proxy war
{{Short description|Type of armed conflict between two states or non-state actors}}
{{About|the type of war|a list of proxy wars|List of proxy wars}}
{{Distinguish|Proxy fight}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}
File:Soviet advisers planning military operations Angola.jpg (1975–2002), a proxy conflict involving the USSR and United States]]
{{history of war}}
In political science, a proxy war is an armed conflict where at least one of the belligerents is directed or supported by an external third-party power. In the term proxy war, a belligerent with external support is the proxy; both belligerents in a proxy war can be considered proxies if both are receiving foreign military aid from a third party country. Acting either as a nation-state government or as a conventional force, a proxy belligerent acts in behalf of a third-party state sponsor.{{cite book|last=Osmańczyk|first=Jan Edmund|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements|date=2002|page=1869|publisher=Routledge Books|location=Abingdon|isbn=978-0415939201}}
A proxy war is characterised by a direct, long-term, geopolitical relationship between the third-party sponsor states and their client states or non-state clients,{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geraint|title=My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics|date=2014|pages=5, 12–13|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|isbn=978-1845196271}} thus the political sponsorship becomes military sponsorship when the third-party powers fund the soldiers and their matériel to equip the belligerent proxy-army to launch and fight and sustain a war to victory, and government power. However, the relationship between sponsors and proxies can be characterized by principal-agent problems whereby the sponsor may be unable to control the actions of the proxy. A proxy war also can be a civil war, as in the Korean War and the Vietnam War during the Cold War.{{Cite journal |last=Hughes |first=Geraint |date=2023 |title=Proxy Wars in History: A Longue Durée Perspective |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003174066-11/proxy-wars-history-geraint-hughes?context=ubx&refId=1fbb1ca2-cbf3-44bf-958b-e796a5e72a79 |journal=Routledge Handbook of Proxy Wars}}{{Cite book |last=Gaston |first=E. L. |title=Illusions of control: dilemmas in managing U.S. proxy forces in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria |date=2024 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-21012-6}}
History
{{see also|List of proxy wars}}
During classical antiquity and the Middle Ages, many non-state proxies were external parties that were introduced into an internal conflict and aligned themselves with a belligerent to gain influence and to further their own interests in the region.{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Brian Glyn|editor-last=Innes|editor-first=Michael|title=Making Sense of Proxy Wars: States, Surrogates & the Use of Force|date=2012|pages=61–63|publisher=Potomac Books|location=Washington DC|isbn=978-1-59797-230-7}}{{cite book|last=Carr|first=Mike|editor1-last=France|editor1-first=John|editor2-last=Rogers|editor2-first=Clifford|editor3-last=De Vries|editor3-first=Kelly|title=Journal of Medieval Military History, Volume 10|date=2016|pages=163–166|publisher=The Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|isbn=978-1-78327-130-6}} Proxies could be introduced by an external or local power and most commonly took the form of irregular armies which were used to achieve their sponsor's goals in a contested region. Some medieval states like the Byzantine Empire used proxy warfare as a foreign-policy tool by deliberately cultivating intrigue among hostile rivals and then backing them when they went to war with each other. Other states regarded proxy wars as merely a useful extension of a pre-existing conflict, such as France and England during the Hundred Years' War, both of which initiated a longstanding practice of supporting privateers, which targeted the other's merchant shipping.{{cite book|last=Heebøll-Holm|first=Thomas|title=Ports, Piracy and Maritime War: Piracy in the English Channel and the Atlantic, c. 1280-c. 1330 |date=2013|page=8|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-9004235700}} France used England's turmoil of the Wars of the Roses from their victory as a proxy, siding with the Lancastrians against the Yorkists who were backed by the Burgundian State. The Ottoman Empire likewise used the Barbary pirates as proxies to harass Western European powers in the Mediterranean Sea.{{cite book|last=Watson|first=William|title=Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World|date=2003|pages=17–19|publisher=Praeger Books|location=Westport, Connecticut|isbn=978-0275974701}}
Frequent application of the term "proxy war" indicates its prominent place in academic research on international relations. Distinct implementations of soft power and hard power have proved to be unsuccessful in recent years. Accordingly, great failures in classic wars increased the tendency to use proxy wars.S. A. Hashemi and M. Sahrapeyma, "Proxy war and US's smart power
strategy (The case of Syria, 2011-2016)," Q. J. Polit. Stud. Islam. World,
vol. 6, no. 24, p. 1, 2018. http://psiw.journals.ikiu.ac.ir/article_1351.html Since the early twentieth century, proxy wars have most commonly taken the form of states assuming the role of sponsors to non-state proxies and essentially using them as fifth columns to undermine adversarial powers. That type of proxy warfare includes external support for a faction engaged in a civil war, terrorists, national-liberation movements, and insurgent groups, or assistance to a national revolt against foreign occupation. For example, the British government partially organized and instigated the Arab Revolt to undermine the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. Many proxy wars began assuming a distinctive ideological dimension after the Spanish Civil War, which pitted the fascist political ideology of Italy and Nazi Germany against the communist ideology of the Soviet Union without involving these states in open warfare with each other.{{cite book|last=Axelrod|first=Alan|title=The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past|date=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/realhistoryofcol0000axel/page/20 20]|publisher=Sterling Publishers|location=New York|isbn=978-1402763021|url=https://archive.org/details/realhistoryofcol0000axel/page/20}} Sponsors of both sides also used the Spanish conflict as a proving ground for their own weapons and battlefield tactics.
During the Cold War, proxy warfare was motivated by fears that an armed conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union by conventional warfare would result in nuclear holocaust, which rendered the use of ideological proxies a safer way to conduct hostilities.Wilde, Robert. "Mutually Assured Destruction." About Education. About.com, n.d. Web. 23 April 2015. [http://europeanhistory.about.com/od/glossary/g/glmad.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405154133/http://europeanhistory.about.com/od/glossary/g/glmad.htm|date=5 April 2015}} The Soviet government found that supporting parties antagonistic to the U.S. and other Western nations was a cost-effective way to combat NATO's influence compared to direct military engagement.Prof CJ. "Ep. 0014: Fall of the Soviet Empire." Prof CJ, 21 July 2014. MP3 file. Additionally, the proliferation of televised media and its impact on public perception made the U.S. public especially susceptible to war-weariness and being skeptical of risking life abroad.Curtis, Anthony R. "Mass Media Influence on Society." The University of North Carolina at Pembroke, 23 June 2012. PDF file. That encouraged the American practice of arming insurgent forces, such as the funnelling of supplies to the mujahideen during the Soviet–Afghan War.The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., n.d. Web. 23 April 2015.
Abstract
The governments of some nations, particularly liberal democracies, may choose to engage in proxy warfare (despite their military superiority) if most of their citizens oppose declaring or entering a conventional war.{{Cite journal|title=Proxy Warfare and the Future of Conflict|journal=The RUSI Journal|date=1 April 2013|issn=0307-1847|pages=40–46|volume=158|issue=2|doi=10.1080/03071847.2013.787733|first=Andrew|last=Mumford|s2cid=153479115|doi-access=free}} That featured prominently in US strategy following the Vietnam War because of the so-called "Vietnam Syndrome" of extreme war weariness among the American population. That was also a significant factor in motivating the US to enter conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War by proxy actors after a series of costly drawn-out direct engagements in the Middle East spurred a recurrence of war weariness, the "War on Terror syndrome."
Nations may also resort to proxy warfare to avoid potential negative international reactions from allied nations, profitable trading partners, or intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations. That is especially significant when standing peace treaties, acts of the alliance or other international agreements ostensibly forbid direct warfare. Breaking such agreements could lead to a variety of negative consequences due to either negative international reaction (see above), punitive provisions listed in the prior agreement, or retaliatory action by the other parties and their allies.
File:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict.png locations}}]]
In some cases, nations may be motivated to engage in proxy warfare because of financial concerns: supporting irregular troops, insurgents, non-state actors, or less-advanced allied militaries (often with obsolete or surplus equipment) can be significantly cheaper than deploying national armed forces, and the proxies usually bear the brunt of casualties and economic damage resulting from prolonged conflict.{{cite web |title=War on the cheap?: assessing the costs and benefits of proxy war |url=https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/553084 |website=repository.library.georgetown.edu |access-date=2015-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929082434/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/553084 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |url-status=live }}
Another common motivating factor is the existence of a security dilemma. A nation may use military intervention to install a more favorable government in a third-party state. Rival nations may perceive the intervention as a weakened position to their own security and may respond by attempting to undermine such efforts, often by backing parties favorable to their own interests (such as those directly or indirectly under their control, sympathetic to their cause, or ideologically aligned). In that case, if one or both rivals come to believe that their favored faction is at a disadvantage, they will often respond by escalating military and/or financial support.{{cite journal|url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/trachtenberg/guide/jervissecdil.pdf|title=Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma|last=Jervis|first=Robert|date=Jan 1978|journal=World Politics|volume=30|issue=2|pages=167–214|doi=10.2307/2009958|jstor=2009958|hdl=2027/uc1.31158011478350|s2cid=154923423 |access-date=28 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501100651/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/trachtenberg/guide/jervissecdil.pdf|archive-date=1 May 2015|url-status=dead|hdl-access=free}} If their counterpart(s), perceiving a material threat or desiring to avoid the appearance of weakness or defeat, follow suit, a proxy war ensues between the two powers. That was a major factor in many of the proxy wars during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union,{{cite news|title=How to stop the fighting, sometimes|url=https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21589431-bringing-end-conflicts-within-states-vexatious-history-provides-guide|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=2015-09-28|issn=0013-0613|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816104913/https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21589431-bringing-end-conflicts-within-states-vexatious-history-provides-guide|archive-date=16 August 2017|url-status=live}} as well as in the ongoing series of conflicts between Saudi Arabia and Iran, especially in Yemen and Syria.{{cite web|title=Iran and Saudi Arabia's cold war is making the Middle East even more dangerous|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/3/30/8314513/saudi-arabia-iran|website=Vox|access-date=2015-09-28|date=2015-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705182249/https://www.vox.com/2015/3/30/8314513/saudi-arabia-iran|archive-date=5 July 2017|url-status=live}}{{cite news|title=Proxy War in Yemen: Saudi Arabia and Iran Vie for Regional Supremacy|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/saudi-arabia-and-iran-fighting-proxy-war-in-yemen-a-1027056.html|newspaper=Spiegel Online|date=3 April 2015|access-date=2015-09-28|first1=Dieter|last1=Bednarz|first2=Christoph|last2=Reuter|first3=Bernhard|last3=Zand|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929112245/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/saudi-arabia-and-iran-fighting-proxy-war-in-yemen-a-1027056.html|archive-date=29 September 2015|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Saudi Arabia, Iran and the 'Great Game' in Yemen|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/09/saudi-arabia-iran-great-game-ye-201492984846324440.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=2015-09-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030102846/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/09/saudi-arabia-iran-great-game-ye-201492984846324440.html|archive-date=30 October 2014|url-status=live}}
Effects
Proxy wars can have a huge impact, especially on the local area. A proxy war with significant effects occurred between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Vietnam War.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} Operation Rolling Thunder, a U.S bombing campaign in North Vietnam destroyed significant amounts of infrastructure. Many bombs were also dropped on North Vietnamese supply routes in Cambodia and Laos."Operation Rolling Thunder." History. A&E Television Networks, LLC., n.d. Web. 28 April 2015. [http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/operation-rolling-thunder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408094659/http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/operation-rolling-thunder|date=8 April 2015}} Equally, if not more, significant was the Soviet–Afghan War, which saw the U.S. fund the Afghan mujahideen against the invading Soviet forces (see Operation Cyclone). This war cost hundreds of thousands of lives and billions of dollars,"The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the U.S. Response, 1978–1980." U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian. U.S. Department of State, 31 October 2013. Web. 28 April 2015. [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1977-1980/soviet-invasion-afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502234006/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1977-1980/soviet-invasion-afghanistan|date=2 May 2015}} bankrupting the Soviet Union and contributing to its collapse.
The conflict in the Middle East between Saudi Arabia and Iran is another example of the destructive impact of proxy wars. Since 2003, nearly 500,000 have died in the Iraqi conflict.Sheridan, Kerry. "War-related deaths near 500,000 in Iraq." Your Middle East. Your Middle East, 16 October 2013. Web. 28 April 2015. [http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/news/warrelated-deaths-near-500000-in-iraq_18729] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518073245/http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/news/warrelated-deaths-near-500000-in-iraq_18729|date=18 May 2015}} Since 2011, more than 500,000 have died in the Syrian Civil War.Total death toll | Over 606,000 people killed across Syria since the beginning of the "Syrian Revolution", including 495,000 documented by [https://www.syriahr.com/en/217360/ SOHR] Over 377,000 people had died in the Yemeni Civil War by early 2022.{{cite news |title=Yemen: Why is the war there getting more violent? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29319423 |work=BBC News |date=14 April 2023}} In the war in Afghanistan, more than 176,000 were killed between 2001 and 2021.{{cite web|title=Human and Budgetary Costs to Date of the U.S. War in Afghanistan, 2001–2022 {{!}} Figures {{!}} Costs of War|url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures/2021/human-and-budgetary-costs-date-us-war-afghanistan-2001-2022|access-date=2021-09-01|website=The Costs of War}} In Pakistan, more than 57,000 have been killed since 2003."Fatalities in Terrorist Violence in Pakistan 2003–2015." SATP. SATP, 26 April 2015. Web. 28 April 2015. [http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/database/casualties.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107122422/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/database/casualties.htm|date=7 January 2016}}
In general, lengths, intensities, and scales of armed conflicts are often greatly increased if belligerents' capabilities are augmented by external support. Belligerents are often less likely to engage in diplomatic negotiations, peace talks are less likely to bear fruit, and damage to infrastructure can be many times greater.{{cite web|title=Why Proxy Wars in the Middle East Are (Probably) Here to Stay|url=http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/08/27/why-proxy-wars-in-the-middle-east-are-probably-here-to-stay/|website=Political Violence @ a Glance|access-date=2015-09-28|date=2015-08-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234142/http://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2015/08/27/why-proxy-wars-in-the-middle-east-are-probably-here-to-stay/|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|title=Does Warfare Matter? Severity, Duration, and Outcomes of Civil Wars|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|date=1 January 2014|volume=58|issue=8|pages=1390–1418|doi=10.1177/0022002714547903|first1=L.|last1=Balcells|first2=S. N.|last2=Kalyvas|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/oaiart?codigo=5535658|hdl=2072/205395|s2cid=220536755|hdl-access=free}}
See also
References
{{Reflist|2}}
Further reading
- Tom Stevenson, "In the Grey Zone" (review of Eli Berman and David A. Lake, Proxy Wars: Suppressing Violence through Local Agents, Cornell, 2019, {{ISBN|978 1 50173 306 2}}; Tyrone L. Groh, Proxy War: The Least Bad Option, Stanford, 2019, {{ISBN|978 1 5036 0818 4}}; Andreas Krieg and Jean-Marc Rickli, Surrogate Warfare: The Transformation of War in the 21st Century, Georgetown, 2019, {{ISBN|978 1 62616 678 3}}), London Review of Books, vol. 42, no. 20 (22 October 2020), pp. 41–43. "Nuclear weapons – judged, for now at least, to be too powerful to be used – seem to preclude wars of destruction between major powers today." (p. 43.)
External links
- {{Commons category-inline|Proxy wars}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Proxy War}}