photogram

{{About|the photographic technique|the magazine|The Photogram (magazine)}}

A photogram is a photographic image made without a camera by placing objects directly onto the surface of a light-sensitive material such as photographic paper and then exposing it to light.

The usual result is a negative shadow image that shows variations in tone that depends upon the transparency of the objects used. Areas of the paper that have received no light appear white; those exposed for a shorter time or through transparent or semi-transparent objects appear grey,{{Cite book| last = Langford| first = Michael| title = Basic Photography| place = Oxford| publisher = Focal Press| year = 1999| edition = 7th| isbn = 0-240-51592-7| url = https://archive.org/details/basicphotography00lang}} while fully-exposed areas are black in the final print.

The technique is sometimes called cameraless photography.{{Citation | author1=Batchen, Geoffrey |editor=Batchen, Geoffrey |title=Emanations : the art of the cameraless photograph |date=2016 | publisher=DelMonico Books | isbn=978-3-7913-6646-3 }}{{Citation | author1=Barnes, Martin | title=Cameraless photography |date=2018 | publisher=Thames & Hudson | isbn=978-0-500-48036-6 }} It was used by Man Ray in his rayographs. Other artists who have experimented with the technique include László Moholy-Nagy, Christian Schad (who called them "Schadographs"), Imogen Cunningham and Pablo Picasso.According to Alexandra Matzner in Christian Schad 1895-1982 Retrospectief issued by the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag (2009), {{ISBN|978-3-87909-974-0}}, p. 216, Schad was the first artist to use the photogram technique, developed by William Henry Fox Talbot. The photogram was applied by Man Ray, Moholy-Nagy and Chargesheimer after its introduction by Christian Schad, according to the author. However, this is not substantiated through further reference by Matzner. The Dutch catalogue was also issued in German by the Leopold Museum in Vienna (2008).

Variations of the technique have also been used for scientific purposes, in shadowgraph studies of flow in transparent media and in high-speed Schlieren photography, and in the medical X-ray.

The term photogram comes from the combining form {{transliteration|grc|phōtō-}} ({{lang|grc|φωτω-}}) of Ancient Greek {{transliteration|grc|phôs}} ({{lang|grc|φῶς}}, "light"), and Ancient Greek suffix {{transliteration|grc|-gramma}} ({{lang|grc|-γραμμα}}), from {{transliteration|grc|grámma}} (γράμμα, "written character, letter, that which is drawn"), from {{transliteration|grc|gráphō}} ({{lang|grc|γράφω}}, "to scratch, to scrape, to graze").

History

File:Anna Atkins grass cyanotype.jpg's cyanotype photograms of Festuca grasses]]

=Prehistory=

The phenomenon of the shadow has long aroused human curiosity and inspired artistic representation, as recorded by Pliny the Elder,Pliny the Elder, Natural History, xxxv, 14 and various forms of shadow play since the 1st millennium BCE.Fan Pen Chen (2003), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1179080 Shadow Theaters of the World], Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 62, No. 1 (2003), pp. 25-64{{cite journal | last=Orr | first=Inge C. | title=Puppet Theatre in Asia | journal=Asian Folklore Studies | publisher=Nanzan University | volume=33 | issue=1 | year=1974 | doi=10.2307/1177504 | pages=69–84| jstor=1177504 }} The photogram, in essence, is a means by which the fall of light and shade on a surface may be automatically captured and preserved.{{Citation | author1=Stoichiță, Victor Ieronim | title=A short history of the shadow | date=August 1997 | publication-date=1997 | publisher=Reaktion Books | isbn=978-1-86189-000-9 | url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofsh0000unse }}{{Citation | author1=Barnes, Martin | author2=Neusüss, Floris Michael | author3=Cordier, Pierre | author4=Derges, Susan | author5=Fabian Miller, Garry | author6=Fuss, Adam | title=Shadow catchers : camera-less photography | year=2012 | publication-date=2012 |location=London, New York |publisher=Merrell / Victoria and Albert Museum | edition= Rev. and expanded | isbn=978-1-85894-592-7 }} To do so required a substance that would react to light. From the 17th century, photochemical reactions were progressively observed or discovered in salts of silver, iron, uranium and chromium. In 1725, Johann Heinrich Schulze was the first to demonstrate a temporary photographic effect in silver salts, confirmed by Carl Wilhhelm Scheele in 1777,{{Cite book|last=Eder|first=Josef Maria|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4005270|title=History of photography|publisher=Dover|year=1972|isbn=0-486-23586-6|edition=3rd|location=New York|pages=57–83|oclc=4005270}} who found that violet light caused the greatest reaction in silver chloride. Humphry Davy and Thomas Wedgewood reportedSir Humphry Davy (1802) 'An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings Upon Glass and of Making Profiles by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver, invented by T. Wedgwood Esq. In Journal of the Royal Institution that they had produced temporary images from placing stencils/light sources on photo-sensitized materials, but had no means of fixing (making permanent) the images.{{Citation | author1=Hannavy, John | title=Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography | publication-date=2005 | publisher=Taylor & Francis Ltd. | isbn=978-0-203-94178-2 }}

File:VanDyke-feather.jpg copying technique.]]

=Nineteenth century=

{{Expand section|The 19th century was when photographic processes (with cameras) became more widely accessible/standardized items began to be produced to create photographs (and presumably photograms.)|date=February 2023}}

The first photographic negatives made were photograms (though the first permanent photograph was made with a camera by Nicéphore Niépce). William Henry Fox Talbot called these photogenic drawings, which he made by placing leaves or pieces of lace onto sensitized paper, then left them outdoors on a sunny day to expose. This produced a dark background with a white silhouette of the placed object.{{cite book |url=http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/month/Feb2007.html |title=The Pencil of Nature |first=William Henry Fox |last=Talbot |year=1844 |location=London |publisher=Special Collections Department, Library, University of Glasgow |access-date=21 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611071313/https://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/month/Feb2007.html |archive-date=11 June 2011 |url-status=live }}

In 1843, Anna Atkins produced a book titled British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions in installments; the first to be illustrated with photographs. The images were all photograms of botanical specimens, mostly seaweeds, which she made using Sir John Herschel's cyanotype process, which yields blue images.{{Citation | author1=Schaaf, Larry J. | author2=Atkins, Anna |editor=Chuang, Joshua | title=Sun gardens : cyanotypes by Anna Atkins |date=2018 | publisher=The New York Public Library | isbn=978-3-7913-5798-0 }}

File:-Photogram; Laboratory Equipment- MET DP106486.jpg (1926; modernism)]]

=Modernism=

Photograms and artists who worked with(in)the medium have participated in/contributed to several studied/demarcated modern art movements, such as Dada{{Citation | author1=Dickerman, Leah | author2=Affron, Matthew |title=Inventing Abstraction, 1910-1925 : how a radical idea changed modern art |date=2012 |publisher=Museum of Modern Art |isbn=978-0-87070-828-2 }}{{Citation | author1=Museum of Modern Art (New York, N.Y.) | author2=Umland, Anne | author3=Sudhalter, Adrian | author4=Gerson, Scott | title=Dada in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art | year=2008 | publication-date=2008 | publisher=Museum of Modern Art | isbn=978-0-87070-668-4 }}{{Citation | author1=Elder, Bruce (R. Bruce) | title=Dada, surrealism, & the cinematic effect | date=May 2013 | publication-date=2012 | publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |location=Lancaster | isbn=978-1-55458-625-7 }} and Constructivism,{{Citation | author1=Tóth, Edit | title=Design and Visual Culture from the Bauhaus to Contemporary Art : Optical Deconstructions | publication-date=2018 | publisher=Routledge | edition= 1st | isbn=978-1-351-06245-9 }}{{Citation | author1=Hirsch, Robert | title=Seizing the light : a social & aesthetic history of photography | year=2017 | publication-date=2017 | publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group | edition= Third | isbn=978-1-138-94425-1 }} and in architecture in the formalist dissections of the Bauhaus.{{Citation | author1=Bergdoll, Barry | author2=Dickerman, Leah |title=Bauhaus 1919-1933 : workshops for modernity |date=2009 |publisher=Museum of Modern Art |location=London |isbn=978-0-87070-758-2}}{{Citation | author1=Bauhaus | title=Bauhaus photography | year=1985 | publication-date=1985 | publisher=Cambridge, Mass MIT Press | isbn=978-0-262-13202-2 | url=https://archive.org/details/bauhausphotograp00bauh }}

The relative ease of access (not needing a camera and, depending on the medium, a darkroom) and perhaps the interactive to the point of feeling incidentaland therefore, automatized or mechanical - see Dada nature of creating photogramsimagine, you could be a photographer or hobbyist who leaves something accidentally on film/photosensitive paper in a bright room enabled experiments in abstraction by Christian Schad as early as 1918,{{Citation | author1=Neusüss, Floris Michael | author2=Barrow, Thomas F | author3=Hagen, Charles | title=Experimental vision : the evolution of the photogram since 1919 | year=1994 | publication-date=1994 | publisher=Roberts Rinehart Publishers in association with the Denver Art Museum | isbn=978-1-879373-73-0 }} Man Ray in 1921, and Moholy-Nagy in 1922,{{Citation | author1=Moholy-Nagy, Làszlò |editor=Witkovsky, Matthew S. |editor2=Eliel, Carol S. |editor3=Vail, Karole P. B. |author2=Pénichon, Sylvie |title=Moholy-Nagy : future present |date=2016 |publisher=Art Institute of Chicago |edition=First |isbn=978-0-86559-281-0}} through dematerialisation and distortion, merging and interpenetration of forms, and flattening of perspective.

=Christian Schad's 'schadographs'=

In 1918, Christian Schad's experiments with the photogram were inspired by Dada, creating photograms from random arrangements of discarded objects he had collected such as torn tickets, receipts and rags. Some argue that he was the first to make this an art form, preceding Man Ray and László Moholy-Nagy by at least a year or two,{{Citation | author1=Rosenblum, Naomi | title=A world history of photography | year=1984 | publication-date=1984 | publisher=Abbeville Press | edition= 1st | isbn=978-0-89659-438-8 }} and one was published in March 1920 in the magazine DadaphoneHage, E. (2011). The Magazine as Strategy: Tristan Tzara's Dada and the Seminal Role of Dada Art Journals in the Dada Movement. The Journal of Modern Periodical Studies 2(1), 33-53. Penn State University Press by Tristan Tzara, who dubbed them 'Schadographs'.

=Man Ray's 'rayographs'=

File:Man Ray, 1922, Untitled Rayograph.jpg

Photograms were used in the 20th century by a number of photographers, particularly Man Ray, whose "rayographs" were also given the name by Dada leader Tzara. Ray described his (re-)discovery of the process in his 1963 autobiography;{{Citation | author1=Man Ray | title=Self Portrait | publication-date=1963 | publisher=Boston Little, Brown | edition=1st | url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/9124937}}

{{blockquote|"Again at night I developed the last plates I had exposed; the following night I set to work printing them. Besides the trays and chemical solutions in bottles, a glass graduate and thermometer, a box of photographic paper, my laboratory equipment was nil. Fortunately, I had to make only contact prints from the plates. I simply laid a glass negative on a sheet of light-sensitive paper on the table, by the light of my little red lantern, turned on the bulb that hung from the ceiling, for a few seconds, and developed the prints. It was while making these prints that I hit on my Rayograph process, or cameraless photographs. One sheet of photo paper got into the developing tray - a sheet unexposed that had been mixed with those already exposed under the negatives - I made my several exposures first, developing them together later - and as I waited in vain a couple of minutes for an image to appear, regretting the waste paper, I mechanically placed a small glass funnel, the graduate and the thermometer in the tray on the wetted paper, I turned on the light: before my eyes an image began to form, not quite a simple silhouette of the objects as in a straight photograph, but distorted and refracted by the glass more or less in contact with the paper and standing out against a black background, the part directly exposed to the light. I remembered when I was a boy placing fern leaves in a printing frame with proof paper, exposing it to sunlight, and obtaining a white negative of the leaves. This was the same idea, but with an added three-dimensional quality and tonal gradation."}}

File:ReturnToReasonRayographs.webm (1923)]]

In his photograms, Man Ray made combinations of objects—a comb, a spiral of cut paper, an architect's French curve—some recognisable, others transformed, typifying Dada's rejection of 'style', emphasising chance and abstraction. He published a selection of these rayographs as Champs délicieux in December 1922, with an introduction by Tzara. His 1923 film Le Retour à la Raison ('Return to Reason') adapts rayograph technique to moving images.{{Cite web|url=https://www.moma.org/artists/3716|title=Man Ray (Emmanuel Radnitzky) {{!}} MoMA|website=The Museum of Modern Art|language=en|access-date=2019-07-05}}

=Other 20th century artists=

In the 1930s, artists including Theodore Roszak, and Piet Zwart also made photograms. Luigi Veronesi combined the photographic image with oil on canvas in large-scale colour images by preparing a light-sensitive canvas on which he placed objects in the dark for exposure and then fixing.{{Citation | title=XLII esposizione internazionale d'arte la biennale di Venezia : arte e scienza | publication-date=1986 | publisher=La Biennale di Venezia | isbn=978-88-208-0331-5 }} The shapes became the matrix for an abstract painting to which he applied colour and added drawn geometric lines to enhance the dynamics, exhibiting them at the Galerie L'Equipe in Paris in 1938–1939.{{Citation | author1=Sperone, Gian Enzo | author2=Pelizzari, Maria Antonella | author3=Robilant + Voena | title=Painting in Italy, 1910s-1950s : futurism, abstraction, concrete art | publication-date=2016 | page=148 | publisher=Robilant + Voena | url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/235380105}}{{Citation | author1=Miracco, Renato | author2=Estorick Collection | author3=Italian Cultural Institute (London, England) | title=Italian abstraction : 1910-1960 | year=2006 | publication-date=2006 | publisher=Mazzotta | isbn=978-88-202-1811-9 }} Bronislaw Schlabs, Julien Coulommier, Andrzej Pawlowski and Beksinki were photogram artists in the 1940s and 1950s; Heinz Hajek-Halke and Kurt Wendlandt with their light graphics in the 1960s; Lina Kolarova, Rene Mächler, Dennis Oppenheim, and Andreas Mulas in the 1970s; and [https://www.atomyc.com/ Tomy Ceballos], Kare Magnole, Andreas Müller-Pohle, and Floris M. Neusüss in the 1980s.{{Citation | author1=Warren, Lynne | author2=Warren, Lynn | title=Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography, 3-Volume Set | date=15 November 2005 | publication-date=2005 | publisher=Taylor and Francis | isbn=978-0-203-94338-0 }}

File:Color X-ray photogram.jpg photogram of a wine scene ]]

=Contemporary=

Established contemporary artists who are widely known for using photograms are Adam Fuss,{{Citation | author1=Fuss, Adam | author2=Tannenbaum, Barbara | author3=Akron Art Museum | author4=National Gallery of Victoria | title=Adam Fuss : photograms | publication-date=1992 | publisher=Akron Art Museum | url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/34249428}} Susan Derges, Christian Marclay, and Karen Amy Finkel Fishof,{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/tomteicholz/2021/10/19/edward-goldmans-own-made-in-la--pandemic-version/?sh=63812bde9858 |title=Edward Goldman's Own 'Made In LA'— Pandemic Version Forbes |work=Forbes}}{{cite web|url=https://openeyelemagazine.fr/karen-amy-finkel-fishof-photogrammeuse/ |title=karen Amy Finkel Fishof – Photogrammeuse |date=10 April 2021 |publisher=OpenEye Magazine}}{{cite web|url=https://artillerymag.com/events/radiate-recent-artworks-by-karen-amy-finkel-fishof/|title=Radiate – Recent Artworks by Karen Amy Finkel Fishof|publisher=Artillery Magazine}}{{cite web|url=https://www.artweek.com/events/united-states/art-exhibition/santa-monica/solo-exhibition-karen-amy-finkel-fishof-radiate|title=Solo Exhibition - Karen Amy Finkel Fishof - "Radiate" |date=12 September 2019 |publisher=Artweek Magazine}}{{cite web|url=http://www.carpazine.com/karen-amy-finkel-fishof-.html |title=Karen Amy Finkel Fishof |publisher=Carpazine Magazine}} who has digitized and minted her photograms as NFTs. Younger artists worldwide{{Citation | author1=National Gallery of Victoria | author2=Crombie, Isobel | author3=Waite, Dianne | title=Firstimpressions : contemporary Australian photograms | publication-date=2003 | publisher=Council of Trustees of the National Gallery of Victoria | url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/28774994}} continue to value the materiality of the technique in the digital age.{{Cite web|url=https://www.valokuvataiteenmuseo.fi/en/exhibitions/abstract-100-years-abstract-photography-1917-2017|title=Abstract! 100 Years of Abstract Photography, 1917–2017|date=2017-04-27|website=Suomen valokuvataiteen museo|language=en|access-date=2019-07-03}} Mauritian artist Audrey Albert uses cameraless techniques to connect material culture to contemporary identities of Chagos Islanders.{{Cite web |title=Audrey Albert – Manchester School of Art Degree Show 2018 |url=http://degreeshow.mmu.ac.uk/2018/AudreyAlbert/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Manchester School of Art |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=House |first=Manchester International Festival Blackfriars |title=MIF21 Creative Fellowships |url=https://mif.co.uk/get-involved/creative-development/mif-creative-fellowships/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Manchester International Festival |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2020-04-09 |title=Audrey Albert: Future Fire 2020 |url=https://contactmcr.com/news/audrey-albert-future-fire-2020/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Contact |language=en-GB}}

Procedure

The customary approach to making a photogram is to use a darkroom and enlarger and to proceed as one would in making a conventional print, but instead of using a negative, to arrange objects on top of a piece of photographic paper for exposure under the enlarger lamp which can be controlled with the timer switch and aperture controls. That will give a result similar to the image at left;? Broken/omitted visual reference in the text since the enlarger emits light through a lens aperture, the shadows of even tall objects like the beaker standing upright on the paper will stay sharp; the more so at smaller apertures.

The print is then processed, washed, and dried.{{cite web|url=http://www.ephotozine.com/article/making-a-photogram---traditional-darkroom-ideas-4688|title=Making a photogram - traditional darkroom ideas|last=Bargh|first=Peter|work=ePhotozine.com|publisher=Magazine Publishing Ltd.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230132836/http://www.ephotozine.com/article/making-a-photogram---traditional-darkroom-ideas-4688|archive-date=30 December 2011|url-status=live|access-date=2 January 2012}}

File:Photogram Principle.svg

At this stage the image will look similar to a negative, in which shadows are white. A contact-print onto a fresh sheet of photographic paper will reverse the tones if a more naturalistic result is desired, which may be facilitated by making the initial print on film.{{Citation | author1=Holter, Patra | title=Photography without a camera | year=1972 | publication-date=1972 | publisher=Studio Vista; New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold | isbn=978-0-289-70331-1 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/photographywitho0000holt }}

However, there are other arrangements for making photograms, and devising them is part of the creative process. Alice Lex-Nerlinger used the conventional darkroom approach in making photograms as a variation on her airbrushed stencil paintings,Lange, B. (2004). Printed matter: Fotografie im/und Buch. Leipzig: Leipziger Univ-Verl. since lighting penetrating the translucent paper from which she cut her pictures would print a variegated texture she could not otherwise obtain.

Another component of this medium is the light source, or sources, used.{{Cite web|url=http://www.lloydgodman.net/tech/tech/Photograms/photograms10b.html|title=Lloyd Godman index photograms|website=www.lloydgodman.net|access-date=2019-07-04}} A broad source of light will cast nuances of shadow; umbra, penumbra and antumbra, as shown in the accompanying diagram.

Photograms may be made outdoors providing the photographic emulsion is sufficiently slow to permit it. Direct sunlight is a point-source of light (like that of an enlarger), while cloudy conditions give soft-edged shadows around three-dimensional objects placed on the photosensitive surface. The cyanotype process ('blueprints') such as that used by Anna Atkins (see above), is slow and insensitive enough that fixing an impression on paper, fabric, timber or other supports can be done in subdued light indoors. Exposure outdoors may take many minutes depending on conditions, and its progress may be gauged by inspection as the coating darkens. 'Printing-out paper' or other daylight-printing material such as gum bichromate may also enable outdoor exposure. Christian Schad simply placed tram tickets and other ephemera under glass on printing-out paper on his window-sill for exposure.

Conventional monochrome or colour, or direct-positive photographic material may be exposed in the dark using a flash unit, as does Adam Fuss for his photograms that capture the movement of a crawling baby, or an eel in shallow water. Susan Derges captures water currents in the same way, while Harry Nankin{{Citation | author1=Monash Gallery of Art | title=The wave : Harry Nankin | publication-date=2004 | publisher=Wheelers Hill, Victoria | url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/26880385}} has immersed large sheets of monochrome photographic paper at the edge of the sea and mounted a flash on a specially-constructed oversize tripod above it to capture the action of waves and seaweeds washing over the paper surface. In 1986, Floris Neusüss began his Nachtbilder ('nocturnal pictures'), exposed by lightning.{{Cite web|title=Floris Neusüss (German, 1937 - 2020) (Getty Museum)|url=https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/11447/floris-neususs-german-1937-2020/|access-date=2020-10-28|website=The J. Paul Getty in Los Angeles|language=en}}

Other variations include using the light of a television screen or computer display, pressing the photosensitive paper to the surface. Multiple light sources or exposing with multiple flashes of light, or moving the light source during exposure, projecting shadows from a low-angle light, and using successive exposures while moving, removing or adding shadows, will produce multiple shadows of varying quality.

List of notable photographers using photograms

Markus Amm{{Cite web|url=https://www.saatchigallery.com/artists/markus_amm.htm|title=Markus Amm - Artist's Profile - The Saatchi Gallery|website=www.saatchigallery.com|access-date=2019-07-04}}
Anna AtkinsBrigit Katz, "[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/photo-book-first-female-photographer-go-display-180963479/ How the first female photographer changed the way the world sees algae]", Smithsonian, 30 May 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
Walead Beshty{{Citation | author1=Appleyard, Charlotte | author2=Salzmann, James |title=Corporate art collections : a handbook to corporate buying |date=2012 |publisher=Lund Humphries / Sotheby's Institute of Art |isbn=978-1-84822-071-3}}{{Citation | author1=Furness, Rosalind | title=Frieze Art Fair : yearbook 2007-8 |date=2007 | page=1928 |publisher=Frieze |location=New York | isbn=978-0-9553201-2-5}}
Christopher Bucklow{{Citation | author1=Fraenkel, Jeffrey | author2=Fraenkel Gallery | title=Under the sun | year=1996 | publication-date=1996 | publisher=Fraenkel Gallery | isbn=978-1-881997-01-6 }}
Kate Cordsen{{Citation | author=Welling, James |title=In Place: Contemporary Photographers Envision a Museum |date=2016 |publisher=Prestel |isbn=978-3-791-35366-1 }}{{Citation | author1=Allen, Jamie M. |author2=McNear, Sarah |title=The photographer in the garden |date=2018 |publisher=Aperture |location=Rochester, New York |edition=First |isbn=978-1-59711-373-1}}
Olive Cotton{{Citation | author1=Lakin, Shaune A | author2=Cotton, Olive |author3=Dupain, Max |title=Max and Olive : the photographic life of Olive Cotton and Max Dupain |date=2016 |publisher=Canberra, A.C.T. National Gallery of Australia | isbn=978-0-642-33462-6 }}
Susan Derges{{Citation | author1=Derges, Susan | author2=Kemp, Martin |author3=Pereira, Sharmini |title=Susan Derges : liquid form 1985-99 |date=1999 |publisher=Michael Hue-Williams |isbn=978-1-900829-07-6}}
Michael Flomen{{Citation |author=Langford, Martha |title=Image & imagination: Mois de la photo à Montréal |date=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Chesham |isbn=978-0-7735-2969-4}}{{Citation |editor=Shindelman, Marni |editor2=Massoni, Anne Leighton |title=The Focal Press companion to the constructed image in contemporary photography |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |edition= 1st |isbn=978-1-317-29911-0}}
Adam Fuss{{Citation |author1=Marien, Mary Warner |title=Photography : a cultural history |date=2006 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-13-221906-8}}
Heinz Hajek-Halke{{Citation |author1=Hajek-Halke, Heinz |author2=Sayag, Alain |author3=Ruetz, Michael |title=Heinz Hajek-Halke, 1898-1983 |date=2002 |publisher=Steidl |edition=1st |isbn=978-3-88243-857-4}}{{Citation |author1=Hajek-Halke |title=Abstract pictures on film : the technique of making lightgraphics |date=1965 |publisher=Dennis Dobson |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/12001738}}
Raoul Hausmann{{Citation |author1=Neusüss, Floris Michael |author2=Barrow, Thomas F |author3=Hagen, Charles |title=Experimental vision : the evolution of the photogram since 1919 |date=1994 |publisher=Roberts Rinehart Publishers / Denver Art Museum |isbn=978-1-879373-73-0}}{{Citation |author1=Brill, Dorothée |title=Shock and the senseless in Dada and Fluxus |date=2010 |publisher=Dartmouth College Press / University Press of New England |edition=1st |isbn=978-1-58465-902-0}}
John Herschel{{Citation |editor=Burns, Nancy Kathryn |editor2=Wilson, Kristina |title=Cyanotypes : photography's blue period |date=2016 |location=Worcester, MA |publisher=Worcester Art Museum |isbn=978-0-936042-06-0}}{{Citation |author1=James, Christopher |title=The book of alternative photographic processes |date=2016 |page=234 |location=Boston |publisher=Cengage Learning |edition=Third |isbn=978-1-285-08931-7}}
Edmund Kesting{{Cite web |url=https://www.moma.org/collection/works/83811 |title=Edmund Kesting. Photogram Lightbulb. 1927 |website=The Museum of Modern Art |language=en |access-date=2019-07-04}}
Len Lye{{Citation |author1=Horrocks, Roger |author2=Lye, Len |title=Len Lye : a biography |date=2001 |publisher=Auckland University Press |isbn=978-1-86940-247-1}}{{Citation |author1=Lye, Len |author2=Annear, Judy |author3=Bullock, Natasha |title=Len Lye |date=2000 |publisher=Art Gallery of New South Wales |isbn=978-0-7347-6324-2}}
László Moholy-Nagy"[https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2015/nov/27/at-first-light-the-most-iconic-camera-less-photographs-photograms-in-pictures At first light: the most iconic camera-less photographs – in pictures]", The Guardian, 27 November 2015. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
Alice Lex-Nerlinger
Floris Michael Neusüss
Anne Noble{{Cite web |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018617583/the-global-decline-of-the-honey-bee |title=The global decline of the honey bee |date=2017-10-12 |website=RNZ |language=en-nz |access-date=2019-07-04}}
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