshire, England |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=472–480 |year=1995 |doi=10.2307/1382356 |jstor=1382356}} Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as {{convert|40|cm|in|abbr=on}}, with a diameter of only about {{convert|0.5|cm|in|frac=5|abbr=on}}.

File:Manis temminckii (29390603130).jpg in defensive posture]]

File:Pangolin defending itself from lions (Gir Forest, Gujarat, India).jpg defending itself against Asiatic lions]]

Most pangolins are nocturnal animals{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Amelia E. |date=January 1994 |title=Husbandry of pangolins Manis spp |journal=International Zoo Yearbook |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=248–251 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1994.tb03578.x}} which use their well-developed sense of smell to find insects. The long-tailed pangolin is also active by day, while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping, curled up into a ball ("volvation").{{cite book |editor-first=Arnoldo |editor-last=Mondadori |title=Great Book of the Animal Kingdom |location=New York City |publisher=Arch Cape Press |year=1988 |page=252 |isbn=978-0517667910}}

Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground-dwelling species dig tunnels to a depth of {{convert|3.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad, although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs. Furthermore, some exhibit a bipedal stance for some behavior, and may walk a few steps bipedally.{{cite journal |first1=Rajesh K. |last1=Mohapatra |first2=Sudarsen |last2=Panda |year=2014 |title=Behavioural descriptions of Indian pangolins (Manis crassicaudata) in captivity. |journal=International Journal of Zoology |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=London, England |volume=2014 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1155/2014/795062 |doi-access=free}} Pangolins are also good swimmers.

Pangolins are insectivorous. Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites and may be supplemented by other insects, especially larvae. They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or two species of insects, even when many species are available. A pangolin can consume {{convert|140|to|200|g|oz|frac=4|abbr=on}} of insects per day.{{cite web |url=http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/grosshue_crai/diet.htm |title=Rollin' With the Pangolin – Diet |first=Craig |last=Grosshuesch |year=2012 |publisher=University of Wisconsin–La Crosse |location=La Crosse, Wisconsin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223020558/http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/grosshue_crai/diet.htm |archive-date=23 December 2014 |url-status=live}} Pangolins are an important regulator of termite populations in their natural habitats.{{cite journal |doi=10.7717/peerj.4140 |pmid=29302388 |pmc=5742527 |title=Transcriptomic analysis identifies genes and pathways related to myrmecophagy in the Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) |journal=PeerJ |publisher=O'Reilly Media |location=Corte Madera, California |volume=5 |pages=e4140 |year=2017 |last1=Ma |first1=Jing-E |last2=Li |first2=Lin-Miao |last3=Jiang |first3=Hai-Ying |last4=Zhang |first4=Xiu-Juan |last5=Li |first5=Juan |last6=Li |first6=Guan-Yu |last7=Yuan |first7=Li-Hong |last8=Wu |first8=Jun |last9=Chen |first9=Jin-Ping |doi-access=free }}

Pangolins have very poor vision. They also lack teeth. They rely heavily on smell and hearing, and they have other physical characteristics to help them eat ants and termites. Their skeletal structure is sturdy and they have strong front legs used for tearing into termite mounds.{{Cite book |title=Xenarthra and Pholidota (Armadillos, Anteaters, Sloths and Pangolins) |last1=Rose |first1=K. D. |last2=Gaudin |first2=T. J. |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |isbn=978-0470015902 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0001556.pub2|s2cid=82107941 }} They use their powerful front claws to dig into trees, soil, and vegetation to find prey,{{Cite journal |author1=Coulson, Ian M |author2=Heath, Martha E |date=December 1997 |title=Foraging behavior and ecology of the Cape pangolin (Manis temminckii) in north-western Zimbabwe |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=361–369 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1997.101-89101.x |bibcode=1997AfJEc..35..361R |via=EBSCO}} then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect tunnels and to retrieve their prey.

The structure of their tongue and stomach is key to aiding pangolins in obtaining and digesting insects. Their saliva is sticky, causing ants and termites to stick to their long tongues when they are hunting through insect tunnels. Without teeth, pangolins cannot also chew;{{cite book |first=Lee |last=Gutteridge |title=The South African Bushveld: A Field Guide from the Waterberg |url={{GBurl|id=Dvk4ogj3SxcC|pg=PT36}} |year=2008 |publisher=30° South Publishers |location=Pinetown, South Africa |isbn=978-1-920143-13-8 |page=36}} but while foraging, they ingest small stones (gastroliths), which accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants.{{cite book |title=Wildlife of the World |url={{GBurl|id=qqFFCgAAQBAJ|p=215}} |year=2015 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4654-4959-7 |page=215}} This part of their stomach is called the gizzard, and it is also covered in keratinous spines.{{Cite journal |last1=Davit-Béal |first1=Tiphaine |last2=Tucker |first2=Abigail S. |last3=Sire |first3=Jean-Yves |date=1 April 2009 |title=Loss of teeth and enamel in tetrapods: fossil record, genetic data and morphological adaptations |journal=Journal of Anatomy |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York City |volume=214 |issue=4 |pages=477–501 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01060.x |pmid=19422426 |pmc=2736120}} These spines further aid in the grinding up and digestion of the pangolin's prey.

Some species, such as the tree pangolin, use their strong, prehensile tails to hang from tree branches and strip away bark from the trunk, exposing insect nests inside.{{cite book |first=Donald R. |last=Prothero |title=The Princeton Field Guide to Prehistoric Mammals |url={{GBurl|id=eiftDAAAQBAJ|p=118}} |year=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=978-1-4008-8445-2 |page=118}}

File:Philippine Pangolin Curled-up by Gregg Yan.jpg pup and its mother, a critically endangered species endemic to the Palawan island group. It is threatened by illegal poaching for the pangolin trade to China and Vietnam, where it is regarded as a luxury medicinal delicacy.{{cite news |last1=Fabro |first1=Keith Anthony S. |title=All hope is not lost for vanishing Palawan pangolin |url=https://www.rappler.com/science-nature/environment/232548-all-hope-not-lost-vanishing-palawan-pangolin |access-date=14 December 2019 |work=Rappler |date=10 June 2019}}]]

Pangolins are solitary and meet only to have sex, with mating typically taking place at night after the male and female pangolin meet near a watering hole. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 40% more. While the mating season is not defined, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn. Rather than the males seeking out the females, males mark their location with urine or feces and the females find them. If competition over a female occurs, the males use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her.{{cite web |url=https://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/grosshue_crai/reproduction.htm |title=Rollin' With the Pangolin – Reproduction |first=Craig |last=Grosshuesch |year=2012 |publisher=University of Wisconsin–La Crosse |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223040747/http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/grosshue_crai/reproduction.htm |archive-date=23 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}

Gestation periods differ by species, ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days.{{cite journal |last1=Hua |first1=Liushuai |last2=Gong |first2=Shiping |last3=Wang |first3=Fumin |last4=Li |first4=Weiye |last5=Ge |first5=Yan |last6=Li |first6=Xiaonan |last7=Hou |first7=Fanghui |title=Captive breeding of pangolins: current status, problems and future prospects |journal=ZooKeys |date=8 June 2015 |issue=507 |pages=99–114 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.507.6970 |pmid=26155072 |pmc=4490220|doi-access=free |bibcode=2015ZooK..507...99H }} African pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth to from one to three. Weight at birth is {{convert|80|to|450|g|oz|frac=4|abbr=on}}, and the average length is {{convert|150|mm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}}. At the time of birth, the scales are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and wraps her body around it if she senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although, in burrowing species, they remain in the burrow for the first two to four weeks of life. At one month, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's back. Weaning takes place around three months of age, when the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At two years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.{{cite book |last=Dickman |first=Christopher R. |editor-last=MacDonald |editor-first=D. |year=1984 |title=The Encyclopedia of Mammals |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/780 780–781] |isbn=978-0-87196-871-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/780}}

{{further|List of pholidotans}}

• Order: Pholidota Weber, 1904
• Genus: †Euromanis Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
• Family: †Eurotamanduidae Szalay & Schrenk, 1994
• Suborder: Eupholidota Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
• Superfamily: Manoidea Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
• Family: Manidae Gray, 1821
• Family: †Patriomanidae Szalay & Schrenk 1998 [sensu Gaudin, Emry & Pogue, 2006]
• Incertae sedis
• Genus: †Necromanis Filhol, 1893
• Superfamily: †Eomanoidea Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
• Family: †Eomanidae Storch, 2003

{{see also|Pholidotamorpha}}

The order Pholidota was long considered to be the sister taxon to Xenarthra (neotropical anteaters, sloths, and armadillos), but recent genetic evidence indicates their closest living relatives are the carnivorans, with which they form a clade, the Ferae.{{cite journal |name-list-style=vanc |display-authors=2 |last1=Murphy |first1=William J. |last2=Eizirik |first2=Eduardo |last3=O'Brien |first3=Stephen J. |last4=Madsen |first4=Ole |last5=Scally |first5=Mark |last6=Douady |first6=Christophe J. |last7=Teeling |first7=Emma |last8=Ryder |first8=Oliver A. |last9=Stanhope |first9=Michael J. |last10=de Jong |first10=Wilfried W. |last11=Springer |first11=Mark S. |date=14 December 2001 |title=Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.1067179 |pmid=11743200 |bibcode=2001Sci...294.2348M |volume=294 |issue=5550 |pages=2348–2351 |s2cid=34367609}}{{cite journal |author=Amrine-Madsen, H. |author2=Koepfli, K.P. |author3=Wayne, R.K. |author4=Springer, M.S. |year=2003 |title=A new phylogenetic marker, apolipoprotein B, provides compelling evidence for eutherian relationships |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=225–240 |doi=10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00118-0 |pmid=12878460|bibcode=2003MolPE..28..225A }}{{cite journal |first1=Robin |last1=Beck |first2=Olaf |last2=Bininda-Emonds |first3=Marcel |last3=Cardillo |first4=Fu-Guo |last4=Liu |first5=Andy |last5=Purvis |title=A higher-level MRP supertree of placental mammals |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |publisher=BioMed Central |location=London, England |date=2006 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=93 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-6-93 |pmid=17101039 |pmc=1654192 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Du Toit |first1=Z. |last2=Grobler |first2=J. P. |last3=Kotzé |first3=A. |last4=Jansen |first4=R. |last5=Brettschneider |first5=H. |last6=Dalton |first6=D. L. |title=The complete mitochondrial genome of Temminck's ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii; Smuts, 1832) and phylogenetic position of the Pholidota (Weber, 1904) |journal=Gene |volume=551 |issue=1 |year=2014 |pages=49–54 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2014.08.040 |pmid=25158133}} Palaeanodonts are even closer relatives to pangolins, being classified with pangolins in the clade Pholidotamorpha.{{cite journal |last1=Kondrashov |first1=Peter |last2=Agadjanian |first2=Alexandre K. |year=2012 |title=A nearly complete skeleton of Ernanodon (Mammalia, Palaeanodonta) from Mongolia: morphofunctional analysis |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=Bethesda Maryland |doi=10.1080/02724634.2012.694319 |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=983–1001 |bibcode=2012JVPal..32..983K |s2cid=86059673}} The split between carnivorans and pangolins is estimated to have occurred 79.47 Ma (million years) ago.

The first dichotomy in the phylogeny of extant Manidae separates Asian pangolins (Manis) from African pangolins (Smutsia and Phataginus). Within the former, Manis pentadactyla is the sister group to a clade comprising M. crassicaudata and M. javanica. Within the latter, a split separates the large terrestrial African pangolins of the genus Smutsia from the small arboreal African pangolins of the genus Phataginus.{{Cite journal |last1=Gaubert |first1=Philippe |last2=Antunes |first2=Agostinho |last3=Meng |first3=Hao |last4=Miao |first4=Lin |last5=Peigné |first5=Stéphane |last6=Justy |first6=Fabienne |last7=Njiokou |first7=Flobert |last8=Dufour |first8=Sylvain |last9=Danquah |first9=Emmanuel |last10=Alahakoon |first10=Jayanthi |last11=Verheyen |first11=Erik |date=11 May 2018 |title=The Complete Phylogeny of Pangolins: Scaling Up Resources for the Molecular Tracing of the Most Trafficked Mammals on Earth |journal=Journal of Heredity |language=en |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=347–359 |doi=10.1093/jhered/esx097 |pmid=29140441 |doi-access=}}

Asian and African pangolins are thought to have diverged about 41.37 Ma ago.Sean P. Heighton, Rémi Allio, Jérôme Murienne, Jordi Salmona, Hao Meng, Céline Scornavacca, Armanda D. S. Bastos, Flobert Njiokou, Darren W. Pietersen, Marie-Ka Tilak, Shu-Jin Luo, Frédéric Delsuc, Philippe Gaubert (2023.) [https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.02.16.528682v1 "Pangolin genomes offer key insights and resources for the world's most trafficked wild mammals"] Moreover, the basal position of Manis within Pholidota{{cite journal |last1=du Toit |first1=Z. |last2=du Plessis |first2= M. |last3=Dalton |first3=D. L. |last4=Jansen |first4=R. |last5=Paul Grobler |first5=J. |last6=Kotzé |first6=A. |title=Mitochondrial genomes of African pangolins and insights into evolutionary patterns and phylogeny of the family Manidae |journal=BMC Genomics |volume=18 |issue=1 |year=2017 |doi=10.1186/s12864-017-4140-5 |pmid=28934931 |doi-access=free |pmc=5609056 |page=746}} suggests the group originated in Eurasia, consistent with their laurasiatherian phylogeny.

{{see also|Pangolin trade}}

File:Pangolin scale burn in Cameroon. Credit- Kenneth Cameron - USFWS (2) (32575640450).jpg,{{cite web |publisher=CNN |title=Change the List: The Most Trafficked Mammal You've Never Heard Of |last=Sutter |first=John D. |url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2014/04/opinion/sutter-change-the-list-pangolin-trafficking/ |date=April 2014}} set to be destroyed by authorities in Cameroon in 2017]]

Pangolins are in high demand in southern China and Vietnam because their scales are believed to have medicinal properties in traditional Chinese and Vietnamese medicine.{{Cite journal|last1=Sexton|first1=Rebecca|last2=Nguyen|first2=Trang|last3=Roberts|first3=David L.|date=2021-01-01|title=The Use and Prescription of Pangolin in Traditional Vietnamese Medicine|journal=Tropical Conservation Science|language=en|publication-place=University of Kent, WildAid|volume=14|pages=1940082920985755|doi=10.1177/1940082920985755|s2cid=233919533|issn=1940-0829|doi-access=free}} Their meat is also considered a delicacy.{{cite book |last1=van Uhm |first1=D.P. |title=The Illegal Wildlife Trade: Inside the World of Poachers, Smugglers and Traders (Studies of Organized Crime) |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |location=New York}}{{cite news |title=Over a million pangolins slaughtered in the last decade |url=http://news.mongabay.com/2014/0729-hance-pangolins-iucn-update.html |newspaper=Mongabay |date=29 July 2014|access-date=7 August 2014 |first=Jeremy |last=Hance |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141208082730/http://news.mongabay.com/2014/0729-hance-pangolins-iucn-update.html |archive-date=8 December 2014 |url-status=live}}{{cite iucn |author1=Challender, D. |author2=Willcox, D.H.A. |author3=Panjang, E. |author4=Lim, N. |author5=Nash, H. |author6=Heinrich, S. |author7=Chong, J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Manis javanica |page=e.T12763A123584856 |year=2019 |access-date=30 January 2020}}{{cite magazine |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151220-wildlife-trafficking-crime-blotter/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222103917/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151220-wildlife-trafficking-crime-blotter/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2015 |title=Crime Blotter: Pangolin Scales, Tiger Skins, and More |first=Jani |last=Actman |magazine=National Geographic |date=20 December 2015 |access-date=1 May 2016}}{{cite magazine |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151218-malaysia-endangered-wildlife-tiger-pangolin-crocodile-smuggling/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151220170620/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151218-malaysia-endangered-wildlife-tiger-pangolin-crocodile-smuggling/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 December 2015 |title=Tiger Eyes, Crocodile Penis: It's What's For Dinner in Malaysia |last=Cruise |first=Adam |date=18 April 2015 |access-date=1 May 2016 |magazine=National Geographic}} 100,000 are estimated to be trafficked a year to China and Vietnam,{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45784627 |title=What's the secret to saving this rare creature?|last1=Haenlein |first1=Alexandria |last2=Reid |first2=Cathy |last3=Keatinge |first3=Tom |date=10 October 2018 |work=BBC News |access-date=10 October 2018}} amounting to over one million over the past decade.{{Cite journal |last1=Ingram |first1=Daniel J. |last2=Coad |first2=Lauren |last3=Abernethy |first3=Katharine A. |last4=Maisels |first4=Fiona |last5=Stokes |first5=Emma J. |last6=Bobo |first6=Kadiri S. |last7=Breuer |first7=Thomas |last8=Gandiwa |first8=Edson |last9=Ghiurghi |first9=Andrea |last10=Greengrass |first10=Elizabeth |last11=Holmern |first11=Tomas |date=March 2018 |title=Assessing Africa-Wide Pangolin Exploitation by Scaling Local Data: Assessing African pangolin exploitation |journal=Conservation Letters |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=e12389 |doi=10.1111/conl.12389 |doi-access=free|hdl=1893/25549 |hdl-access=free }} This makes them the most trafficked animal in the world.{{cite news |last=Fletcher |first=Martin |date=5 February 2015 |title=The world's most-trafficked mammal – and the scaliest |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30833685 |access-date=10 October 2018}} This, coupled with deforestation, has led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins. Some species, such as Manis pentadactyla have become commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting.{{cite iucn |last1=Challender |first1=D. |last2=Wu |first2=S. |last3=Kaspal |first3=P. |last4=Khatiwada |first4=A. |last5=Ghose |first5=A. |last6=Ching-Min Su |first6=N. |last7=Suwal |first7=Laxmi |year=2019 |title=Manis pentadactyla |page=e.T12764A123585318 |access-date=30 January 2020}} In November 2010, pangolins were added to the Zoological Society of London's list of evolutionarily distinct and endangered mammals.{{cite news |author=Agence France-Presse |date=19 November 2010 |title='Asian unicorn' and scaly anteater make endangered list |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au//breaking-news-world/asian-unicorn-and-scaly-anteater-make-endangered-list-20101119-180sa.html}} All eight species of pangolin are assessed as threatened by the IUCN, while three are classified as critically endangered. All pangolin species are currently listed under Appendix I of CITES which prohibits international trade, except when the product is intended for non-commercial purposes and a permit has been granted.{{cite web |title=The CITES Appendices |website=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora |publisher=CITES |url=https://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php |access-date=28 January 2019}}

China had been the main destination country for pangolins until 2018, where it was surpassed by Vietnam. In 2019, Vietnam was reported to have seized the largest volumes of pangolin scales, surpassing Nigeria that year.{{Cite news|last=Sen|date=February 18, 2020|title=First ivory, now pangolin scales: Vietnam remains wildlife trafficking hotspot|work=VnExpress|url=https://e.vnexpress.net/news/news/first-ivory-now-pangolin-scales-vietnam-remains-wildlife-trafficking-hotspot-4055838.html}}

Pangolins are also hunted and eaten in Ghana and are one of the more popular types of bushmeat, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine.{{cite journal |last1=Boakye |first1=Maxwell Kwame |last2=Pietersen |first2=Darren William |last3=Kotzé |first3=Antoinette |last4=Dalton |first4=Desiré-Lee |last5=Jansen |first5=Raymond |date=20 January 2015 |title=Knowledge and uses of African pangolins as a source of traditional medicine in Ghana |journal=PLOS ONE |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0117199 |pmc=4300090 |pmid=25602281 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1017199B |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=e0117199|doi-access=free }}

Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to beliefs in East Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma.{{cite news |last=Wassener |first=Bettina |date=12 March 2013 |title=No Species Is Safe From Burgeoning Wildlife Trade |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/12/world/asia/no-species-is-safe-from-burgeoning-wildlife-trade.html?_r=0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222182549/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/12/world/asia/no-species-is-safe-from-burgeoning-wildlife-trade.html?_r=0 |archive-date=22 February 2015}} In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia.{{cite news |last=Sutter |first=John D. |date=3 April 2014 |title=The Most Trafficked Mammal You've Never Heard Of |publisher=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2014/04/opinion/sutter-change-the-list-pangolin-trafficking/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202055005/http://www.cnn.com/interactive/2014/04/opinion/sutter-change-the-list-pangolin-trafficking/ |archive-date=2 February 2015}}{{cite web |date=17 March 2008 |title=23 tonnes of pangolins seized in a week |publisher=Traffic.org |url=http://www.traffic.org/home/2008/3/17/23-tonnes-of-pangolins-seized-in-a-week.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126034922/http://www.traffic.org/home/2008/3/17/23-tonnes-of-pangolins-seized-in-a-week.html |archive-date=26 November 2014}}{{cite news |last=Watts |first=Jonathan |date=25 May 2007 |title='Noah's Ark' of 5,000 rare animals found floating off the coast of China |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/may/26/china.conservation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003122422/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/may/26/china.conservation |archive-date=3 October 2014}}{{cite news |date=27 May 2012 |title=Asia in Pictures |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303674004577431140183065720#slide/7 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222184723/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303674004577431140183065720#slide/7 |archive-date=22 February 2015}} In one such incident in April 2013, {{convert|10000|kg|lb|abbr=in}} of pangolin meat were seized from a Chinese vessel that ran aground in the Philippines.{{cite news |title=Chinese vessel on Philippine coral reef caught with illegal pangolin meat |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/apr/15/chinese-vessel-philippine-reef-illegal-pangolin-meat |newspaper=Associated Press |date=15 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416213335/http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/apr/15/chinese-vessel-philippine-reef-illegal-pangolin-meat |archive-date=16 April 2013 |access-date=16 April 2013 |location=London |first=Damian |last=Carrington}}{{cite news |last=Molland |first=Judy |date=16 April 2013 |title=Boat Filled With 22,000 Pounds Of Pangolin Hits Endangered Coral Reef |publisher=Care2 |location=London |url=http://www.care2.com/causes/boat-filled-with-22000-pounds-of-meat-from-the-protected-pangolin-hits-endangered-coral-reef.html |access-date=17 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418114310/http://www.care2.com/causes/boat-filled-with-22000-pounds-of-meat-from-the-protected-pangolin-hits-endangered-coral-reef.html |archive-date=18 April 2013}} In another case in August 2016, an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property.{{cite news |date=26 August 2016 |title=Indonesian man arrested as 650 pangolins found dead in freezers |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-37196635 |access-date=27 August 2016}} The same threat is reported in Nigeria, where the animal is on the verge of extinction due to overexploitation.The Daily Trust (Nigeria), Saturday 18 February 2017 The overexploitation comes from hunting pangolins for game meat and the reduction of their forest habitats due to deforestation caused by timber harvesting.{{cite journal |last1=Sodeinde |first1=Olufemi A. |last2=Adedipe |first2=Segun R. |title=Pangolins in south-west Nigeria – current status and prognosis |journal=Oryx |date=24 April 2009 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=43–50 |doi=10.1017/S0030605300028283|doi-access=free }} The pangolin are hunted as game meat for both medicinal purposes and food consumption.

{{See also|Origin of SARS-CoV-2}}

The nucleic acid sequence of a specific receptor-binding domain of the spike protein belonging to coronaviruses taken from pangolins was found to be a 99% match with SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus which causes COVID-19 and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic.{{Cite journal |last=Cyranoski |first=David |date=7 February 2020 |title=Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people? |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00364-2 |pmid=33547428 |s2cid=212825975}}{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=P. |last2=Chen |first2=W. |last3=Chen |first3=J.-P. |title=Viral Metagenomics Revealed Sendai Virus and Coronavirus Infection of Malayan Pangolins (Manis javanica) |journal=Viruses |year=2019 |volume=11 |issue=11 |page=979 |doi=10.3390/v11110979 |pmid=31652964 |pmc=6893680|doi-access=free }} Researchers in Guangzhou, China, hypothesized that SARS-CoV-2 had originated in bats, and prior to infecting humans, was circulating among pangolins. The illicit Chinese trade of pangolins for use in traditional Chinese medicine was suggested as a vector for human transmission.{{cite web |url=https://www.livescience.com/first-case-coronavirus-found.html |title=1st known case of coronavirus traced back to November in China |first1=Jeanna |last1=Bryner |publisher=LiveScience |date=15 March 2020 |access-date=15 March 2020}} However, whole-genome comparison found that the pangolin and human coronaviruses share only up to 92% of their RNA.{{cite journal|last1=Xiao|first1=Kangpeng|last2=Zhai|first2=Junqiong|last3=Feng|first3=Yaoyu|last4=Zhou|first4=Niu|last5=Zhang|first5=Xu|last6=Zou|first6=Jie-Jian|last7=Li|first7=Na|last8=Guo|first8=Yaqiong|last9=Li|first9=Xiaobing|last10=Shen|first10=Xuejuan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhipeng|date=7 May 2020|title=Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=286–289|bibcode=2020Natur.583..286X|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2313-x|pmid=32380510|doi-access=free|last15=Zhang|first22=Fang-Hui|last12=Shu|first12=Fanfan|last13=Huang|first13=Wangyi|first14=Yu|first25=Yongyi|last25=Shen|first24=Lihua|last24=Xiao|first23=Wu|last23=Chen|last22=Hou|first15=Ziding|first21=Qin-Hui|last21=Cai|first20=Wei-Jun|last20=Xie|first19=Mian|last19=Huang|first18=Shi-Ming|last18=Peng|first17=Ya-jiang|last17=Wu|first16=Rui-Ai|last16=Chen|last14=Li}}{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Tao |last2=Wu |first2=Qunfu |last3=Zhang |first3=Zhigang |title=Probable Pangolin Origin of SARS-CoV-2 Associated with the COVID-19 Outbreak |journal=Current Biology |date=19 March 2020 |volume=30 |issue=7 |pages=1346–1351.e2 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022 |pmid=32197085 |pmc=7156161|bibcode=2020CBio...30E1346Z }} Ecologists worried that the early speculation about pangolins being the source may have led to mass slaughters, endangering them further, which was similar to what happened to Asian palm civets during the SARS outbreak.{{cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/civet-cat-slaughter-to-fight-sars |title=Civet Cat Slaughter To Fight SARS |publisher=CBSNews |date=11 January 2004 |access-date=28 February 2020}} It was later proved that the testing which suggested that pangolins were a potential host for the virus was flawed, when genetic analysis showed that the spike protein and its binding to receptors in pangolins had minimal effect from the virus, and therefore were not likely mechanisms for COVID-19 infections in humans.{{cite journal | last=Partin | first=Clyde | title=Etymologia: Sunda pangolin | journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases | publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | volume=27 | issue=7 | year=2021 | issn=1080-6040 | doi=10.3201/eid2707.et2707 |pmc=8237879 | pages=1810| s2cid=235775122 }}

In 2020, two novel RNA viruses distantly related to pestiviruses and coltiviruses have been detected in the genomes of dead Manis javanica and Manis pentadactyla.{{Cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Wen-Hua |last2=Lin |first2=Xian-Dan |last3=Chen |first3=Yan-Mei |last4=Xie |first4=Chun-Gang |last5=Tan |first5=Zhi-Zhou |last6=Zhou |first6=Jia-Jun |last7=Chen |first7=Shuai |last8=Holmes |first8=Edward C |author-link8=Edward C. Holmes |last9=Zhang |first9=Yong-Zhen |author-link9=Zhang Yongzhen |date=1 January 2020 |title=Newly identified viral genomes in pangolins with fatal disease |journal=Virus Evolution |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=veaa020 |doi=10.1093/ve/veaa020 |pmid=32296543 |pmc=7151644}} To refer to both sampling site and hosts, they were named Dongyang pangolin virus (DYPV) and Lishui pangolin virus (LSPV). The DYPV pestivirus was also identified in Amblyomma javanense nymph ticks from a diseased pangolin.

Pangolin scales and flesh are used as ingredients for various traditional Chinese medicine preparations.{{cite news |author1=Mariëtte Le Roux |date=25 March 2018 |title=Quackery and superstition: species pay the cost |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2018/03/25/quackery-and-superstition-species-pay-the-cost.html |access-date=25 August 2020 |work=The Jakarta Post |publisher=Agence France-Presse}} While no scientific evidence exists for the efficacy of those practices, and they have no logical mechanism of action,{{Cite journal |date=1 January 1938 |title=Chinese Medicine and the Pangolin |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=141 |issue=3558 |pages=72 |doi=10.1038/141072b0 |bibcode=1938Natur.141R..72. |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free}}{{cite web |author=Steven Novella |date=25 January 2012 |title=What Is Traditional Chinese Medicine? |url=http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/what-is-traditional-chinese-medicine/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415070141/http://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/what-is-traditional-chinese-medicine/ |archive-date=15 April 2014 |access-date=14 April 2014 |work=Science-Based Medicine}}{{cite book |author=Zhouying Jin |url={{GBurl|id=V7SsFqkHaC4C|pg=PT36}} |title=Global Technological Change: From Hard Technology to Soft Technology |publisher=Intellect Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84150-124-6 |page=36 |language=en |quote=The vacuum created by China's failure to adequately support a disciplined scientific approach to traditional Chinese medicine has been filled by pseudoscience |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320185919/https://books.google.com/books?id=V7SsFqkHaC4C&pg=PT36 |archive-date=20 March 2017 |url-status=live}} their popularity still drives the black market for animal body parts, despite concerns about toxicity, transmission of diseases from animals to humans, and species extermination.{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Fang |last2=Kong |first2=Lin-lin |last3=Zhang |first3=Yi-ye |last4=Li |first4=Shu-Chuen |title=Evaluation of Impact on Health-Related Quality of Life and Cost Effectiveness of Traditional Chinese Medicine: A Systematic Review of Randomized Clinical Trials |journal=The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine |volume=18 |issue=12 |year=2012 |pages=1108–20 |issn=1075-5535 |doi=10.1089/acm.2011.0315 |pmid=22924383}} The ongoing demand for parts as ingredients continues to fuel pangolin poaching, hunting and trading.{{Cite news |last=Boyle |first=Louise |date=30 June 2020 |title='If we don't buy, they don't die': Tackling the global demand that's driving the illegal wildlife trade |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/china-animal-trade-markets-wild-ivory-pangolins-a9594591.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/china-animal-trade-markets-wild-ivory-pangolins-a9594591.html |archive-date=24 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=21 July 2020}}

The first record of pangolin scales occurs in Ben Cao Jinji Zhu ("Variorum of Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica", 500 CE), which recommends pangolin scales for protection against ant bites; burning the scales as a cure for people crying hysterically during the night.{{cite book |last1=Xing |first1=S. |title=Pangolins: Science, Society and Conservation |last2=Bonebrake |first2=T. C. |last3=Cheng |first3=W. |last4=Zhang |first4=M. |last5=Ades |first5=G. |last6=Shaw |first6=D. |last7=Zhou |first7=Y. |date=2019 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780128155073 |editor1-last=Challender |editor1-first=D. |edition=First |page=233 |chapter=Meat and medicine: historic and contemporary use in Asia |access-date=27 March 2020 |editor2-last=Nash |editor2-first=H. |editor3-last=Waterman |editor3-first=C. |chapter-url={{GBurl|id=zey_DwAAQBAJ|p=233}}}} During the Tang dynasty, a recipe for expelling evil spirits with a formulation of scales, herbs, and minerals appeared in 682, and in 752 CE the idea that pangolin scales could also stimulate milk secretion in lactating women, one of the main uses today, was recommended in the Wai Tai Mi Yao ("Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library"). In the Song dynasty, the notion of penetrating and clearing blockages was emphasized in the Taiping sheng hui fan ("Formulas from Benevolent Sages Compiled During the Era of Peace and Tranquility"), compiled by Wang Huaiyin in 992.

In the 21st century, the main uses of pangolin scales are quackery practices based on unproven claims the scales dissolve blood clots, promote blood circulation, or help lactating women secrete milk. The supposed health effects of pangolin meat and scales claimed by folk medicine practitioners are based on their consumption of ants, long tongues, and protective scales.

The official pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China included Chinese pangolin scales as an ingredient in TCM formulations. Pangolins were removed from the pharmacopoeia starting from the first half of 2020.{{cite web |last1=Maron |first1=Dina Fine |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/06/pangolins-receive-new-protections-traditional-medicine-in-china/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610111656/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2020/06/pangolins-receive-new-protections-traditional-medicine-in-china/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 June 2020 |title=Pangolins receive surprising lifeline with new protections in China |date=9 June 2020 |website=National Geographic |access-date=12 June 2020}} Although pangolin scales have been removed from the list of raw ingredients, the scales are still listed as a key ingredient in various medicines.{{Cite news |date=2020 |title=Did China really ban the pangolin trade? Not quite, investigators say |website=Mongabay Environmental News |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/06/did-china-really-ban-the-pangolin-trade-not-quite-investigators-say/ |access-date=6 July 2020}}

Pangolin parts are also used for medicinal purposes in other Asian countries such as India, Nepal and Pakistan. In some parts of India and Nepal, locals believe that wearing the scales of a pangolin can help prevent pneumonia.{{Cite book |chapter-url={{GBurl|id=zey_DwAAQBAJ|p=228}} |title=Pangolins: Science, Society and Conservation |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-815506-6 |publication-date=2019-11-23 |pages=228 |language=en |chapter=Meat and medicine: historic and contemporary use in Asia}} Pangolin scales have also been used for medicinal purposes in Malaysia, Indonesia and northern Myanmar. Indigenous people in southern Palawan, Philippines, have held the belief that elders could avoid prostate illnesses by wearing belts made with the scales.{{Cite book |chapter-url={{GBurl|id=zey_DwAAQBAJ|p=231}} |title=Pangolins: Science, Society and Conservation |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-815506-6 |edition=First |publication-date=2019-11-23 |pages=231 |language=en |chapter=Meat and medicine: historic and contemporary use in Asia}}

File:Prince of Wales Pangolin Armour.jpg from India, presented in 1875–76 to the then Prince of Wales, the later Edward VII.]]

As a result of increasing threats to pangolins, mainly in the form of illegal, international trade in pangolin skin, scales, and meat, these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years.{{Cite journal|last=Shibaike|first=Takumi|date=2021|title=Small NGOs and Agenda-Setting in Global Conservation Governance: The Case of Pangolin Conservation|journal=Global Environmental Politics|volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=45–69|doi=10.1162/glep_a_00623|s2cid=240588135|issn=1526-3800|doi-access=free}} {{As of|January 2020}}, the IUCN considered all eight species of pangolin on its Red List of Threatened Species as threatened. The IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed "Scaling up Pangolin Conservation", in July 2014. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and trafficking of the animal while educating communities on its importance.{{cite web |title=Action Plan |website=www.pangolinsg.org |url=http://www.pangolinsg.org/members-work/action-plan/ |access-date=15 September 2016 |archive-date=10 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710234327/http://www.pangolinsg.org/members-work/action-plan/ |url-status=dead }} Another suggested approach to fighting pangolin (and general wildlife) trafficking consists in "following the money" rather than "the animal", which aims to disrupt smugglers' profits by interrupting money flows. Financial intelligence gathering could thus become a key tool in protecting these animals, although this opportunity is often overlooked. In 2018, a Chinese NGO launched the Counting Pangolins movement, calling for joint efforts to save the mammals from trafficking.Xinhua News (21 November 2018) [https://web.archive.org/web/20181123065637/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-11/21/c_137620372.htm Spotlight: Pangolin conservationists call for ban on illegal trade of mammal products]China Plus (18 February 2017) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170222062715/http://english.cri.cn/12394/2017/02/18/3124s952140.htm World Pangolin Day: Conservationists demand greater protection to stop extinction]Xinhua News (8 June 2018) [http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/08/c_137240161.htm How China is combating wildlife trafficking in Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130050244/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/08/c_137240161.htm |date=30 November 2020 }} Wildlife conservation group TRAFFIC has identified 159 smuggling routes used by pangolin traffickers and aims to shut these down.{{cite web |title=Pangolins – Species we work with at TRAFFIC |website=www.traffic.org |url=https://www.traffic.org/what-we-do/species/pangolins/ |access-date=10 January 2019}}

File:Myanmar Illicit Endangered Wildlife Market 04 (cropped).jpg]]

Many attempts have been made to breed pangolins in captivity, but due to their reliance on wide-ranging habitats and very particular diets, these attempts are often unsuccessful.{{cite journal |last1=Aitken-Palmer |first1=Copper |last2=deMaar |first2=Thomas W. |last3=Johnson |first3=James G. |last4=Langan |first4=Jennifer |last5=Bergmann |first5=Jonathan |last6=Chinnadurai |first6=Sathya |last7=Guerra |first7=Hector |last8=Carboni |first8=Deborah A. |last9=Adkesson |first9=Michael J. |date=September 2019 |title=Complications Associated with Pregnancy and Parturition in African White-bellied Pangolins (Phataginus Tricuspis) |journal=Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine |doi=10.1638/2019-0019 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=678–687 |pmid=33517639 |s2cid=202727948}} Pangolins have significantly decreased immune responses due to a genetic dysfunction, making them extremely fragile.{{cite journal |last1=Choo |first1=S. W. |last2=Rayko |first2=M. |last3=Tan |first3=T. K. |last4=Hari |first4=R. |last5=Komissarov |first5=A. |last6=Wee |first6=W. Y. |last7=Yurchenko |first7=A. A. |last8=Kliver |first8=S. |last9=Tamazian |first9=G. |last10=Antunes |first10=A. |last11=Wilson |first11=R. K. |last12=Warren |first12=W. C. |last13=Koepfli |first13=K. P. |last14=Minx |first14=P. |last15=Krasheninnikova |first15=K. |last16=Kotze |first16=A. |last17=Dalton |first17=D. L. |last18=Vermaak |first18=E. |last19=Paterson |first19=I. C. |last20=Dobrynin |first20=P. |last21=Sitam |first21=F. T. |last22=Rovie-Ryan |first22=J. J. |last23=Johnson |first23=W. E. |last24=Yusoff |first24=A. M. |last25=Luo |first25=S. J. |last26=Karuppannan |first26=K. V. |last27=Fang |first27=G. |last28=Zheng |first28=D. |last29=Gerstein |first29=M. B. |last30=Lipovich |first30=L. |display-authors=1 |year=2016 |title=Pangolin genomes and the evolution of mammalian scales and immunity |journal=Genome Research |doi=10.1101/gr.203521.115 |pmid=27510566 |pmc=5052048 |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=1312–1322}} They are susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and the development of ulcers in captivity, complications that can lead to an early death. In addition, pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as intestinal worms, further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild.

The idea of farming pangolins to reduce the number being illegally trafficked is being explored with little success.{{cite journal |last1=Challender |first1=Daniel W. S. |last2=Sas-Rolfes |first2=Michael't |last3=Ades |first3=Gary W. J. |last4=Chin |first4=Jason S. C. |last5=Ching-Min Sun |first5=Nick |last6=Chong |first6=Ju lian |last7=Connelly |first7=Ellen |last8=Hywood |first8=Lisa |last9=Luz |first9=Sonja |last10=Mohapatra |first10=Rajesh K. |last11=de Ornellas |first11=Paul |date=1 October 2019 |title=Evaluating the feasibility of pangolin farming and its potential conservation impact |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00714 |volume=20 |pages=e00714 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2019GEcoC..2000714C |hdl=2263/75894 |hdl-access=free }} The third Saturday in February is promoted as World Pangolin Day by the conservation NPO Annamiticus.{{cite web |date=26 October 2011 |title=World Pangolin Day – About |publisher=Pangolins.org/Annamiticus |url=https://www.pangolins.org/about-us/}} World Pangolin Day has been noted for its effectiveness in generating awareness about pangolins.{{cite journal |last1=Chua |first1=Marcus A.H. |last2=Tan |first2=Audrey |last3=Carrasco |first3=Luis Roman |title=Species awareness days: Do people care or are we preaching to the choir? |journal=Biological Conservation |date=2021 |volume=255 |pages=109002 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109002|bibcode=2021BCons.25509002C |s2cid=233836573 }}

In 2017, Jackie Chan made a public service announcement called WildAid: Jackie Chan & Pangolins (Kung Fu Pangolin).{{cite news |date=23 August 2017 |title=Jackie Chan fights for pangolins |newspaper=China Daily |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2017-08/23/content_31006476.htm |access-date=17 March 2019}}

In December 2020, a study found that it is "not too late" to establish conservation efforts for Philippine pangolins (Manis culionensis), a species that is only found on the island province of Palawan.{{Cite web|date=27 January 2021|title=It's not too late – yet – to save the Philippine pangolin, study finds|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/01/its-not-too-late-yet-to-save-the-philippine-pangolin-study-finds/|access-date=27 January 2021|website=Mongabay Environmental News|language=en-US}}{{Cite journal|date=1 December 2020|title=Scaling up local ecological knowledge to prioritise areas for protection: Determining Philippine pangolin distribution, status and threats|journal=Global Ecology and Conservation|language=en|volume=24|pages=e01395|doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01395|issn=2351-9894|doi-access=free|last1=Archer|first1=Lucy J.|last2=Papworth|first2=Sarah K.|last3=Apale|first3=Charity M.|last4=Corona|first4=Darlyn B.|last5=Gacilos|first5=Josefa T.|last6=Amada|first6=Ronald L.|last7=Waterman|first7=Carly|last8=Turvey|first8=Samuel T.|bibcode=2020GEcoC..2401395A }}

Taiwan is one of the few conservation grounds for pangolins in the world after the country enacted the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Act.{{cite news |title=Taiwan's Path to Pangolin Conservation : How a Mega Pangolin Leather Exporter Transformed into a Conservation Specialist |url=https://www.twreporter.org/a/pangolin-conservation-history-in-taiwan-english |date=23 June 2019 |work=The Reporter (Taiwan) |access-date=8 February 2020}} The introduction of Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers in places like Luanshan (Yanping Township) in Taitung and Xiulin townships in Hualien became important communities for protecting pangolins and their habitats and has greatly improved the survival of pangolins. These centers work with local aboriginal tribes and forest police in the National Police Agency to prevent poaching, trafficking, and smuggling of pangolins, especially to black markets in China. These centers have also helped to reveal the causes of death and injury among Taiwan's pangolin population.{{cite journal |last1=Pei |first1=Curtis Jai-Chyi |last2=Chen |first2=Chen-Chih |last3=Chi |first3=Meng-Jou |last4=Lin |first4=Wen-Chi |last5=Lin |first5=Jing-Shiun |last6=Arora |first6=Bharti |last7=Sun |first7=Nick Ching-Min |date=6 February 2019 |title=Mortality and morbidity in wild Taiwanese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) |journal=PLOS ONE |location=Pingtung, Taiwan |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=e0198230 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1498230S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0198230 |pmc=6364958 |pmid=30726204 |doi-access=free}} Today, Taiwan has the highest population density of pangolins in the world.{{cite news |title=Taiwanese Researchers Collaborate With Locals In Pangolin Conservation |url=https://international.thenewslens.com/feature/pangolin-conservation/125149 |date=25 September 2019 |work=The News Lens |access-date= 8 February 2020}}

• Mammal classification
• Pholidotamorpha

{{reflist|2}}

{{Wiktionary}}

• [https://www.zsl.org/conservation/threats/illegal-wildlife-trade-crisis/pangolin-conservation ZSL Pangolin Conservation ]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090417080037/http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/pangolin Pangolin: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation]
• [http://tolweb.org/Pholidota/15954 Tree of Life of Pholidota] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429214815/http://tolweb.org/Pholidota/15954 |date=29 April 2021 }}
• [http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/weirdest-pangolin National Geographic video of a pangolin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023125211/https://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/weirdest-pangolin |date=23 October 2018 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20111004225834/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/pangolin_proceedings_final_print__2_.pdf Proceedings of the Workshop on Trade and Conservation of Pangolins Native to South and Southeast Asia] (PDF)
• [http://web2.utc.edu/~gvv824/Gaudin%20et%20al%202009.pdf The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925134257/http://web2.utc.edu/~gvv824/Gaudin%20et%20al%202009.pdf |date=25 September 2015 }} (PDF)
• {{cite AV media |people=Bromley, Victoria (Director/Producer), Young, Nora (Narrator/Host), Diekmann, Maria |date=2018 |title=Nature: The World's Most Wanted Animal |publisher=PBS |location=United States |url=https://www.pbs.org/video/the-worlds-most-wanted-animal-evunge/}}
• [https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/05/opinion/coronavirus-china-pangolins.html Coronavirus: Revenge of the Pangolins?] The New York Times, 6 March 2020.

{{Mammals}}

{{Pholidotamorpha|state=autocollapse}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q2191516}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Myrmecophagous mammals

Category:Rolling animals

Category:Extant Paleocene first appearances

Category:Species that are or were threatened by human consumption