Canadians

The word Canadian originally applied, in its French form, Canadien, to the colonists residing in the northern part of New France{{citation| url=https://www.canadahistoryproject.ca/1663/1663-14-daily-life.html| title=Daily Life in New France| publisher=Canadian History Project| accessdate=15 March 2023}}— in Quebec, and Ontario—during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The French colonists in Maritime Canada (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island), were known as Acadians.

When Prince Edward (a son of King George III) addressed, in English and French, a group of rioters at a poll in Charlesbourg, Lower Canada (today Quebec), during the election of the Legislative Assembly in June 1792,{{cite book| last1=Bousfuield| first1=Arthur| first2=Garry| last2=Toffoli| title=Royal Tours 1786–2010: Home to Canada| page=33| publisher=Dundurn Press| isbn=978-1-4597-1165-5| year=2010}} he stated, "I urge you to unanimity and concord. Let me hear no more of the odious distinction of English and French. You are all His Britannic Majesty's beloved Canadian subjects."{{citation| url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/royals-who-lived-in-canada| last=Harris| first=Caroline| title=Royals Who Lived in Canada| date=3 February 2022| encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia| publisher=Historica Canada| accessdate=13 March 2023}} It was the first-known use of the term Canadian to mean both French and English settlers in the Canadas.{{cite book| last=Tidridge| first=Nathan| title=Prince Edward, Duke of Kent: Father of the Canadian Crown| page=90| year=2013| publisher=Dundurn Press| isbn=978-1-4597-0790-0}}

{{See also|Population of Canada|Demographics of Canada}}

As of 2010, Canadians make up 0.5% of the world's total population,{{cite web|title=Environment – Greenhouse Gases (Greenhouse Gas Emissions per Person)|url=http://www4.hrsdc.gc.ca/.3ndic.1t.4r@-eng.jsp?iid=64|publisher=Human Resources and Skills Development Canada|year=2010|access-date=January 19, 2011|archive-date=November 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104141104/http://www4.hrsdc.gc.ca/.3ndic.1t.4r@-eng.jsp?iid=64|url-status=dead}} having relied upon immigration for population growth and social development.{{sfn|Cornelius|Tsuda|Martin|Hollifield|2004|p=100}} Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first- or second-generation immigrants, and 20% of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country.{{sfn|Bybee|McCrae|2009|p=92}} Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign-born or have one foreign-born parent.{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/cgi-bin/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SDDS=5126&lang=en&db=imdb&adm=8&dis=2|title=Projections of the Diversity of the Canadian Population|publisher=Statistics Canada|access-date=March 15, 2010|date= March 9, 2010}} Indigenous peoples, according to the 2016 Canadian census, numbered at 1,673,780 or 4.9% of the country's 35,151,728 population.{{cite web|title=Aboriginal Peoples in Canada: First Nations People, Métis, and Inuit|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-011-x/99-011-x2011001-eng.cfm|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2012}}

{{main|Immigration to Canada|Canada immigration statistics}}

While the first contact with Europeans and Indigenous peoples in Canada had occurred a century or more before, the first group of permanent settlers were the French, who founded the New France settlements, in present-day Quebec and Ontario; and Acadia, in present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, during the early part of the 17th century.{{sfn|Hudson|2002|p=15}}{{sfn|Griffiths|2005|p=4}}

Approximately 100 Irish-born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700, assimilating into the Canadien population and culture.{{sfn|McGowan|1999}}{{sfn|Magocsi|1999|p=736ff}} During the 18th and 19th century; immigration westward (to the area known as Rupert's Land) was carried out by "Voyageurs"; French settlers working for the North West Company; and by British settlers (English and Scottish) representing the Hudson's Bay Company, coupled with independent entrepreneurial woodsman called coureur des bois.{{sfn|Standford|2000|p=42}} This arrival of newcomers led to the creation of the Métis, an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nations parentage.{{sfn|Borrows|2010|p=134}}

In the wake of the British Conquest of New France in 1760 and the Expulsion of the Acadians, many families from the British colonies in New England moved over into Nova Scotia and other colonies in Canada, where the British made farmland available to British settlers on easy terms. More settlers arrived during and after the American Revolutionary War, when approximately 60,000 United Empire Loyalists fled to British North America, a large portion of whom settled in New Brunswick.{{sfn|Murrin|Johnson|McPherson|Fahs|2007|p=172}} After the War of 1812, British (including British army regulars), Scottish, and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Rupert's Land, Upper Canada and Lower Canada.{{sfn|Feltes|1999|p=19}}

Between 1815 and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America, mainly from the British Isles as part of the Great Migration of Canada.{{sfn|Harland-Jacobs|2007|p=177}} These new arrivals included some Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia.{{sfn|Campey|2008|p=122}} The Great Famine of Ireland of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada, with over 35,000 distressed individuals landing in Toronto in 1847 and 1848.{{sfn|McGowan|2009|p=97}}{{sfn|Elliott|2004|p=106}} Descendants of Francophone and Anglophone northern Europeans who arrived in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries are often referred to as Old Stock Canadians.{{cite book|last1=Boberg|first1=Charles|title=The English Language in Canada: Status, History, and Comparative Analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/englishlanguagec00bobe|url-access=limited|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139491440|page=[https://archive.org/details/englishlanguagec00bobe/page/n115 97]}}{{cite news | url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2015/09/18/who-are-old-stock-canadians.html | title=Who are 'old stock Canadians'? The Star asked some people with deep roots in Canada what they thought of Conservative Leader Stephen Harper's controversial phrase | date=September 18, 2015 | agency=Toronto Star | access-date=September 21, 2015 | location=Toronto | author1=Chown, Marco | author2=Otis, Daniel}}

Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush.{{sfn|Hall|Hwang|2001|p=9}} The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants, in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway.{{sfn|Huang|2006|p=107}} Additionally, growing South Asian immigration into British Columbia during the early 1900sSingh, Hira, p. [http://nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=3759475&qryID=7a5ddb5d-b341-42c0-a403-40619d79f0fe 94]{{Dead link|date=July 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ([https://www.webcitation.org/6YTj7DRo7?url=http://nosracines.ca/page.aspx?id=3759475&qryID=fc5017ef-41f0-4b8e-ab11-e598bb3c3974 Archive]). led to the continuous journey regulation act of 1908 which indirectly halted Indian immigration to Canada, as later evidenced by the infamous 1914 Komagata Maru incident.

The population of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately every 40 years, since the establishment of the Canadian Confederation in 1867.{{cite web|url=http://www4.hrsdc.gc.ca/.3ndic.1t.4r@-eng.jsp?iid=35|title=Canadians in Context – Population Size and Growth|publisher=Human Resources and Skills Development Canada|year=2010|access-date=December 17, 2010|archive-date=July 6, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706181616/http://www4.hrsdc.gc.ca/.3ndic.1t.4r@-eng.jsp?iid=35|url-status=dead}} In the mid-to-late 19th century, Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted "Home Children" from Britain.{{sfn|Hobbs|MacKechnie|Lavalette|1999|p=33}} Block settlement communities were established throughout Western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves.{{sfn|Martens|2004|p=28}} Canada received mainly European immigrants, predominantly Italians, Germans, Scandinavians, Dutch, Poles, and Ukrainians.{{sfn|Day|2000|p=124}}

Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act, 1923) that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s, opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world.{{sfn|Ksenych|Liu|2001|p=407}} While the 1950s had still seen high levels of immigration by Europeans, by the 1970s immigrants were increasingly Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, Jamaican, and Haitian.{{cite web|title=Immigration Policy in the 1970s|url=http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/i2/10|publisher=Canadian Heritage (Multicultural Canada)|year=2004|access-date=April 12, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105062130/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/i2/10|archive-date=November 5, 2009|df=mdy-all}} During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Canada received many American Vietnam War draft dissenters.{{sfn|Kusch|2001|p=2}} Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s, Canada's growing Pacific trade brought with it a large influx of South Asians, who tended to settle in British Columbia.{{sfn|Agnew|2007|p=182}} Immigrants of all backgrounds tend to settle in the major urban centres.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1980|p=200}}{{sfn|Good|2009|p=13}} The Canadian public, as well as the major political parties, are tolerant of immigrants.{{sfn|Hollifield|Martin|Orrenius|2014|p=11}}

The majority of illegal immigrants come from the southern provinces of the People's Republic of China, with Asia as a whole, Eastern Europe, Caribbean, Africa, and the Middle East.{{sfn|Schneider|2009|p=367}} Estimates of numbers of illegal immigrants range between 35,000 and 120,000.{{cite news|url=http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=f86690ed-a2ed-447c-8be8-21ba5a3dd922|title=Canadians want illegal immigrants deported: poll|newspaper=Ottawa Citizen|publisher=CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc.|date=October 20, 2007|access-date=October 18, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101020005655/http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=f86690ed-a2ed-447c-8be8-21ba5a3dd922|archive-date=October 20, 2010|url-status=dead}}

{{Main|Canadian nationality law|Canadian diaspora}}

File:Map of the Canadian Diaspora in the World.svg in the world (might include people with Canadian citizenship and children of Canadians).

{{Legend|#000000|Canada}}{{Legend|#800000|+ 100,000}}{{Legend|#d40000|+ 10,000}}{{Legend|#ff8f98|+ 1,000}}]]

Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada or by birth or adoption abroad when at least one biological parent or adoptive parent is a Canadian citizen who was born in Canada or naturalized in Canada (and did not receive citizenship by being born outside of Canada to a Canadian citizen).{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/citizenship/rules/index.asp|title=Am I Canadian? |year=2014|publisher=Government of Canada Canada|access-date= July 1, 2014}} It can also be granted to a permanent resident who lives in Canada for three out of four years and meets specific requirements.{{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C-29/page-2.html#anchorbo-ga:l_I|title=Citizenship Act (R.S., 1985, c. C-29)|year=2010|publisher=Department of Justice Canada|access-date=July 11, 2010|archive-date=January 6, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106020144/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C-29/page-2.html#anchorbo-ga:l_I|url-status=dead}} Canada established its own nationality law in 1946, with the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act which took effect on January 1, 1947.{{cite web|url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/bp445-e.htm|title=Canadian Citizenship Act and current issues -BP-445E|publisher=Government of Canada – Law and Government Division|year=2002|access-date=July 11, 2010}} The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act was passed by the Parliament of Canada in 2001 as Bill C-11, which replaced the Immigration Act, 1976 as the primary federal legislation regulating immigration.{{cite web|url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/LS/371/c11-e.htm#GENERALtxt|title=Bill C-11 : Immigration and Refugee Protection Act|first1=Jay|last1=Sinha|first2=Margaret|last2=Young|publisher=Law and Government Division, Government of Canada|date=January 31, 2002|access-date=December 12, 2009}} Prior to the conferring of legal status on Canadian citizenship, Canada's naturalization laws consisted of a multitude of Acts beginning with the Immigration Act of 1910.{{sfn|Bloemraad|2006|p=269}}

According to Citizenship and Immigration Canada, there are three main classifications for immigrants: family class (persons closely related to Canadian residents), economic class (admitted on the basis of a point system that accounts for age, health and labour-market skills required for cost effectively inducting the immigrants into Canada's labour market) and refugee class (those seeking protection by applying to remain in the country by way of the Canadian immigration and refugee law).{{cite web|url=http://www.canadaimmigrationvisa.com/visatype.html|title=Canadian immigration|publisher=Canada Immigration Visa|year=2009|access-date=December 12, 2010}} In 2008, there were 65,567 immigrants in the family class, 21,860 refugees, and 149,072 economic immigrants amongst the 247,243 total immigrants to the country.{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/facts2008/permanent/01.asp|title=Canada – Permanent residents by gender and category, 1984 to 2008|work=Facts and figures 2008 – Immigration overview: Permanent and temporary residents|publisher=Citizenship and Immigration Canada|date=August 25, 2009|access-date=December 4, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108021204/http://www.cic.gc.ca/EnGLIsh/resources/statistics/facts2008/permanent/01.asp|archive-date=November 8, 2009|url-status=dead}} Canada resettles over one in 10 of the world's refugees{{cite web|url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/media/nr/2010/nr20101021-6-eng.aspx|title=Canada's Generous Program for Refugee Resettlement Is Undermined by Human Smugglers Who Abuse Canada's Immigration System|publisher=Public Safety Canada|access-date=December 12, 2010|archive-date=June 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629024406/https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/media/nr/2010/nr20101021-6-eng.aspx|url-status=dead}} and has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world.{{sfn|Zimmerman|2008|p=51}}

As of a 2010 report by the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, there were 2.8 million Canadian citizens abroad.{{sfn|DeVoretz|2011}} This represents about 8% of the total Canadian population. Of those living abroad, the United States, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, Taiwan, China, Lebanon, United Arab Emirates, and Australia have the largest Canadian diaspora. Canadians in the United States constitute the greatest single expatriate community at over 1 million in 2009, representing 35.8% of all Canadians abroad.{{cite web|url=http://www.asiapacific.ca/sites/default/files/filefield/Fact_Sheet_US.pdf|title=United States Total Canadian Population: Fact Sheet|publisher=Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada|year=2010|access-date=July 12, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827064024/http://www.asiapacific.ca/sites/default/files/filefield/Fact_Sheet_US.pdf|archive-date=August 27, 2013|url-status=dead}} Under current Canadian law, Canada does not restrict dual citizenship, but Passport Canada encourages its citizens to travel abroad on their Canadian passport so that they can access Canadian consular services.{{sfn|Gray|2010|p=302}}

File:Canada ethnic origin map 2021.png

{{main|Ethnic origins of people in Canada}}

According to the 2021 Canadian census, over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins" were self-reported by Canadians. The major panethnic origin groups in Canada are: European ({{Percentage | 19062115 | 36328475 | 1 }}), North American ({{Percentage | 8329945 | 36328475 | 1 }}), Asian ({{Percentage | 7013835 | 36328475 | 1 }}), North American Indigenous ({{Percentage | 2204475 | 36328475 | 1 }}), African ({{Percentage | 1394170 | 36328475 | 1 }}), Central and South American ({{Percentage | 900495 | 36328475 | 1 }}), Caribbean ({{Percentage | 774515 | 36328475 | 1 }}), Oceanian ({{Percentage | 105010 | 36328475 | 1 }}), and Other ({{Percentage | 2163380 | 36328475 | 1 }}).{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2022-10-26 |title= Ethnic or cultural origin by gender and age: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810035601 |access-date=2022-10-26 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}} Statistics Canada reports that 35.5% of the population reported multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100%.{{efn| name=ethnic|1=The 2021 census on ethnic or cultural origins, Statistics Canada states: "Given the fluid nature of this concept and the changes made to this question, 2021 Census data on ethnic or cultural origins are not comparable to data from previous censuses and should not be used to measure the growth or decline of the various groups associated with these origins".}}

The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian{{efn| name=Canadian|1=All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.{{cite book |first1=Patrick |last1=Simon |first2=Victor |last2=Piché |title=Accounting for Ethnic and Racial Diversity: The Challenge of Enumeration |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6t7p-xxFhnwC&pg=PT48 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-98108-4 |pages=48–49}} The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude of reasons such as generational distance from ancestral lineage.{{Cite book |last1=Bezanson |first1=Kate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWO_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA455 |title=Rethinking Society in the 21st Century |last2=Webber |first2=Michelle |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-55130-936-1 |edition=4th |pages=455–456}}{{Cite book |last1=Edmonston |first1=Barry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA294 |title=The Changing Canadian Population |last2=Fong |first2=Eric |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4 |pages=294–296}}}} (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent),Indian (5.1 percent),{{efn|name=Indo-Canadian| Statistic includes all persons with ethnic or cultural origin responses with ancestry to the nation of India, including "Anglo-Indian" (3,340), "Bengali" (26,675), "Goan" (9,700), "Gujarati" (36,970), "Indian" (1,347,715), "Jatt" (22,785), "Kashmiri" (6,165), "Maharashtrian" (4,125), "Malayali" (12,490), "Punjabi" (279,950), "Tamil" (102,170), and "Telugu" (6,670)".{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2022-10-26 |title= Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Profile table Canada [Country] Total – Ethnic or cultural origin for the population in private households – 25% sample data |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?LANG=E&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1,4&DGUIDlist=2021A000011124&HEADERlist=31&SearchText=Canada |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}}} Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).

Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021 approximately 24.5 million reported being "white", representing 67.4 percent of the population. The indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.{{cite web | title=The Daily — Indigenous population continues to grow and is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, although the pace of growth has slowed | website=Statistics Canada | date=2022-09-21 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220921/dq220921a-eng.htm | access-date=2022-10-29}} One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2022-10-26 |title= Visible minority and population group by generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810032401 |access-date=2022-10-29 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}{{efn|Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".{{cite web |date=July 25, 2008 |title=Classification of visible minority |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714060402/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archive-date=July 14, 2011 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=September 18, 2009}}}} the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).{{cite web | title=The Daily — The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity | website=Statistics Canada | date=2022-10-26 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm | access-date=2022-10-29}}

Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.{{cite web |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015095154/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |archive-date=October 15, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=February 16, 2018}} In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.{{cite web |last=Pendakur |first=Krishna |title=Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market |url=http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516021011/http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |archive-date=May 16, 2011 |access-date=June 30, 2014 |publisher=Simon Fraser University}} The 2021 Census indicated that

8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 Census previous record of 22.3 percent.{{cite web | title=The Daily — Immigrants make up the largest share of the population in over 150 years and continue to shape who we are as Canadians | website=Statistics Canada | date=2022-10-26 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026a-eng.htm | access-date=2022-10-29}} In 2021 India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/annual-report-parliament-immigration-2021.html#annex2|title=2021 Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration |date=2022-03-15|publisher=Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada}}

{{Main|Culture of Canada}}

File:Canflagcartoon.jpg

Canadian culture is primarily a Western culture, with influences by First Nations and other cultures. It is a product of its ethnicities, languages, religions, political, and legal system(s). Canada has been shaped by waves of migration that have combined to form a unique blend of art, cuisine, literature, humour, and music.{{sfn|Kalman|2009|pp=4–7}} Today, Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation.{{sfn|DeRocco|Chabot|2008|p=13}} In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a Quebec culture distinct from English Canadian culture.{{sfn|Franklin|Baun|1995|p=61}} However, as a whole, Canada is a cultural mosaic: a collection of several regional, indigenous, and ethnic subcultures.{{sfn|English|2004|p=111}}{{sfn|Burgess|2005|p=31}}

Canadian government policies such as official bilingualism; publicly funded health care; higher and more progressive taxation; outlawing capital punishment; strong efforts to eliminate poverty; strict gun control; the legalizing of same-sex marriage, pregnancy terminations, euthanasia and cannabis are social indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.{{sfn|Bricker|Wright|2005|p=16}}{{cite web |url=http://www.nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf |title=Exploring Canadian values |date=October 2016 |publisher=Nanos Research |access-date=February 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405113447/http://nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf |archive-date=April 5, 2017 |url-status=dead }} American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.{{sfn|Blackwell|2005}} The Government of Canada has also influenced culture with programs, laws, and institutions. It has created Crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media, and has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content.{{sfn|Armstrong|2010|p=144}}

File:Outside Union Station.jpg; four identical sculptures are located in Buffalo City, Changchun, Sarajevo, and Sydney]]

Canadian culture has historically been influenced by European culture and traditions, especially British and French, and by its own indigenous cultures. Most of Canada's territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas, with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders were important in the early development of the Canadian identity.{{cite web| url=http://www2.canadiana.ca/citm/themes/pioneers/pioneers3_e.html| title=Canada in the Making: Pioneers and Immigrants| publisher=The History Channel| date=August 25, 2005| access-date=November 30, 2006| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201055607/http://www2.canadiana.ca/citm/themes/pioneers/pioneers3_e.html| archive-date=February 1, 2011| url-status=dead}} First Nations played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade.{{sfn|White|Findlay|1999|p=67}} The British conquest of New France in the mid-1700s brought a large Francophone population under British Imperial rule, creating a need for compromise and accommodation.{{sfn|Dufour|1990|p=25}} The new British rulers left alone much of the religious, political, and social culture of the French-speaking {{Lang|fr|habitants}}, guaranteeing through the Quebec Act of 1774 the right of the Canadiens to practise the Catholic faith and to use French civil law (now Quebec law).{{cite web|title=Original text of The Quebec Act of 1774|url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/PreConfederation/qa_1774.html|publisher=Canadiana (Library and Archives Canada)|date=2004 |access-date=April 11, 2010}}

The Constitution Act, 1867 was designed to meet the growing calls of Canadians for autonomy from British rule, while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/american-civil-war|title=American Civil War and Canada|publisher=Historica Foundation|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|year=2003|access-date=November 30, 2006|archive-date=November 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117224409/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/american-civil-war/|url-status=live}} The compromises made by the Fathers of Confederation set Canadians on a path to bilingualism, and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity.{{sfn|Vaillancourt|Coche|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Magocsi|2002|p=3}}

The Canadian Armed Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism,{{sfn|Nersessian|2007}}{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/legacy/chap-5.asp|title=Forging Our Legacy: Canadian Citizenship And Immigration, 1900–1977 – The growth of Canadian nationalism|publisher=Citizenship and Immigration Canada|year=2006|access-date=January 16, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610200013/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/legacy/chap-5.asp|archive-date=June 10, 2011|df=mdy-all}} however, in 1917 and 1944, conscription crisis' highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones.{{sfn|Linteau|Durocher|Robert|1983|p=522}} As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority.{{cite web|url=http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/encyclopedia/LeagueofNation.htm |title=Canada and the League of Nations |publisher=Faculty.marianopolis.edu |year=2007 |access-date=August 10, 2010}} With the gradual loosening of political ties to the United Kingdom and the modernization of Canadian immigration policies, 20th-century immigrants with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.{{sfn|Bodvarsson|Van den Berg|2009|p=380}} The multiple-origins immigration pattern continues today, with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non-British or non-French backgrounds.{{sfn|Prato|2009|p=50}}

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the government during the premiership of Pierre Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s.{{sfn|Duncan|Ley|1993|p=205}} The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology, because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.{{sfn|Wayland|1997}} Multiculturalism is administered by the Department of Citizenship and Immigration and reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act{{cite web|url=http://www.efc.ca/pages/law/charter/charter.text.html|title=Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Being Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982)|publisher=Electronic Frontier Canada|year=2008|access-date=September 12, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212155200/http://www.efc.ca/pages/law/charter/charter.text.html|archive-date=December 12, 2018|url-status=dead}} and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.{{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C-18.7/FullText.html|title=Canadian Multiculturalism Act (1985, c. 24 (4th Supp.))|date= 2010|publisher=Department of Justice Canada|access-date=September 12, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218032814/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C-18.7/FullText.html?noCookie|archive-date=February 18, 2011}}

{{main|Canadian values}}

{{Excerpt|Canadian values|only=paragraph|paragraph=1,3|hat=no}}

{{main|Canadian identity}}

{{Excerpt|Canadian identity|only=paragraph|paragraph=1,3|hat=no}}

Nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians were proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud. The highest pride levels were for Canadian history (70%), the armed forces (64%), the health care system (64%), and the Constitution (63%). However, pride in Canada’s political influence was lower at 46%. Outside Quebec, pride ranged from 91% in British Columbia to 94% in Prince Edward Island, while 70% of Quebec residents felt proud. Seniors and women showed the most pride, especially among first- and second-generation immigrants, who valued both Canadian identity and achievements.{{cite web | title=Highlights | website=Statistics Canada | date=2015-10-01 | url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-652-x/2015005/hl-fs-eng.htm | access-date=2025-03-02}}

{{main|Religion in Canada}}

File:Freedom of Religion (38007857792).jpg

{{Excerpt|Religion in Canada|only=paragraph|paragraph=1,2,3,4|hat=no}}

{{main|National symbols of Canada}}

{{Excerpt|Canada#Symbols|only=paragraph|paragraph=1,2,3|hat=no}}

{{main|Languages of Canada}}

File:Bilinguisme au Canada-fr.svg, {{Text|Dated 2006}}|access-date=October 12, 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429013140/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm|archive-date=April 29, 2011|df=mdy-all}} {{Legend|#FFE400|English – 56.9%}}{{Legend|#D8A820|English and French (Bilingual) – 16.1% }}{{Legend|#B07400|French – 21.3%}}{{Legend|#F5F5DC|Sparsely populated area (<{{convert|0.4|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} per person)}}]]

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 56% and 21% of Canadians, respectively.{{Cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1|title=Census Profile, 2016 Census – Canada [Country] and Canada [Country]|first=Statistics Canada|last=Government of Canada|date=February 8, 2017|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}} As of the 2016 Census, just over 7.3 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (1,227,680 first-language speakers), Punjabi (501,680), Spanish (458,850), Tagalog (431,385), Arabic (419,895), German (384,040), and Italian (375,645). Less than one percent of Canadians (just over 250,000 individuals) can speak an indigenous language. About half this number (129,865) reported using an indigenous language on a daily basis.{{sfn|Gordon|2005}} Additionally, Canadians speak several sign languages; the number of speakers is unknown of the most spoken ones, American Sign Language (ASL) and Quebec Sign Language (LSQ),{{sfn|Kockaert|Steurs|2015|p=490}} as it is of Maritime Sign Language and Plains Sign Talk.{{sfn|Grimes|Grimes|2000}} There are only 47 speakers of the Inuit sign language Inuktitut.{{sfn|Schuit|Baker|Pfau|2011}}

English and French are recognized by the Constitution of Canada as official languages.{{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/O-3.01/FullText.html|title=Official Languages Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.)) |work=Act current to 2016-08-29 and last amended on 2015-06-23.|date=September 21, 2017 |publisher=Department of Justice}} All federal government laws are thus enacted in both English and French, with government services available in both languages. Two of Canada's territories give official status to indigenous languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut, and Inuinnaqtun are official languages, alongside the national languages of English and French, and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government.{{cite web|url=http://www.langcom.nu.ca/nunavuts-official-languages|work=Office of the Languages Commissioner of Nunavut|title=Nunavut's Languages|access-date=November 16, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100904063908/http://www.langcom.nu.ca/nunavuts-official-languages|archive-date=September 4, 2010|df=mdy-all}} In the Northwest Territories, the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages: Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich'in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey, and Tłįchǫ.{{cite web|title=Highlights of the Official Languages Act|publisher=Legislative Assembly of the NWT|year=2003|url=http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/_live/pages/wpPages/olahighlights.aspx|access-date=October 12, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102093846/http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/_live/pages/wpPages/olahighlights.aspx|archive-date=January 2, 2011|url-status=dead}} Multicultural media are widely accessible across the country and offer specialty television channels, newspapers, and other publications in many minority languages.{{sfn|Ha|Ganahl|2006|page=62}}

In Canada, as elsewhere in the world of European colonies, the frontier of European exploration and settlement tended to be a linguistically diverse and fluid place, as cultures using different languages met and interacted. The need for a common means of communication between the indigenous inhabitants and new arrivals for the purposes of trade, and (in some cases) intermarriage, led to the development of mixed languages.{{sfn|Winford|2003|p=183}} Languages like Michif, Chinook Jargon, and Bungi creole tended to be highly localized and were often spoken by only a small number of individuals who were frequently capable of speaking another language.{{sfn|Wurm|Muhlhausler|Tyron|1996|p=1491}} Plains Sign Talk—which functioned originally as a trade language used to communicate internationally and across linguistic borders—reached across Canada, the United States, and into Mexico.{{sfn|Pfau|Steinbach|Woll|2012|page= 540}}{{Clear}}

{{portal|border=no|Canada}}

• Canuck
• List of Canadians
• Persons of National Historic Significance
• List of prime ministers of Canada{{Clear}}

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

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| editor-first1 = Derek

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| name-list-style=amp| title = The Dictionary of Human Geography

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| first1 = Louisa S.

| last1 = Ha

| first2 = Richard J.

| last2 = Ganahl

| name-list-style=amp| title = Webcasting Worldwide: Business Models of an Emerging Global Medium

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WmJjvuIm8K8C&pg=PA62

| date = 2006

| publisher = Routledge

| isbn = 978-0-8058-5915-7

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Dianne R.

| last1 = Hales

| first2 = Lara

| last2 = Lauzon

| name-list-style=amp| title = An Invitation to Health

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=O3Y9-P_Sj7oC&pg=PA440

| date = 2009

| publisher = Cengage Learning

| isbn = 978-0-17-650009-2

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-first1 = Patricia Wong

| editor-last1 = Hall

| editor-last2 = Hwang

| editor-first2 = Victor M.

| name-list-style=amp| title = Anti-Asian Violence in North America: Asian American and Asian Canadian Reflections on Hate, Healing, and Resistance

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xdfX7UCyDuQC&pg=PA9

| date = 2001

| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield

| isbn = 978-0-7425-0459-2

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Jessica L.

| last1 = Harland-Jacobs

| title = Builders of Empire: Freemasonry and British Imperialism, 1717–1927

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KE2ddOJieM8C&pg=PA177

| date = 2007

| publisher = NCUP

| isbn = 978-0-8078-3088-8

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = David M.

| last1 = Haskell

| title = Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media Perceive and Portray Evangelicals

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TzJMfNOR5O0C&pg=PA50

| date = 2009

| publisher = Clements Academic

| isbn = 978-1-894667-92-0

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Sandy

| last1 = Hobbs

| first2 = Jim

| last2 = MacKechnie

| first3 = Michael

| last3 = Lavalette

| name-list-style=amp| title = Child Labour: A World History Companion

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LH30IGx2tlQC&pg=PA33

| date = 1999

| publisher = ABC-CLIO

| isbn = 978-0-87436-956-4

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-first = James

| editor-last1 = Hollifield

| editor-first2 = Philip

| editor-last2 = Martin

| editor-first3 = Pia

| editor-last3 = Orrenius

| name-list-style=amp| title = Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective

| edition = third

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ys9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11

| date = 2014

| publisher = Stanford UP

| isbn = 978-0-8047-8627-0

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Annian

| last1 = Huang

| translator = Juguo Zhang

| publisher = China Intercontinental Press {{!}} 中信出版社

| title = The Silent Spikes - Chinese Laborers and the Construction of North American Railroads

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x9sVX209FW0C&pg=PA107

| date = 2006

| isbn = 978-7-5085-0988-4

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = John C.

| last1 = Hudson

| title = Across This Land: A Regional Geography of the United States and Canada

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FQUbfAWhh-oC&pg=PA15

| date = 2002

| publisher = JHUP

| isbn = 978-0-8018-6567-1

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Bobbie

| last1 = Kalman

| title = Canada: The culture

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gPEItATPByoC&pg=PA4

| date = 2009

| publisher = Crabtree

| isbn = 978-0-7787-9284-0

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-last1 = Ksenych

| editor-first1 = Edward

| editor-last2 = Liu

| editor-first2 = David

| name-list-style=amp| title = Conflict, Order, and Action : Readings in Sociology

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GdvsIo7V9HgC&pg=PA407

| date = 2001

| publisher = Canadian Scholars'

| isbn = 978-1-55130-192-1

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Frank

| last1 = Kusch

| title = All American Boys: Draft Dodgers in Canada from the Vietnam War

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0MnNYvkmBnoC&pg=PA2

| date = 2001

| publisher = Greenwood

| isbn = 978-0-275-97268-4

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Paul-André

| last1 = Linteau

| first2 = René

| last2 = Durocher

| first3 = Jean-Claude

| last3 = Robert

| name-list-style=amp| translator = Robert Chodos

| title = Quebec: A History 1867–1929

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_vA0o0e0PdgC&pg=PA522

| date = 1983

| publisher = Lorimer

| isbn = 978-0-88862-604-2

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Roderick

| last1 = MacLeod

| first2 = Mary Anne

| last2 = Poutanen

| name-list-style=amp| title = Meeting of the People: School Boards and Protestant Communities in Quebec, 1801–1998

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=K_tfubwEbb0C&pg=PA23

| date = 2004

| publisher = MQUP

| isbn = 978-0-7735-2742-3

}}

• {{cite book

| last1 = Magocsi

| first1 = Paul R.

| author-link1 = Paul Robert Magocsi

| editor1 = Multicultural History Society of Ontario

| title = Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA736

| date = 1999

| publisher = U Toronto P

| isbn = 978-0-8020-2938-6

}}

• {{cite book

| last1 = Magocsi

| first1 = Paul R.

| author-link1 = Paul Robert Magocsi

| title = Aboriginal Peoples of Canada: A Short Introduction

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3

| date = 2002

| publisher = U Toronto P

| isbn = 978-0-8020-8469-9

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-first1 = Klaus

| editor-last1 = Martens

| work = Volume 28 of Saarbrücker Beiträge zur vergleichenden Literatur- und Kulturwissenschaft

| title = The Canadian Alternative

| language = de

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=njiFCaSIbzIC&pg=PA28

| date = 2004

| publisher = Königshausen & Neumann

| isbn = 978-3-8260-2636-2

}}

• {{cite book

| last1 = Martynowych

| first1 = Orest T

| title = Ukrainians in Canada: The Formative Period, 1891–1924

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=71Wnflm9lYgC&pg=PR28

| date = 1991

| publisher = CIUS Press, U Alberta

| isbn = 978-0-920862-76-6

}}

• {{cite encyclopedia

| editor-first1 = Mark G.

| editor-last1 = McGowan

| title = Irish Catholics: Migration, Arrival, and Settlement before the Great Famine

| encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples

| publisher = Multicultural Canada

| url = http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/i8/2

| url-status = dead

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120307135602/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/i8/2

| archive-date = March 7, 2012

| df = mdy-all

| year = 1999

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Mark

| last1 = McGowan

| title = Death or Canada: the Irish Famine Migration to Toronto 1847

| publisher = Novalis

| date = 2009

| isbn = 978-2-89646-129-5

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-first1 = J. Gordon

| editor-last1 = Melton

| editor-first2 = Martin

| editor-last2 = Baumann

| name-list-style=amp| title = Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA493

| publisher = ABC-CLIO

| date = 2010

| isbn = 978-1-59884-203-6

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Gary

| last1 = Miedema

| title = For Canada's Sake: Public Religion, Centennial Celebrations, and the Re-making of Canada in the 1960s

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0q8OSvcfqBkC&pg=PR15

| date = 2005

| publisher = MQUP

| isbn = 978-0-7735-2877-2

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = John M.

| last1 = Murrin

| first2 = Paul E.

| last2 = Johnson

| first3 = James M.

| last3 = McPherson

| first4 = Alice

| last4 = Fahs

| first5 = Gary

| last5 = Gerstle

| first6 = Emily S.

| last6 = Rosenberg

| first7 = Norman L.

| last7 = Rosenberg

| name-list-style=amp| title = Liberty, Equality, Power, A History of the American People: To 1877

| edition = 5th

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Hlyz-YK4oG8C&pg=PA172

| date = 2007

| publisher = (Wadsworth) Cengage Learning

| isbn = 978-0-495-11606-6

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = C. D.

| last1 = Naik

| title = Thoughts and Philosophy of Doctor B. R. Ambedkar

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0Bo0Rjlp-0QC&pg=PA32

| date = 2003

| publisher = Sarup

| isbn = 978-81-7625-418-2

}}

• {{cite web

|last1 = Nersessian

|first1 = Mary

|date = April 9, 2007

|url = http://dbwf-provisional-post.blogspot.co.uk/2007/04/vimy-battle-marks-birth-of-canadian.html

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160918085312/http://dbwf-provisional-post.blogspot.co.uk/2007/04/vimy-battle-marks-birth-of-canadian.html

|archive-date = September 18, 2016

|url-status = live

|title = Vimy battle marks birth of Canadian nationalism

|publisher = CTV Television Network

|access-date = January 16, 2011

|df=mdy

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-first1 = Roland

| editor-last1 = Pfau

| editor-first2 = Markus

| editor-last2 = Steinbach

| editor-first3 = Bencie

| editor-last3 = Woll

| editor-link3 = Bencie Woll

| name-list-style=amp| title = Sign Language: An International Handbook

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kJHavTVbm6MC&pg=PA540

| date = 2012

| publisher = de Gruyter / Mouton

| isbn = 978-3-11-026132-5

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = John

| last1 = Powell

| title = Encyclopedia of North American immigration

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC

| date = 2005

| publisher = InfoBase

| isbn = 978-0-8160-4658-4

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-first1 = Giuliana B.

| editor-last1 = Prato

| title = Beyond multiculturalism: Views from Anthropology

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ny7fs5qL23sC&pg=PA50

| date = 2009

| publisher = Ashgate

| isbn = 978-0-7546-7173-2

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Stephen

| last1 = Schneider

| title = Iced: The Story of Organized Crime in Canada

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZO8jKSn25DAC&pg=PA367

| date = 2009

| publisher = Wiley

| isbn = 978-0-470-83500-5

}}

• {{cite journal

| title = Inuit Sign Language: a contribution to sign language typology

| last1 = Schuit

| first1 = Joke

| last2 = Baker

| first2 = Anne

| last3 = Pfau

| first3 = Roland

| name-list-style=amp| url = http://www.linguisticsinamsterdam.nl/download?type=document&identifier=579474

| format = pdf

| journal = Amsterdam Center for Language and Communication Working Papers

| publisher = U Amsterdam

| date = 2011

| volume = 4

| issue = 1

| pages = 1–31

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Frances

| last1 = Standford

| title = Development of Western Canada Gr. 7–8

| date = 2000

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0wcCxtLgrqwC&pg=PA42

| publisher = On The Mark Press

| isbn = 978-1-77072-743-4

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Elisabeth

| last1 = Tooker

| title = Native North American spirituality of the eastern woodlands: sacred myths, dreams, visions, speeches, healing formulas, rituals, and ceremonials

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LBKoyY455PQC&pg=PA20

| date = 1980

| publisher = Paulist Press

| isbn = 978-0-8091-2256-1

}}

• {{citation

| first1 = François

| last1 = Vaillancourt

| first2 = Olivier

| last2 = Coche

| name-list-style=amp| title = Official Language Policies at the Federal Level in Canada: Costs and Benefits in 2006

| url = https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sites/default/files/OfficialLanguagePolicies.pdf

| work = Studies in Language Policy

| publisher = Fraser Institute

| date = 2009

| issn = 1920-0749

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Earle Howard

| last1 = Waugh

| first2 = Sharon McIrvin

| last2 = Abu-Laban

| first3 = Regula

| last3 = Qureshi

| name-list-style=amp| title = Muslim families in North America

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4nAO4Phkho0C&pg=PA15

| date = 1991

| publisher = U Alberta

| isbn = 978-0-88864-225-7

}}

• {{cite journal

| title = Immigration, Multiculturalism and National Identity in Canada

| journal = International Journal on Minority and Group Rights

| volume = 5

| issue = 1

| pages = 33–58

| publisher = Dept of Political Science, U Toronto

| doi = 10.1163/15718119720907408

| first1 = Shara V.

| last1 = Wayland

| date = 1997

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-first1 = Richard

| editor-last1 = White

| editor-first2 = John M.

| editor-last2 = Findlay

| name-list-style=amp| title = Power and Place in the North American West

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2qFeaC_ojQC&pg=PA67

| date = 1999

| publisher = UWP

| isbn = 978-0-295-97773-7

}}

• {{cite book

| last1 = Wilkinson

| first1 = Paul F.

| title = In celebration of play: an integrated approach to play and child development

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ff4NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA200

| date = 1980

| publisher = Macmillan

| isbn = 978-0-312-41078-0

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Donald

| last1 = Winford

| title = An Introduction to Contact Linguistics

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Lc1DFju-FlYC&pg=PA183

| date = 2003

| publisher = Wiley

| isbn = 978-0-631-21250-8

}}

• {{cite book

| editor-first1 = Stephen Adolphe

| editor-last1 = Wurm

| editor-first2 = Peter

| editor-last2 = Muhlhausler

| editor-first3 = Darrell T.

| editor-last3 = Tyron

| name-list-style=amp| title = Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=glU0vte5gSkC&pg=PA1491

| date = 1996

| publisher = de Gruyter / Mouton

| isbn = 978-3-11-013417-9

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = N. Rochelle

| last1 = Yamagishi

| title = Japanese Canadian Journey: The Nakagama Story

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mE1VabcuBMIC&pg=PA17

| date = 2010

| publisher = Trafford Publishing

| isbn = 978-1-4269-8148-7

}}

• {{cite book

| first1 = Karla

| last1 = Zimmerman

| title = Canada

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51

| date = 2008

| edition = tenth

| publisher = Lonely Planet

| isbn = 978-1-74104-571-0

}}

{{Refend}}

{{main|Bibliography of Canada}}

{{Refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite book

| first1= Bart

| last1 = Beaty

| first2= Derek

| last2 = Briton

| first3= Gloria

| last3 = Filax|title=How Canadians Communicate III: Contexts of Canadian Popular Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjqitK-cRb4C&pg=PP1|year=2010|publisher=Athabasca University Press|isbn=978-1-897425-59-6}}

• {{cite book

| first1= J. M.

| last1 = Bumsted|title=Canada's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pb5AvfpCZZkC&pg=PP1|year=2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-672-9}}

• {{cite book

| first1= David

| last1 = Carment

| first2= David

| last2 = Bercuson|title=The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZJFUAPGh_0C&pg=PP1|year= 2008|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7455-7}}

• {{cite book

| first1= Andrew

| last1 = Cohen|title=The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glcBcaMC6doC&pg=PP1|year= 2008|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-2286-9}}

• {{cite book

|editor1=CBC

| first1= Don

| last1 = Gillmor

| first2= Pierre

| last2 = Turgeon|title=Canada: A People's History

| volume= 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPdMoARR46wC&pg=PA1|year= 2002|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-3324-7}}

• {{cite book

|editor1=CBC

| first1= Don

| last1 = Gillmor

| first2= Pierre

| last2 = Turgeon

| first3= Achille

| last3 = Michaud|title=Canada: A People's History

| volume= 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_72vh91NlIC&pg=PA1|year= 2002|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-3336-0}}

• {{cite book

| first1= Mark

| last1 = Kearney

| first2= Randy

| last2 = Ray|title=The Big Book of Canadian Trivia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoBytz0-XuQC&pg=PP1|year= 2009|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-77070-614-9}}

• {{cite book

| first1= Ninette

| last1 = Kelley

| first2= M. J.

| last2 = Trebilcock|title=The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PP1|year=2010|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9536-7}}

• {{cite book

| first1= Philip

| last1 = Resnick|title=The European Roots of Canadian Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JJLOERVCUg0C&pg=PP1|year=2005|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-55111-705-8}}

• {{cite book

| first1= Madeline A.

| last1 = Richard|title=Ethnic Groups and Marital Choices: Ethnic History and Marital Assimilation in Canada, 1871 and 1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y00ho38YLGMC&pg=PP1|year=1992|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-0431-8}}

• {{cite book|title=Star-Spangled Canadians: Canadians Living the American Dream|last1=Simpson|first1=Jeffrey|date=2000|publisher=Harper-Collins|isbn=978-0-00-255767-2|url=https://archive.org/details/starspangledcana0000simp}}
• {{cite book

| first1= Irvin

| last1 = Studin|title=What Is a Canadian?: Forty-Three Thought-Provoking Responses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=madTgTiR5KUC&pg=PP1|date=2006|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-8321-1}}

{{Refend}}

{{Commons category|People of Canada|Canadians}}

{{Wikiquote|Canada|Canadians}}

{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-canadians-article.ogg|date=2013-12-03}}

• [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2010000-eng.htm Canada Year Book 2010] – Statistics Canada
• [http://www.cbc.ca/history/ Canada: A People's History – Teacher Resources] – Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
• [http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/lhn-nhs/page1_E.asp?nhslisttype=persons&nhslistsort=name&list1=Generate+List Persons of National Historic Significance in Canada]{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – Parks Canada
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20120504020748/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/ Multicultural Canada] – Department of Canadian Heritage
• [http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/immigrants/index-e.html The Canadian Immigrant Experience] – Library and Archives Canada
• [http://www.biographi.ca/index-e.html The Dictionary of Canadian Biography] – Library and Archives Canada
• [http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/canadiana/index-e.html Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada] – Library and Archives Canada

{{People of Canada}}

{{Canadian identity}}

{{Canadians abroad}}

{{Canada topics}}

{{Authority control}}

*

Category:Ethnic groups in Canada

Category:North American people

Category:Nansen Refugee Award laureates