multiculturalism in Canada

{{main|Human rights in Canada}}

File:Castle mountain camp 1915.jpg held immigrant prisoners of Ukrainian, Austrian, Hungarian and German descent (1915).{{cite web | title=The hidden history of Ukrainians imprisoned in Canadian labour camps in WW I | website=CBC | date=May 15, 2023 | url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/ukrainian-canadian-internment-camps-1.6843785 | access-date=Apr 30, 2024}}]]

In the 21st century Canada is often characterised as being "very progressive, diverse, and multicultural".{{cite book|author=Anne-Marie Mooney Cotter|title=Culture clash: an international legal perspective on ethnic discrimination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AcvVUevrMYC&pg=PA176|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-1936-5|page=176}} However, Canada until the 1960s saw itself in terms of English and French cultural, linguistic and political identities, and to some extent indigenous.{{cite book|author=Guy M. Robinson|title=A Social geography of Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kwGvh6kmIsC&pg=PA86|year=1991|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd.|isbn=978-1-55002-092-2|page=86}} European immigrants speaking other languages, such as Canadians of German ethnicity and Ukrainian Canadians, were suspect, especially during the First World War when thousands were put in camps because they were citizens of enemy nations.{{cite book|author=Derek Hayes|title=Canada: an illustrated history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hrkq7t_4080C&pg=PA202|year=2008|publisher=Douglas & McIntyre|isbn=978-1-55365-259-5|page=202}} Jewish Canadians were also suspect, especially in Quebec where anti-semitism was a factor and the Catholic Church of Quebec associated Jews with modernism, liberalism, and other unacceptable values.{{cite book|author=Richard S. Levy|title=Antisemitism: a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tdn6FFZklkcC&pg=PA94|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-439-4|page=94}}

Asians encountered legal obstacles limiting immigration during the 1800s and early 1900s.{{cite book|author1=Matthew J. Gibney|author2=Randall Hansen|title=Immigration and asylum: from 1900 to the present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2c6ifbjx2wMC&pg=PA67|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-796-2|page=67}}{{cite book|author=Grace-Edward Galabuzi|title=Canada's Economic Apartheid: The Social Exclusion of Racialized Groups in the New Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dEzDhwE7JYsC&pg=PA35|year=2006|publisher=Canadian Scholars’ Press|isbn=978-1-55130-265-2|page=35}} Additional, specific ethnic groups that did immigrate during this time faced barriers within Canada preventing full participation in political and social matters, including equal pay and the right to vote.{{cite book|author1=Yasmeen Abu-Laban|author2=Christina Gabriel|title=Selling diversity: immigration, multiculturalism, employment equity, and globalization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oO4FQmg5gO4C&pg=PA37|year=2002|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-55111-398-2|pages=37–39}} While black ex-slave refugees from the United States had been tolerated, racial minorities of African or Asian origin were generally believed "beyond the pale" (not acceptable to most people).{{cite book|author=Jessie Carney Smith|title=Encyclopedia of African American Popular Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=10rEGSIItjgC&pg=PA236|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35796-1|page=236}} Although this mood started to shift dramatically during the Second World War,{{cite book|author=Richard J. F. Day|title=Multiculturalism and the history of Canadian diversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4bPrHKui5EC&pg=PA172|year=2000|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8075-2|page=172}}{{cite book|author=W. Peter Ward|title=White Canada forever: popular attitudes and public policy toward Orientals in British Columbia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZrmKQohsGwC&pg=PR14|year=1990|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-0824-8|page=14}} Japanese Canadians were interned during the overseas conflict and their property confiscated.{{cite book|author=Rand Dyck|title=Canadian Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA89|date=March 2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-17-650343-7|page=89}} Prior to the advent of the Canadian Bill of Rights in 1960 and its successor the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982, the laws of Canada did not provide much in the way of civil rights and it was typically of limited concern to the courts.{{cite book|author1=Joan Church|author2=Christian Schulze|author3=Hennie Strydom|title=Human rights from a comparative and international law perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2sMwFTOrixwC&pg=PA82|year= 2007|publisher=Unisa Press|isbn=978-1-86888-361-5|page=82}} Since the 1960s, Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people.{{cite book|author=Christopher MacLennan|title=Toward the Charter: Canadians and the Demand for a National Bill of Rights, 1929–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxt6VAsdW5oC&pg=PA119|year=2004|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-2536-8|page=119}}{{cite book|author=J. M. Bumsted|title=Canada's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook|url=https://archive.org/details/canadasdiversepe0000bums|url-access=registration|date= 2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-672-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadasdiversepe0000bums/page/229 229]}}

{{main|Immigration to Canada|Canada immigration statistics}}

File:Head Tax Recipt.jpg was introduced in 1885, as a means of controlling Chinese immigration.]]

Immigration has played an integral part in the development of multiculturalism within Canada during the last half of the 20th century.{{cite book|author1=Matthew J. Gibney|author2=Randall Hansen|title=Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2c6ifbjx2wMC&pg=PA67|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-796-2|page=67}} Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the Continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act) that had favoured British, American and European immigrants were amended during the 1960s, resulting in an influx of diverse people from Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.{{cite book|author1=Edward Ksenych|author2=David Liu|title=Conflict, order and action: readings in sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GdvsIo7V9HgC&pg=PA407|year= 2001|publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press|isbn=978-1-55130-192-1|page=407}} By 2006 Canada had grown to have thirty four ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller amounts.{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/rt-td/index-eng.cfm|title=2006 Census release topics|publisher=Statistics Canada|access-date=2011-01-16|archive-date=September 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930221510/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/rt-td/index-eng.cfm|url-status=live}} 16.2% of the population identify themselves as a visible minority.

Canada currently has one of the highest per capita immigration rate in the world, driven by economic policy and family reunification.{{citation

|title = Canada's Immigration Program

|date = October 31, 2004

|author1 = Dolin, Benjamin

|author2 = Young, Margaret

|publisher = Library of Parliament (Law and Government Division)

|url = http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP-e/bp190-e.pdf

|access-date = November 29, 2006

|archive-date = April 22, 2013

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130422214212/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP-e/bp190-e.pdf

|url-status = live

}} Canada also resettles over one in ten of the world's refugees.{{cite web|url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/nws/nws-rlss/2010/20101021-6-eng.aspx|title=Canada's Generous Program for Refugee Resettlement Is Undermined by Human Smugglers Who Abuse Canada's Immigration System|publisher=Public Safety Canada|access-date=2010-12-12|archive-date=October 2, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002030301/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/nws/nws-rlss/2010/20101021-6-eng.aspx|url-status=live}} In 2008, there were 65,567 immigrants in the family class, 21,860 refugees, and 149,072 economic immigrants amongst the 247,243 total immigrants to the country. Approximately 41% of Canadians are of either the first or second-generation.{{cite web

|url = http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/facts2008/permanent/01.asp

|title = Canada – Permanent residents by gender and category, 1984 to 2008

|work = Facts and figures 2008 – Immigration overview: Permanent and temporary residents

|publisher = Citizenship and Immigration Canada

|year = 2009

|access-date = 2009-12-04

|url-status = dead

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091108021204/http://www.cic.gc.ca/EnGLIsh/resources/statistics/facts2008/permanent/01.asp

|archive-date = November 8, 2009

|df = mdy-all

}} One out of every five Canadians currently living in Canada was born out of the country.{{cite book|author1=Rodger W. Bybee|author2=Barry McCrae|title=Pisa Science 2006: Implications for Science Teachers and Teaching|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ3zu2130AUC&pg=PA92|year=2009|publisher=NSTA Press|isbn=978-1-933531-31-1|page=92}} The Canadian public as well as the major political parties support immigration.{{cite book|author1=James Hollifield|author2=Philip Martin|author3=Pia Orrenius|title=Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ys9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|year=2014|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-8627-0|page=11}} Political parties are cautious about criticizing the high level of immigration, because, as noted by The Globe and Mail, "in the early 1990s, the Reform Party" was branded 'racist' for suggesting that immigration levels be lowered from 250,000 to 150,000."{{cite book|author=Elspeth Cameron|title=Multiculturalism and Immigration in Canada: An Introductory Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zakCX5XPnAAC&pg=PA118|date= 2004|publisher=Canadian Scholars’ Press|isbn=978-1-55130-249-2|page=118}}{{citation

|title = Is the current model of immigration the best one for Canada?

|date = December 12, 2005

|work=The Globe and Mail |location=Canada

|url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/archives/is-the-current-model-of-immigration-the-best-one-for-canada/article923506/

|access-date= August 16, 2006

}} The party was also noted for their opposition to government-sponsored multiculturalism.Manning, 1992. Pviii.

File:Dr. Sun Yat-Sen Classical Chinese Garden 07.jpg in Vancouver's Chinatown is the first full-size Chinese or "scholars" garden built outside of China.]]

Culturally diverse areas or "ethnic enclaves" are another way in which multiculturalism has manifested. Newcomers have tended to settle in the major urban areas.{{cite book|author=Grace-Edward Galabuzi|title=Canada's economic apartheid: the social exclusion of racialized groups in the new century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dEzDhwE7JYsC&pg=PA67|year= 2006|publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press|isbn=978-1-55130-265-2|page=67}} These urban enclaves have served as a home away from home for immigrants to Canada, while providing a unique experience of different cultures for those of long Canadian descent. In Canada, there are several ethnocentric communities with many diverse backgrounds, including Chinese, Indian, Italian and Greek.{{cite book|author=Zucchi, J|year=2007|title=A history of ethnic enclaves in Canada|publisher=Canadian Historical Association|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/008004/f2/E-31_en.pdf|pages=1–25|isbn=978-0-88798-266-8|access-date=2013-09-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601195932/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/008004/f2/E-31_en.pdf|archive-date=June 1, 2017|url-status=dead}} Canadian Chinatowns are one of the most prolific type of ethnic enclave found in major cities. These areas seemingly recreate an authentic Chinese experience within an urban community. During the first half of the 20th century, Chinatowns were associated with filth, seediness, and the derelict. By the late 20th century, Chinatown(s) had become areas worth preserving, a tourist attraction. They are now generally valued for their cultural significance and have become a feature of most large Canadian cities. Professor John Zucchi of McGill University states:

{{Blockquote| Unlike earlier periods when significant ethnic segregation might imply a lack of integration and therefore be viewed as a social problem, nowadays ethnic concentration in residential areas is a sign of vitality and indicates that multiculturalism as a social policy has been successful, that ethnic groups are retaining their identities if they so wish, and old-world cultures are being preserved at the same time that ethnic groups are being integrated. In addition these neighbourhoods, like their cultures, add to the definition of a city and point to the fact that integration is a two-way street."}}

{{See also|Liberalism in Canada}}

Analysts generally agree that federal multiculturalism policy has evolved through three developmental phases: the incipient stage (pre-1971), the formative period (1971–1981), and institutionalization (1982 to the present).{{cite book | editor1 = Shibao Guo | editor2 = Lloyd Wong | date = 1 December 2015 | title = Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada: Theories, Policies and Debates | publisher = Springer | pages = 2– | isbn = 9789463002080 | oclc = 1005821314 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HW8iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 | access-date = December 14, 2021 | archive-date = December 14, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211214064913/https://books.google.com/books?id=HW8iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 | url-status = live }}

{{See also|Ethnic origins of people in Canada#Evolution from 1871 to 1921}}

The Quebec Act, implemented after the British conquest of New France in the mid-1700s brought a large Francophone population under British Imperial rule, creating a need for accommodation.{{cite book|author1=Christian Dufour|author2=((Institute for Research on Public Policy))|title=A Canadian Challenge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnDRXZFYwIcC&pg=PA25|year=1990|publisher=IRPP|isbn=978-0-88982-105-7}} A century later the compromises made between the English and French speaking Fathers of Confederation set Canada on a path to bilingualism, and this in turn contributed to biculturalism and the acceptance of diversity.{{cite book|author1=François Vaillancourt |author2=Olivier Coche |title=Official Language Policies at the Federal Level in Canada:costs and Benefits in 2006|year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QCZm8op2bjQC&pg=PA11|publisher=The Fraser Institute|page=11|id=GGKEY:B3Y7U7SKGUD}} This culminated in 2006 with recognition that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada.{{Cite web |url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#Int-1798655 |title=Hansard; 39th Parliament, 1st Session; No. 087; November 27, 2006 |access-date=April 5, 2022 |archive-date=December 15, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215123247/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Pub=hansard&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Ses=1&DocId=2544166&File=0#Int-1798655 |url-status=dead }}

File:Canflagcartoon.jpg

The American writer Victoria Hayward in the 1922 book about her travels through Canada, described the cultural changes of the Canadian Prairies as a "mosaic".{{cite book|author=Daniel Francis|title=National Dreams: Myth, Memory, and Canadian History|url=https://archive.org/details/nationaldreamsmy0000fran|url-access=registration|year=1997|publisher=arsenal pulp press|isbn=978-1-55152-043-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/nationaldreamsmy0000fran/page/80 80]}} Another early use of the term mosaic to refer to Canadian society was by John Murray Gibbon, in his 1938 book Canadian Mosaic.{{cite book|author=Julia Straub|title=Handbook of Transatlantic North American Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nW2mDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA516|year=2016|publisher=De Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-037673-9|pages=516–}} The mosaic theme envisioned Canada as a "cultural mosaic" rather than a "melting pot".{{cite book|author1=Veronica Benet-Martinez|author2=Ying-Yi Hong|title=The Oxford Handbook of Multicultural Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgmKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-979675-5|page=7}}

Charles Hobart, a sociologist from the University of Alberta,{{cite book|author=Miriam Verena Richter|title=Creating the National Mosaic: Multiculturalism in Canadian Children's Literature from 1950 to 1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjmZiv-RXmMC&pg=PA36|year=2011|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-94-012-0050-9|page=36}} and Lord Tweedsmuir, the 15th Governor General of Canada were early champions of the term multiculturalism.{{cite book|author1=Norman Hillmer|author2=Adam Chapnick|title=Canadas of the mind: the making and unmaking of Canadian nationalisms in the twentieth century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBmHB5ls_ZUC&pg=PA191|year= 2007|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-3273-1|page=191}} From his installation speech in 1935 onwards, Lord Tweedsmuir maintained in speeches and over the radio recited his ideas that ethnic groups "should retain their individuality and each make its contribution to the national character," and "the strongest nations are those that are made up of different racial elements."{{citation

|title = Canada's mistaken identity

|date = June 27, 2009

|author1 = Saunders, Doug

|work = The Globe and Mail

|location = Canada

|url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/opinions/columnists/doug-saunders/canadas-mistaken-identity/article1199074/

|access-date = June 28, 2009

|archive-date = June 29, 2009

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090629011942/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/opinions/columnists/doug-saunders/canadas-mistaken-identity/article1199074/

|url-status = live

}} Adélard Godbout, while Premier of Quebec in 1943, published an article entitled "Canada: Unity in Diversity" in the Council on Foreign Relations journal discussing the influence of the Francophone population as a whole.{{citation |first=Adelard |last=Godbout |authorlink= Adelard Godbout |date=April 1943 |title= Canada: Unity in Diversity |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=21|issue=3 |pages=452–461 |doi=10.2307/20029241 |jstor=20029241 }} The phrase "Unity in diversity" would be used frequently during Canadian multiculturalism debates in the proceeding decades.{{citation |first=Lalonde |last=Roxanne |date=April 1994 |title=Unity in Diversity: Acceptance and Integration in an Era of Intolerance and Fragmentation |chapter=Edited extract from M.A. thesis |publisher=Department of Geography, Carleton University |location=Ottawa, Ontario |chapter-url=http://bahai-library.com/lalonde_unity_diversity |access-date=9 January 2014 |archive-date=January 10, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110181924/http://bahai-library.com/lalonde_unity_diversity |url-status=live }}{{citation |url=http://gwichintribalcouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/128129-GTC-AR-2012%EF%80%A213.pdf |title=Gwich'in Tribal Council Annual Report 2012 – 2013: Unity through diversity |year=2013 |access-date=5 September 2014 |work=Gwich’in Tribal Council |archive-date=August 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824034238/http://gwichintribalcouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/128129-GTC-AR-2012%EF%80%A213.pdf |url-status=live }}

The beginnings of the development of Canada's contemporary policy of multiculturalism can be traced to the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, which was established on July 19, 1963 by the Liberal government of Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in response to the grievances of Canada's French-speaking minority. The report of the Commission advocated that the Canadian government should recognize Canada as a bilingual and bicultural society and adopt policies to preserve this character.

The recommendations of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism elicited a variety of responses. Former Progressive Conservative Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, (who was now Leader of the Official Opposition after his government was succeeded by that of Pearson on April 22, 1963), viewed them as an attack on his "One Canada Policy" that was opposed to extending accommodation to minority groups.{{cite book|author=Desmond Morton|title=A short history of Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rByl8CnrPTAC&pg=PT199|year= 2006|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-0-7710-6480-7|page=199}} The proposals also failed to satisfy those Francophones in the Province of Quebec who gravitated toward Québécois nationalism.{{cite book|author=Nelson Wiseman|title=In search of Canadian political culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TD5bmHBbDFIC&pg=PA97|year=2007|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1388-4|pages=97–98}} More importantly, Canadians of neither English nor French descent (so-called "Third Force" Canadians) advocated that a policy of "multiculturalism" would better reflect the diverse heritage of Canada's peoples.{{cite book|author=Martin N. Marger|title=Race and Ethnic Relations: American and Global Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TXP78beGTpcC&pg=PA458|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-50436-8|pages=458–}}{{cite book|author=Irvin Studin|title=What Is a Canadian?: Forty-Three Thought-Provoking Responses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MSKHhqnpK6gC&pg=PA120|year=2009|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-1-55199-283-9|page=120}}

Paul Yuzyk, a Progressive Conservative Senator of Ukrainian descent, referred to Canada as "a multicultural nation" in his influential maiden speech in 1964, creating much national debate, and is remembered for his strong advocacy of the implementation of a multiculturalism policy and Social liberalism.{{cite book|author=Miriam Verena Richter|title=Creating the National Mosaic: Multiculturalism in Canadian Children's Literature from 1950 To 1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjmZiv-RXmMC&pg=PA36|year=2011|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-3351-1|page=36}}

The Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism report dealt with the contribution of non-Indigenous, non‑French and non-English ethnic groups to the cultural enrichment of Canada. The Commission recommended the "integration" (not assimilation) of citizens into Canadian society.{{cite book | editor1 = Serge Joyal | editor2 = Judith Seidman | date = 4 March 2019 | title = Reflecting on Our Past and Embracing Our Future: A Senate Initiative for Canada | publisher = McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP | pages = 175– | isbn = 978-0-7735-5611-9 | oclc = 1097607857 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9eiGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 | access-date = December 14, 2021 | archive-date = December 14, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211214073832/https://books.google.com/books?id=9eiGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 | url-status = live }}

At the 1971 constitutional conference, the government of Alberta under Social Credit Premier Harry Strom demanded that multiculturalism be enshrined in any new constitutional settlement.{{Cite journal |last1=Alcantara |first1=Christopher |last2=Levine |first2=Renan |last3=Walz |first3=James C. |date=February 2014 |title=Canadian First Ministers' Conferences and Heresthetic Strategies: Explaining Alberta's Position on Multiculturalism at the 1971 Victoria Conference |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/jcs.48.2.100 |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |language=en |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=100–121 |doi=10.3138/jcs.48.2.100 |s2cid=142753558 |issn=0021-9495 |access-date=March 14, 2023 |archive-date=March 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314032530/https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/jcs.48.2.100 |url-status=live }}

With this in mind, on October 8, 1971, the Liberal government of Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau announced in the House of Commons that, after much deliberation, the policies of bilingualism and multiculturalism would be implemented in Canada.{{cite book|author=Miriam Verena Richter|title=Creating the National Mosaic: Multiculturalism in Canadian Children¿s Literature from 1950 To 1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjmZiv-RXmMC&pg=PA37|year=2011|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-3351-1|page=37}} The multiculturalism policy key objectives were:Laurence Brosseau, Michael Dewing (2009) - Revised 2018 [https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/200920E#a2-4 Canadian Multiculturalism Background Paper] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214092907/https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/200920E#a2-4 |date=December 14, 2021 }}, Library of Parliament – Legal and Social Affairs Division, Publication No. 2009-20-E .([https://lop.parl.ca/staticfiles/PublicWebsite/Home/ResearchPublications/BackgroundPapers/PDF/2009-20-e.pdf PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022205325/https://lop.parl.ca/staticfiles/PublicWebsite/Home/ResearchPublications/BackgroundPapers/PDF/2009-20-e.pdf |date=October 22, 2021 }})

{{Blockquote |

• to assist cultural groups to retain and foster their identity;
• to assist cultural groups to overcome barriers to their full participation in Canadian society (thus, the multiculturalism policy advocated the full involvement and equal participation of ethnic minorities in mainstream institutions, without denying them the right to identify with select elements of their cultural past if they so chose);
• to promote creative exchanges among all Canadian cultural groups; and
• to assist immigrants in acquiring at least one of the two official languages}}

Trudeau espoused participatory democracy as a means of making Canada a "Just Society".{{cite book|author1=James Laxer|author2=Robert M. Laxer|title=The Liberal Idea of Canada: Pierre Trudeau and the Question of Canada's Survival|url=https://archive.org/details/liberalideaofcan0000laxe|url-access=registration|year=1977|publisher=James Lorimer & Company|isbn=978-0-88862-124-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/liberalideaofcan0000laxe/page/76 76]}}{{cite web |url=http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/foundation_gr6/blms/6-4-4a.pdf |title=The Just Society |publisher=Government of Manitoba |author=Pierre Elliott Trudeau, as cited in The Essential Trudeau, ed. Ron Graham. (pp.16 – 20) |access-date=December 6, 2015 |archive-date=February 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204071254/http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/foundation_gr6/blms/6-4-4a.pdf |url-status=live }} He reiterated the Canadian government's support for "cultivation and use of many languages" at the 10th Congress of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee in Winnipeg, stating:

{{Blockquote |Uniformity is neither desirable nor possible in a country the size of Canada. We should not even be able to agree upon the kind of Canadian to choose as a model, let alone persuade most people to emulate it. There are few policies potentially more disastrous for Canada than to tell all Canadians that they must be alike. There is no such thing as a model or ideal Canadian. What could be more absurd than the concept of an “all-Canadian” boy or girl? A society which emphasizes uniformity is one which creates intolerance and hate. A society which eulogizes the average citizen is one which breeds mediocrity. What the world should be seeking, and what in Canada we must continue to cherish, are not concepts of uniformity but human values: compassion, love, and understanding.}}

File:Statue outside Union Station.jpg by Francesco Pirelli in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Four identical sculptures are located in Buffalo City, South Africa; Changchun, China; Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; and Sydney, Australia.]]

When the Canadian constitution was patriated by Prime Minister Trudeau in 1982, one of its constituent documents was the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and section 27 of the Charter stipulates that the rights laid out in the document are to be interpreted in a manner consistent with the spirit of multiculturalism.{{cite book|author1=Jonathan L. Black-Branch|author2=Canadian Education Association|title=Making Sense of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b287tH3UbkAC&pg=PA38|year=1995|publisher=Canadian Education Association|isbn=978-0-920315-78-1|page=38}}

The Canadian Multiculturalism Act was introduced during the Progressive Conservative government of Brian Mulroney, and received Royal Assent on July 21, 1988.{{cite book|author=David Bennett|title=Multicultural states: rethinking difference and identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PhRagnCkF0C&pg=PA220|year= 1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-12159-0|page=220}} On a practical level, a result of the Multiculturalism Act was that federal funds began to be distributed to ethnic groups to help them preserve their cultures, leading to such projects as the construction of community centres.{{cite book|author1=Stephen M. Caliendo|author2=Charlton D. McIlwain|title=The Routledge companion to race and ethnicity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Y47dmocePgC&pg=PA17|year=2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-77706-3|page=17}}

In June 2000 Prime Minister Jean Chrétien stated:{{cite book|author1=William H. Mobley|author2=Ming Li|author3=Ying Wang|title=Advances in Global Leadership|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cagqsahg1c8C&pg=PA307|year=2012|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing|isbn=978-1-78052-003-2|page=307}}

{{blockquote|Canada has become a post-national, multicultural society. It contains the globe within its borders, and Canadians have learned that their two international languages and their diversity are a comparative advantage and a source of continuing creativity and innovation. Canadians are, by virtue of history and necessity, open to the world.}}

With this in mind on November 13, 2002, the Liberal government of Prime Minister Jean Chrétien designated, by Royal Proclamation, June 27 of each year Canadian Multiculturalism Day.{{cite web|title=Proclamation Declaring June 27 of each year as "Canadian Multiculturalism Day"|url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/eng/1292265752189/1292265752191|publisher=Deputy Registrar General of Canada (Canadian Heritage)|year=2010|access-date=2012-01-30|archive-date=October 7, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007203404/http://www.pch.gc.ca/eng/1292265752189/1292265752191|url-status=live}}

Professor Alan Cairns noted about the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , "the initial federal government premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity"'.{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/constitution/|title=The Charter at 20|last=Saunders|first=Philip|date=April 2002|website=CBC News Online|publisher=CBC/Radio-Canada|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060307194214/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/constitution/|archive-date=March 7, 2006|access-date=March 17, 2006}} Pierre Trudeau himself later wrote in his Memoirs (1993) that "Canada itself" could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.{{cite book | last=Trudeau | first=P.E. | title=Memoirs | publisher=McClelland & Stewart | year=1993 | isbn=978-0-7710-8588-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqsJbzlwtwsC&pg=PA323 | page=323}}

Section Twenty-seven of the Charter states that:

{{Blockquote|This Charter shall be interpreted in a manner consistent with the preservation and enhancement of the multicultural heritage of Canadians.}}

Section Fifteen of the Charter that covers equality states:{{cite book|author=Michael J. Perry|title=Toward a Theory of Human Rights: Religion, Law, Courts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekTvyLbtmYEC&pg=PA82|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-46082-8|page=82}}

{{Blockquote|Every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age, or mental or physical disability.}}

The 1988 Canadian Multiculturalism Act affirms the policy of the government to ensure that every Canadian receives equal treatment by the government which respects and celebrates diversity.

The "Act" in general recognizes:{{cite web|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-18.7/page-1.html#h-3|title=Canadian Multiculturalism Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. 24 (4th Supp.)|publisher=Department of Justice|year=2012|access-date=2012-01-30|archive-date=July 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720051614/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-18.7/page-1.html#h-3|url-status=live}}

• The importance of preserving Canada's multicultural heritage.
• The rights of indigenous peoples.
• English and French remain the only official languages.
• Social equality within society and under the law regardless of race, colour, ancestry, national or ethnic origin, creed or religion.
• Minorities' rights to enjoy their cultures.

Section 3 (1) of the act states:

{{Blockquote|It is hereby declared to be the policy of the Government of Canada to

(a) recognize and promote the understanding that multiculturalism reflects the cultural and racial diversity of Canadian society and acknowledges the freedom of all members of Canadian society to preserve, enhance and share their cultural heritage

(b) to recognize and promote the understanding that multiculturalism is a fundamental characteristic of the Canadian heritage and identity and that it provides an invaluable resource in the shaping of Canada's future}}

{{main|Multicultural media in Canada}}

In the Multiculturalism Act, the federal government proclaimed the recognition of the diversity of Canadian culture.{{cite book|author1=Robin Mansell|author2=Marc Raboy|title=The Handbook of Global Media and Communication Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKUNVtyHRZ8C&pg=PA149|year= 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-9541-9|pages=149–151}} Similarly the Broadcasting Act of 1991 asserts the Canadian broadcasting system should reflect the diversity of cultures in the country.{{cite book|author1=Marc Raboy|author2=William J. McIver|author3=Jeremy Shtern|title=Media divides: communication rights and the right to communicate in Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWyICYZneAUC&pg=PA104|year=2010|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1774-5|page=104}} The CRTC is the governmental body which enforces the Broadcasting Act. The CRTC revised their Ethnic Broadcasting Policy in 1999 to go into the details on the conditions of the distribution of ethnic and multilingual programming. One of the conditions that this revision specified was the amount of ethnic programming needed in order to be awarded the ethnic broadcasting licence. According to the act, 60% of programming on a channel, whether on the radio or television, has to be considered ethnic in order to be approved for the licence under this policy.

All ten of Canada's provinces have some form of multiculturalism policy.{{cite web|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2009-20-e.pdf|publisher=Staff of the Parliamentary Information and Research Service (PIRS)|title=Canadian Multiculturalism|year=2009|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523070204/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2009-20-e.pdf|archive-date=May 23, 2013|url-status=dead}} At present, six of the ten provinces – British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec, and Nova Scotia – have enacted multiculturalism legislation. In eight provinces – British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia – a multiculturalism advisory council reports to the minister responsible for multiculturalism. In Alberta, the Alberta Human Rights Commission performs the role of multiculturalism advisory council. In Nova Scotia, the Act is implemented by both a Cabinet committee on multiculturalism and advisory councils. Ontario has an official multicultural policy and the Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration is responsible for promoting social inclusion, civic and community engagement and recognition. The Government of Newfoundland and Labrador launched the province's policy on multiculturalism in 2008 and the Minister of Advanced Education and Skills leads its implementation.

While the territorial governments do not have multiculturalism policies per se, they have human rights acts that prohibit discrimination based on, among other things, race, colour, ancestry, ethnic origin, place of origin, creed or religion. In Whitehorse, the Multicultural Centre of the Yukon provides services to immigrants.

British Columbia legislated the Multiculturalism Act in 1993. The purposes of this act (s. 2) are:{{cite web|url=http://www.leg.bc.ca/35th2nd/1st_read/gov39-1.htm|publisher=Queen's Printer|title=Multicultiralism Act|year=1993|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-date=February 19, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219010404/http://www.leg.bc.ca/35th2nd/1st_read/gov39-1.htm|url-status=live}}

{{Blockquote|

• to recognize that the diversity of British Columbians as regards race, cultural heritage, religion, ethnicity, ancestry and place of origin is a fundamental characteristic of the society of British Columbia that enriches the lives of all British Columbians;
• to encourage respect for the multicultural heritage of British Columbia;
• to promote racial harmony, cross cultural understanding and respect and the development of a community that is united and at peace with itself;
• to foster the creation of a society in British Columbia in which there are no impediments to the full and free participation of all British Columbians in the economic, social, cultural and political life of British Columbia.}}

Alberta primarily legislated the Alberta Cultural Heritage Act in 1984 and refined it with the Alberta Multiculturalism Act in 1990. The current legislation pertaining to multiculturalism is The Human Rights, Citizenship and Multiculturalism Act that passed in 1996. This current legislation deals with discrimination in race, religious beliefs, colour, gender, physical disability, age, marital status and sexual orientation, among other things.{{cite web|url=http://www.albertahumanrights.ab.ca/ProtAreasGrounds.pdf|publisher=Human Rights Commission|title=Protected Area and Grounds under the Alberta Human Rights Act|year=2012|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508212818/http://www.albertahumanrights.ab.ca/ProtAreasGrounds.pdf|archive-date=May 8, 2016|url-status=dead}} Alberta Human Rights chapter A‑25.5 states:{{cite web |url=http://canlii.ca/en/ab/laws/stat/rsa-2000-c-a-25.5/latest/rsa-2000-c-a-25.5.html |title=CanLII – Alberta Human Rights Act, RSA 2000, c A-25.5 |publisher=Canlii.ca |access-date=2014-01-14 |archive-date=January 7, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107112710/http://canlii.ca/en/ab/laws/stat/rsa-2000-c-a-25.5/latest/rsa-2000-c-a-25.5.html |url-status=live }}

{{Blockquote|

• multiculturalism describes the diverse racial and cultural composition of Alberta society and its importance is recognized in Alberta as a fundamental principle and a matter of public policy;
• it is recognized in Alberta as a fundamental principle and as a matter of public policy that all Albertans should share in an awareness and appreciation of the diverse racial and cultural composition of society and that the richness of life in Alberta is enhanced by sharing that diversity; and
• it is fitting that these principles be affirmed by the Legislature of Alberta in an enactment whereby those equality rights and that diversity may be protected.}}

Saskatchewan was the first Canadian province to adopt legislation on multiculturalism. This piece of legislation was called The Saskatchewan Multiculturalism Act of 1974, but has since been replaced by the new, revised Multiculturalism Act (1997). The purposes of this act (s. 3) are similar to those of British Columbia:{{cite web|url=http://www.qp.gov.sk.ca/documents/English/Statutes/Statutes/M23-01.pdf|publisher=Statutes of Saskatchewan|title=The Multiculturalism Act|year=1997|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-date=May 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517213229/http://www.qp.gov.sk.ca/documents/English/Statutes/Statutes/M23-01.pdf|url-status=live}}

{{Blockquote|

• to recognize that the diversity of Saskatchewan people with respect to race, cultural heritage, religion, ethnicity, ancestry and place of origin is a fundamental characteristic of Saskatchewan society that enriches the lives of all Saskatchewan people;
• to encourage respect for the multicultural heritage of Saskatchewan;
• to foster a climate for harmonious relations among people of diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds without sacrificing their distinctive cultural and ethnic identities;
• to encourage the continuation of a multicultural society.}}

The motto of the province of Saskatchewan, adopted in 1986, is Multis e gentibus vires (“from many peoples, strength” or “out of many peoples, strength”).{{cite book|author=Jene M. Porter|title=Perspectives of Saskatchewan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VlpVfAQekzUC&pg=PA57|year=2009|publisher=Univ. of Manitoba Press|isbn=978-0-88755-353-0|page=57}}

Manitoba's first piece of legislation on multiculturalism was the Manitoba Intercultural Council Act in 1984. In the summer on 1992, the province developed a new provincial legislation called the Multiculturalism Act. The purposes of this act (s. 2) are to:{{cite web|url=http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/m223e.php|publisher=Manitoba|title=The Manitoba Multiculturalism Act|year=1992|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-date=January 12, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112084031/http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/m223e.php|url-status=live}}

{{Blockquote|

• recognize and promote understanding that the cultural diversity of Manitoba is a strength of and a source of pride to Manitobans;
• recognize and promote the right of all Manitobans, regardless of culture, religion or racial background, to: (i) equal access to opportunities, (ii) participate in all aspects of society, and (iii) respect for their cultural values; and
• enhance the opportunities of Manitoba's multicultural society by acting in partnership with all cultural communities and by encouraging cooperation and partnerships between cultural communities}}

Ontario had a policy in place in 1977 that promoted cultural activity, but formal legislation for a Ministry of Citizenship and Culture (now known as Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration) only came to fruition in 1982. The Ministry of Citizenship and Culture Act (1990) (s. 4) states its purpose:{{cite web|url=http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_90m18_e.htm|publisher=e-Laws|title=The Ministry of Citizen and Culture Act|year=1990|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-date=January 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116081325/http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_90m18_e.htm|url-status=live}}

{{Blockquote|

• to encourage full, equal and responsible citizenship among the residents of Ontario;
• recognizing the pluralistic nature of Ontario society, to stress the full participation of all Ontarians as equal members of the community, encouraging the sharing of cultural heritage while affirming those elements held in common by all residents;
• to ensure the creative and participatory nature of cultural life in Ontario by assisting in the stimulation of cultural expression and cultural preservation;
• to foster the development of individual and community excellence, enabling Ontarians to better define the richness of their diversity and the shared vision of their community.}}

{{further|Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms}}

Quebec differs from the rest of the nine provinces in that its policy focuses on "interculturalism"- rather than multiculturalism,{{cite book|author=Martyn Barrett|title=Interculturalism and multiculturalism: similarities and differences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_MxSAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT53|year=2013|publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=978-92-871-7813-8|page=53}}{{cite book|author1= Peter Balint|author2=Sophie Guérard de Latour|title=Liberal Multiculturalism and the Fair Terms of Integration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r51EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT125 |year=2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-32041-4|page=125}}{{cite web |url=http://ceris.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CERIS-Research-Synthesis-on-Multiculturalism.pdf |title=Multiculturalism Research Synthesis 2009 - 2013 |publisher=Citizenship and Immigration Canada |date=2014 |first1= Elke|last1= Winter|first2= Adina|last2= Madularea |access-date=|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160129161415/http://ceris.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CERIS-Research-Synthesis-on-Multiculturalism.pdf|archivedate = 29 January 2016}} where diversity is strongly encouraged,{{cite book|author1=Ramón Máiz|author2=Ferrán Requejo|title=Democracy, Nationalism and Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMV_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA37|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-27696-7|page=37}} but only under the notion that it is within the framework that establishes French as the public language.{{cite book|author1=Alain G. Gagnon|author2=Raffaele Iacovino|title=Federalism, Citizenship and Quebec|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uvkN4LNwsG8C&pg=PT165|year=2006|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-9147-6 |pages=165–166}} Immigrant children must attend French language schools; most signage in English-only is banned (but bilingual signage is common in many communities).

In 1990, Quebec released a White paper called Lets Build Quebec Together: A Policy Statement on Integration and Immigration which reinforced three main points:{{cite web |url= http://www.cpsa-acsp.ca/papers-2009/Koji.pdf |publisher= Junichiro Koji |title= Policy Networks and Policy Change: Explaining Immigrant Integration Policy Evolution in Quebec |year= 2009 |access-date= 2012-03-28 |archive-date= December 2, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222500/http://www.cpsa-acsp.ca/papers-2009/Koji.pdf |url-status= live }}

{{Blockquote|

• Quebec is a French-speaking society
• Quebec is a democratic society in which everyone is expected to contribute to public life
• Quebec is a pluralistic society that respects the diversity of various cultures from within a democratic framework}}

In 2005, Quebec passed legislation to develop the Ministry of Immigration and Cultural Communities, their functions were:

{{Blockquote|

• to support cultural communities in order to facilitate their full participation in Quebec society
• to foster openness to pluralism; and
• to foster closer intercultural relations among the people of Quebec.}}

In 2015, when the Coalition Avenir Quebec (CAQ) took a nationalist turn, they advocated for "exempting Quebec from the requirements of multiculturalism.".{{Cite web|url=https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/748259/caq-logo-multicolore-remplace-bleu-virage-nationaliste|title=Un logo tout bleu pour le virage nationaliste de la CAQ|last=ICI.Radio-Canada.ca|first=Zone Politique-|website=Radio-Canada.ca|language=fr-ca|access-date=2019-11-25|archive-date=August 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814142357/https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/748259/caq-logo-multicolore-remplace-bleu-virage-nationaliste|url-status=live}} One of the key priorities for the CAQ when elected in 2018 Quebec election was reducing the number of immigrants to 40,000 annually; a 20 per cent reduction.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/caq-government-priorities-1.4846427|title=Here are the priorities of Quebec's new CAQ government|last=Shingler|first=Benjamin|date=October 1, 2018|website=CBC News|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124210224/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/caq-government-priorities-1.4846427|archive-date=November 24, 2020|access-date=November 25, 2019}}

New Brunswick first introduced its multicultural legislation in 1986. The policy is guided by four principles: equality, appreciation, preservation of cultural heritages and participation.{{cite web|url=http://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/post-secondary_education_training_and_labour/population_growth/content/new_brunswick_s_multiculturalismpolicy.html|publisher=The Government of New Brunswick|title=New Brunswick Multicultural Policy|year=2012|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116071145/http://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/post-secondary_education_training_and_labour/population_growth/content/new_brunswick_s_multiculturalismpolicy.html|archive-date=January 16, 2014|url-status=dead}} In the 1980s the provincial government developed a Ministerial Advisory Committee to provide assistance to the minister of Business in New Brunswick, who is in turn responsible for settlement and multicultural communities. New Brunswick is Canada's only officially bilingual province, with French and English-language provincial government services and schooling made available equally to all residents.{{Cite web|url=https://officiallanguages.nb.ca/content/frequently-asked-questions/|title=Frequently Asked Questions – OCOLNB – CLONB|access-date=October 27, 2021|archive-date=October 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027171246/https://officiallanguages.nb.ca/content/frequently-asked-questions/|url-status=live}}

Nova Scotia introduced their multicultural legislation, the Act to Promote and Preserve Multiculturalism, in 1989. The purpose of this Act is (s. 3):{{cite web|url=http://nslegislature.ca/legc/statutes/multicul.htm|publisher=Office of the Legislative Counsel|title=Multiculturalism Act|year=1989|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-date=December 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229164104/http://nslegislature.ca/legc/statutes/multicul.htm|url-status=live}}

{{Blockquote|

• encouraging recognition and acceptance of multiculturalism as an inherent feature of a pluralistic society;
• establishing a climate for harmonious relations among people of diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds without sacrificing their distinctive cultural and ethnic identities;
• encouraging the continuation of a multicultural society as a mosaic of different ethnic groups and cultures}}

Prince Edward Island introduced their legislation on multiculturalism, the Provincial Multicultural Policy, in 1988. This policies objectives were (s. 4):{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.pe.ca/photos/original/cca_multi_engli.pdf|publisher=Government of P.E.I|title=Provincial Multicultural Policy|year=1989|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-date=January 27, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127235653/http://www.gov.pe.ca/photos/original/cca_multi_engli.pdf|url-status=live}}

{{Blockquote|

• serve to indicate that the province embraces the multicultural reality of Canadian society and acknowledges that Prince Edward Island has a distinctive multicultural heritage
• acknowledge the intrinsic worth and continuing contribution of al Prince Edward Islanders regardless of race, religion ethnicity, linguistic origin or length of residency.
• serve as an affirmation of Human Rights for all Prince Edward Islanders and as a complement to the equality of rights guaranteed in the P.E.I. Human Rights Act and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
• encourage specific legislative, political and social commitments to multiculturalism in Prince Edward Island}}

Newfoundland and Labrador first legislated their Policy on Multiculturalism in 2008. Some of the policies are to:{{cite web|url=http://www.aes.gov.nl.ca/department/branches/labourmarket/pdf/MultiPolicy.pdf|publisher=Government of Newfoundland and Labrador|title=Multiculturalism Policy|year=2012|access-date=2012-03-28|archive-date=January 16, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116074559/http://www.aes.gov.nl.ca/department/branches/labourmarket/pdf/MultiPolicy.pdf|url-status=dead}}

{{Blockquote|

• ensure that relevant policies and procedures of provincial programs and practices reflect, and consider the changing needs of all cultural groups;
• lead in developing, sustaining and enhancing programs and services based on equality for all, notwithstanding racial, religious, ethnic, national and social origin;
• provide government workplaces that are free of discrimination and that promote equality of opportunity for all persons accessing employment positions within the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador;
• support multicultural initiatives by enhancing partnerships with culturally-diverse communities and provincial departments and agencies}}

{{see also|Canadian values}}

{{further|International rankings of Canada}}

Multiculturalism has been embraced by the majority of Canadians,{{cite book | author = Hugh Donald Forbes | date = 12 October 2019 | title = Multiculturalism in Canada: Constructing a Model Multiculture with Multicultural Values | publisher = Springer Nature | pages = | isbn = 978-3-03-019835-0 | oclc = 1123215990 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=t9W1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR21 | access-date = November 14, 2022 | archive-date = November 14, 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221114065739/https://books.google.com/books?id=t9W1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR21 | url-status = live }}{{cite web | title=Inclusion and respect for diversity | website=GAC | date=Feb 21, 2017 | url=https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/human_rights-droits_homme/inclusion_respect.aspx?lang=eng | access-date=Nov 14, 2022 | archive-date=November 14, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114072401/https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/human_rights-droits_homme/inclusion_respect.aspx?lang=eng | url-status=live }} and is looked upon with admiration outside the country, resulting in much of the Canadian public dismissing most critics of the concept.{{cite book|author1=Linda A. White|author2=Richard Simeon|title=The Comparative Turn in Canadian Political Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATny9O-I6bwC&pg=PA102|year= 2009|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1428-7|page=102}}{{cite book|author=Stephen J Tierney|title=Multiculturalism and the Canadian Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fY078NtGPkAC&pg=PA66|year=2011|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-4007-1|page=66}}{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html|title=Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave|newspaper=New York Times|year=2017|last1=Taub|first1=Amanda|access-date=October 15, 2018|archive-date=September 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904163543/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html|url-status=live}} Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.{{cite book|author=Jack Jedwab|title=Multiculturalism Question: Debating Identity in 21st Century Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TZQHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT119|year=2016|publisher=MQUP|isbn=978-1-55339-423-5|page=119}} Richard Gwyn has suggested that "tolerance" has replaced "loyalty" as the touchstone of Canadian identity.{{cite book|author=Richard J. Gwyn|title=John A: The Man Who Made Us|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xN7jXe0H5FwC&pg=PA265|year= 2008|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-0-679-31476-9|page=265}} Multiculturalism has been emphasized in recent decades. Emma Ambrose and Cas Mudde examining surveys of Western nations report:

{{blockquote|text=Data confirms that Canada has fostered a much more accepting society for immigrants and their culture than other Western countries. For example, Canadians are the most likely to agree with the statement that immigrants make their country a better place to live and that immigrants are good for the economy. They are also the least likely to say that there are too many immigrants in their country, that immigration has placed too much pressure on public services, and that immigrants have made it more difficult for natives to find a job.}}Ambrose and Mudde conclude that: "Canada's unique multiculturalism policy... is based on a combination of selective immigration, comprehensive integration, and strong state repression of dissent on these policies". This unique blend of policies has led to a relatively low level of opposition to multiculturalism.{{cite journal |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right |journal = Nationalism and Ethnic Politics| volume=21 |issue = 2|pages = 213–236|doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033 |date=2015 |author1=Emma Ambrosea |author2=Cas Muddea |s2cid = 145773856|name-list-style=amp }}{{cite web |url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |title=A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006–2009 |publisher=Government of Canada |date=2011 |access-date=December 18, 2015 |archive-date=December 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222133226/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |url-status=live }}

Canadian supporters of multiculturalism promote the idea because they believe that immigrants help society grow culturally, economically and politically.{{cite book|author1=James Hollifield|author2=Philip L. Martin|author3=Pia Orrenius|title=Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oec_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|year=2014|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-8735-2|page=103}}{{cite web|title= The current state of multiculturalism in Canada and research themes on Canadian multiculturalism|year= 2010|publisher= Citizenship and Immigration Canada|access-date= March 28, 2012|url= http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/multi-state/section1.asp|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170408122819/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/multi-state/section1.asp|archive-date= April 8, 2017|url-status= dead}} Supporters declare that multiculturalism policies help in bringing together immigrants and minorities in the country and pushes them towards being part of the Canadian society as a whole.{{cite book|author1=Pierre Boyer|author2=Linda Cardinal|author3=David John Headon|title=From Subjects to Citizens: A Hundred Years of Citizenship in Australia and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NGq1Nh6h3X8C&pg=PA226|year=2004|publisher=University of Ottawa Press|isbn=978-0-7766-0553-1|page=226}}{{cite book|author=Elke Murdock|title=Multiculturalism, Identity and Difference: Experiences of Culture Contact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvpRDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA111|year=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-137-59679-6|pages=111–112}} Supporters also argue that cultural appreciation of ethnic and religious diversity promotes a greater willingness to tolerate political differences.

Sociologist N. M. Sussman says, "The tenets of this concept permitted and subtly encouraged the private maintenance of ethnic values while simultaneously insisting on minimal public adherence to Canadian behaviours and to Canadian values." As result, immigrants to Canada are more likely to maintain the values and attitudes of both the home and of the host culture, compared to similar immigrants to Australia, the United Kingdom, or the United States.{{cite book|author=Chan Kwok-bun|title=International Handbook of Chinese Families|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i7DqB4bOA0cC&pg=PA59|year=2012|publisher=Springer |page=59|isbn=9781461402664}}

Andrew Griffith argues that, "89 percent of Canadians believe that foreign-born Canadians are just as likely to be good citizens as those born in Canada....But Canadians clearly view multiculturalism in an integrative sense, with an expectation that new arrivals will adopt Canadian values and attitudes." Griffith adds that, "There are virtually no differences between Canadian-born and foreign-born with respect to agreement to abide by Canadian values (70 and 68 percent, respectively)."{{cite book|author=Andrew Griffith|title=Multiculturalism In Canada: Evidence and Anecdote|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tO9iCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA50|year=2015|page=50|publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9780988064096}}

File:Old Canadian War Museum Ottawa 3jun2004.jpg is located in Ottawa on Sussex Drive at the former location of the Canadian War Museum.]]

Aga Khan, the 49th Imam of the Ismaili Muslims, described Canada as:{{citation

|title = Canada: 'A model for the world'

|date = February 2, 2002

|author1 = Stackhouse, John

|author2 = Martin, Patrick

|page = F3

|work = The Globe and Mail

|location = Canada

|url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/opinions/columnists/doug-saunders/canadas-mistaken-identity/article1199074/

|access-date = June 29, 2009

|quote = Canada is today the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe, without any doubt in my mind. . . . That is something unique to Canada. It is an amazing global human asset

|archive-date = June 29, 2009

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090629011942/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/opinions/columnists/doug-saunders/canadas-mistaken-identity/article1199074/

|url-status = live

}} "the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe, without any doubt in my mind.... That is something unique to Canada. It is an amazing global human asset." Aga Khan explained that the experience of Canadian governance – its commitment to pluralism and its support for the rich multicultural diversity of its peoples – is something that must be shared and would be of benefit to societies in other parts of the world.{{citation

|title = Address at the Leadership and Diversity Conference

|author = Prince Karim Aga Khan IV

|author-link = Aga Khan IV

|date = May 19, 2004

|location = Gatineau, Canada

|url = http://www.akdn.org/speeches_detail.asp?ID=238

|access-date = March 21, 2007

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230646/http://www.akdn.org/speeches_detail.asp?ID=238

|archive-date = March 3, 2016

|url-status = dead

}} With this in mind, in 2006 the Global Centre for Pluralism was established in partnership with the Government of Canada.{{cite book|author1=Courtney Bender|author2=Pamela E. Klassen|authorlink2=Pamela Klassen|title=After Pluralism: Reimagining Religious Engagement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ys6iycIPizUC&pg=PA24|year= 2010|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-15233-4}}

The Economist ran a cover story in 2016 praising Canada as the most successful multicultural society in the West.{{cite news

| last =

| first =

| title = The last liberals Why Canada is still at ease with openness

| newspaper = The Economist

| date = 29 October 2016

| url = https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21709291-why-canada-still-ease-openness-last-liberals

| doi =

| access-date = 2016-11-10

| archive-date = August 13, 2017

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170813011903/https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21709291-why-canada-still-ease-openness-last-liberals

| url-status = live

}} The Economist argued that Canada's multiculturalism was a source of strength that united the diverse population and by attracting immigrants from around the world was also an engine of economic growth as well. I In 2021, the Social Progress Index ranked Canada 6th in the world for overall tolerance and inclusion.{{cite web |date=2014-04-03 |title=Canada ranks 7th on Social Progress Index – CBC News |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/canada-ranks-7th-on-social-progress-index-1.2597225 |access-date=2022-03-05 |website=CBC |archive-date=June 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629062409/https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/canada-ranks-7th-on-social-progress-index-1.2597225 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Greene |first1=Michael |title=2021 Social Progress Index rankings |url=https://www.socialprogress.org/index/global/results |access-date=14 April 2022 |website=Global Index:Results |publisher=Social Progress Imperative |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503073115/https://www.socialprogress.org/index/global/results/ |url-status=live }}

{{Further|Criticism of multiculturalism}}

Critics of multiculturalism in Canada often debate whether the multicultural ideal of benignly co-existing cultures that interrelate and influence one another, and yet remain distinct, is sustainable, paradoxical or even desirable.{{cite book|author=John Nagle|title=Multiculturalism's double bind: creating inclusivity, cosmopolitanism and difference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqMCc37dW1kC&pg=PA129|year=2009|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7607-2|page=129}}{{cite book|author=Farhang Rajaee|title=Globalization on trial: the human condition and the information civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyAt3T1V4EcC&pg=PT97|year=2000|publisher=IDRC|isbn=978-0-88936-909-2|page=97}}{{cite book|author1=Leonie Sandercock|author2=Giovanni Attili|author3=Val Cavers|author4=Paula Carr|title=Where strangers become neighbours: integrating immigrants in Vancouver, British Columbia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmlGzr4s0uMC&pg=PA16|year=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-9034-9|page=16}} In the introduction to an article which presents research showing that "the multiculturalism policy plays a positive role" in "the process of immigrant and minority integration," Citizenship and immigration Canada sums up the critics' position by stating:{{cite web|title=Citizenship and Immigration Canada|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/multi-state/section1.asp|work=The New Evidence on Multiculturalism and Integration|publisher=The current state of multiculturalism in Canada and research themes on Canadian multiculturalism|access-date=March 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408122819/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/multi-state/section1.asp|archive-date=April 8, 2017|url-status=dead}} {{Blockquote|Critics argue that multiculturalism promotes ghettoization and balkanization, encouraging members of ethnic groups to look inward, and emphasizing the differences between groups rather than their shared rights or identities as Canadian citizens.

}}

File:Chinatown toronto spadina avenue.JPG is an ethnic enclave located in the city centre.]]

Canadian Neil Bissoondath in his book Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada, argues that official multiculturalism limits the freedom of minority members, by confining them to cultural and geographic ethnic enclaves ("social ghettos").{{cite book|author=Giuliana B. Prato|title=Beyond multiculturalism: views from anthropology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ny7fs5qL23sC&pg=PA16|year= 2009|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7173-2|page=16}} He also argues that cultures are very complex, and must be transmitted through close family and kin relations. To him, the government view of cultures as being about festivals and cuisine is a crude oversimplification that leads to easy stereotyping.{{cite book|author1=Lalaie Ameeriar|author2=Stanford University. Dept. of Anthropology|title=Downwardly global: multicultural bodies and gendered labor migrations from Karachi to Toronto|year=2008|publisher=Stanford University|pages=21–22}}

Canadian Daniel Stoffman's book Who Gets In questions the policy of Canadian multiculturalism. Stoffman points out that many cultural practices (outlawed in Canada), such as allowing dog meat to be served in restaurants and street cockfighting, are simply incompatible with Canadian and Western culture. He also raises concern about the number of recent older immigrants who are not being linguistically integrated into Canada (i.e., not learning either English or French). He stresses that multiculturalism works better in theory than in practice and Canadians need to be far more assertive about valuing the "national identity of English-speaking Canada".{{cite book|author=Phil Ryan|title=Multicultiphobia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r7Ii8abkancC&pg=PA104|year= 2010|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-1068-2|pages=103–106}}

Professor Joseph Garcea, the Department Head of Political Studies at the University of Saskatchewan, explores the validity of attacks on multiculturalism because it supposedly segregates the peoples of Canada. He argues that multiculturalism hurts the Canadian, Québécois, and indigenous cultures, identity, and nationalism projects. Furthermore, he argues, it perpetuates conflicts between and within groups.{{cite journal|first=Joseph|last=Garcea|title=Postulations on the Fragmentary Effects of Multiculturalism in Canada|journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies|date=Spring 2008|volume=40|issue=1|pages=141–160|doi=10.1353/ces.0.0059 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb039/is_1_40/ai_n32432796/|access-date=2012-01-30|archive-date=July 13, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120713213149/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb039/is_1_40/ai_n32432796/}}

Some pundits, such as The Globe and Mail{{'}}s Jeffrey Simpson and Carleton University journalism professor Andrew Cohen, have argued that the entire melting pot/mosaic dynamic is largely an imagined concept and that there remains little measurable evidence that American or Canadian immigrants as collective groups can be proven to be more or less "assimilated" or "multicultural" than each other.Gardner, D. (September 24, 2008). [https://ottawacitizen.com/columnists/often+more+like+Americans+than+like+other+Canadians/824878/story.html "We're often more like Americans than we're like other Canadians."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806020724/http://www.ottawacitizen.com/columnists/often+more+like+Americans+than+like+other+Canadians/824878/story.html |date=August 6, 2020 }} Canwest.com Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved 2009-11-20.

Some New Canadians, according to journalist Steven Edgington, have accused the Canadian Government of promoting only "an aroma" or a façade of multiculturalism, while being guilty of "religious intolerance", for example, whenever the moral and ethical codes of Eastern Religions such as Hinduism or Buddhism conflict with "Canadian values". [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/08/29/canadas-woke-nightmare-is-a-vision-for-britains-future/ Canada’s woke nightmare is a vision of Britain’s future] by Steven Edgington, The Telegraph, 29 August 2023

Despite an official federal bilingualism policy, many commentators from Quebec believe multiculturalism threatens to reduce them to just another ethnic group.{{cite book|author1=Christian Lammert|author2=Katja Sarkowsky|title=Negotiating Diversity in Canada and Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oHp9WHlYxM0C&pg=PA177|year=2009|publisher=VS Verlag|isbn=978-3-531-16892-0|page=177}}{{cite journal|author=Danic Parenteau|title=Critique du multiculturalisme canadien. Une synthèse récapitulative|url=http://www.parenteau.info/Danic/textes_politiques_danic_fichiers/Article_PARENTEAU_Danic_Critiques_du_multiculturalisme_canadien.pdf|date=2010|journal=L'Action Nationale|issue=Mars|pages=36–46|access-date=September 18, 2013|archive-date=November 12, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112081031/http://www.parenteau.info/Danic/textes_politiques_danic_fichiers/Article_PARENTEAU_Danic_Critiques_du_multiculturalisme_canadien.pdf|url-status=live}} Quebec's policy seeks to promote interculturalism, welcoming people of all origins while insisting that they integrate into Quebec's majority French-speaking society.{{cite book|author1=Assaad E. Azzi|author2=Xenia Chryssochoou|author3=Bert Klandermans|author4=Bernd Simon|title=Identity and Participation in Culturally Diverse Societies: A Multidisciplinary Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLwPe-epZp4C&pg=PT236|year= 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5181-1|page=236}} In 2008, a Consultation Commission on Accommodation Practices Related to Cultural Differences, headed by sociologist Gerard Bouchard and philosopher Charles Taylor, recognized that Quebec is a de facto pluralist society, but that the Canadian multiculturalism model "does not appear well suited to conditions in Quebec".{{citation

|title = Building the Future: A Time for Reconciliation

|author = Bouchard, Gérard

|author2 = Taylor, Charles

|year = 2008

|publisher = Commission de consultation sur les pratiques d'accommodement reliées aux différences culturelles

|location = Québec, Canada

|url = http://www.accommodements.qc.ca/documentation/rapports/rapport-final-abrege-en.pdf

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120213083051/http://www.accommodements.qc.ca/documentation/rapports/rapport-final-abrege-en.pdf

|archive-date = 2012-02-13

|access-date= October 20, 2011

}}

In June 2022, François Legault premier of Quebec said he's against multiculturalism.{{cite web | url=https://montrealgazette.com/news/quebec/legault-says-hes-against-multiculturalism-because-not-all-cultures-are-equal | title=Legault says he's against multiculturalism because 'it's important to have culture where we integrate' | access-date=July 10, 2022 | archive-date=July 14, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714024745/https://montrealgazette.com/news/quebec/legault-says-hes-against-multiculturalism-because-not-all-cultures-are-equal | url-status=live }}{{cite web | url=https://montreal.citynews.ca/2022/06/28/quebec-communities-outraged-by-premiers-multiculturalism-stance/ | title=CityNews | date=June 28, 2022 | access-date=July 10, 2022 | archive-date=June 29, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629002529/https://montreal.citynews.ca/2022/06/28/quebec-communities-outraged-by-premiers-multiculturalism-stance/ | url-status=live }}{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-premier-multiculturalism-1.6501246|title=Quebec's premier rejects multiculturalism as province celebrates Fête nationale|accessdate=July 16, 2022|date=June 24, 2022|website=CBC News|archive-date=July 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715012427/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-premier-multiculturalism-1.6501246|url-status=live}}

{{portal|border=no|Canada|Society}}

• Canadian values
• A Theory of Justice
• Feminism in Canada
• Freedom of religion in Canada
• Heritage conservation in Canada
• Historiography of Canada
• Social programs in Canada

{{reflist|30em}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite book | last=Forbes | first=H.D. | title=Multiculturalism in Canada: Constructing a Model Multiculture with Multicultural Values | publisher=Springer International Publishing | series=Recovering Political Philosophy | year=2019 | isbn=978-3-030-19835-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9W1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | access-date=February 22, 2023 | archive-date=April 25, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425045958/https://books.google.com/books?id=t9W1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | url-status=live }}
• {{cite web | last1=Brosseau | first1=Laurence | last2=Division | first2=Social Affairs | title=Canadian Multiculturalism | website=Library of the Canadian Parliament | date=Sep 15, 2009 | url=https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/200920E | access-date=Nov 14, 2022 | archive-date=November 14, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114072752/https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/200920E | url-status=live }}
• Laurence Brosseau, Michael Dewing (2009) – Revised 2018 [https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/200920E#a2-4 Canadian Multiculturalism Background Paper] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214092907/https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/200920E#a2-4 |date=December 14, 2021 }}, Library of Parliament – Legal and Social Affairs Division, Publication No. 2009-20-E .([https://lop.parl.ca/staticfiles/PublicWebsite/Home/ResearchPublications/BackgroundPapers/PDF/2009-20-e.pdf PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022205325/https://lop.parl.ca/staticfiles/PublicWebsite/Home/ResearchPublications/BackgroundPapers/PDF/2009-20-e.pdf |date=October 22, 2021 }})
• {{cite book|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/pub/multi-state.pdf|last1=Kymlicka|first1=Will|title=The Current State of Multiculturalism in Canada|date=2010|publisher=Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada|isbn=978-1-100-14648-5|access-date=January 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110184948/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/pub/multi-state.pdf|archive-date=January 10, 2017|url-status=dead}}
• {{cite book|last1=Banting|first1=Keith|first2=Will|last2=Kymlicka|title=Canadian Multiculturalism: Global Anxieties and Local Debates|publisher=British Journal of Canadian Studies|year=2010|volume=23|issue=1|url=http://post.queensu.ca/~bantingk/Canadian_Multiculturalism.pdf|access-date=February 1, 2012|archive-date=December 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222232741/http://post.queensu.ca/~bantingk/Canadian_Multiculturalism.pdf|url-status=dead}}
• {{cite journal |last= Garcea |first= Joseph |url= http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/canadian_ethnic_studies/v040/40.1.garcea.html |title= Postulations on the Fragmentary Effects of Multiculturalism in Canada |journal= Canadian Ethnic Studies |year= 2008 |volume= 40 |issue= 1 |pages= 141–160 |doi= 10.1353/ces.0.0059 |s2cid= 143746658 |access-date= September 18, 2013 |archive-date= March 5, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305072543/http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/canadian_ethnic_studies/v040/40.1.garcea.html |url-status= live }}
• {{cite book|author1=Ninette Kelley|author2=Michael J. Trebilcock|title=The making of the mosaic: a history of Canadian immigration policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PP1|year=2010|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9536-7}}
• {{cite book|author=Janice Gross Stein|title=Uneasy partners: multiculturalism and rights in Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4HPCB2lWPMC&pg=PP1|year=2007|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press|isbn=978-1-55458-012-5}}
• {{cite book|author=Stephen Tierney|title=Multiculturalism and the Canadian Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fY078NtGPkAC&pg=PP1|year=2007|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1445-4}}
• {{cite book|author=Kristin R. Good|title=Municipalities and Multiculturalism: The Politics of Immigration in Toronto and Vancouver|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngMCCV64WrkC&pg=PP1|year=2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-0993-8}}
• {{cite book|author=Richard J. F. Day|title=Multiculturalism and the history of Canadian diversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4bPrHKui5EC&pg=PP1|year=2000|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8075-2}}
• {{cite book|author=Eve Haque|title=Multiculturalism Within a Bilingual Framework: Language, Race, and Belonging in Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZ2IQZ8qtLEC&pg=PP1|year=2012|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-6089-2}}
• {{cite journal|first1=Abu-Laban|last1=Yasmeen|first2=Daiva|last2=Stasiulis|year=2000|title=Ethnic Pluralism under Siege: Popular and Partisan Opposition to Multiculturalism|journal=Canadian Public Policy|volume=18|issue=4|pages=365–386|jstor=3551654|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4749382}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Mann |first1=Jatinder |title='Anglo-Conformity': Assimilation Policy in Canada, 1890s–1950s |journal=International Journal of Canadian Studies |date=January 2014 |volume=50 |pages=253–276 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/566306/pdf |access-date=22 April 2021 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto, Ontario |doi=10.3138/ijcs.2014.014 |s2cid=154133929 |issn=1180-3991 |oclc=5714525681 |archive-date=July 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709140615/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/566306/pdf |url-status=live }}{{subscription required|via=Project MUSE}}
• Pivato, Joseph. Editor (1996) [https://www.proquest.com/openview/95b3780ac4ced3f3fe53aef6a800c5b4/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1817720 Literary Theory and Ethnic Minority Writing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214061337/https://www.proquest.com/openview/95b3780ac4ced3f3fe53aef6a800c5b4/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1817720 |date=December 14, 2021 }}, Special Issue Canadian Ethnic Studies XXVIII, 3 (1996).

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{{Commons category|Multiculturalism in Canada}}

• [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/politics/language-culture/language-culture-general/true-canadians.html Multiculturalism in Canada debated] – CBC video archives (Sep 14, 2004 – 42:35 min)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20120504020748/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/ Multicultural Canada] – Government of Canada
• [http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/multiculturalism/index.asp Multiculturalism] – Citizenship and Immigration Canada
• [https://acs-aec.ca/en/social-research/multiculturalism-diversity/ Multiculturalism & Diversity] – Association for Canadian Studies

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