puticuli

{{Short description|Ancient Roman mass burial}}

File:Necropoli_Esquilina.jpg]]

Puticuli were open pits used as mass graves for the poor in ancient Rome.{{Citation |last=Morris |first=Ian |title=dead, disposal of |date=2015-12-22 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2038 |access-date=2024-01-19 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2038 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Hope |first=Valerie M. |date=1997 |title=Constructing Roman identity: Funerary monuments and social structure in the Roman world |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/713685858 |journal=Mortality |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=103–121 |doi=10.1080/713685858 |issn=1357-6275|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=McCormick |first=Michael |date=2015 |title=Tracking mass death during the fall of Rome's empire (I) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-archaeology/article/abs/tracking-mass-death-during-the-fall-of-romes-empire-i/3AE8BC4924DF948BB46F5E4A92C1C107 |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=28 |page=332 |doi=10.1017/S1047759415002512 |s2cid=163269339 |issn=1047-7594 |via=Cambridge Core|url-access=subscription }} According to Varro,{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=James I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uah8nkFBZ04C |title=Constructions of the Classical Body |date=1999 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-08779-2 |page=169 |language=en}} a Roman scholar, puticuli were located outside of towns. He claims that the name originates from the Latin word for wells and pits, putei. Varro also describes an alternative etymology proposed by his mentor Aelius Stilo. Aelius believed that since the bodies were thrown into the puticuli to rot, the name originated from the Latin verb, putescebant, meaning "used to rot."{{Cite journal |last=Rallo |first=G. E. |date=2021 |title=What Does the Term Togata 'Really' Mean? |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/what-does-the-term-togata-really-mean/F1F7DE0F1BF14CF6FE139D96AE4957FD |journal=The Classical Quarterly |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=216–229 |doi=10.1017/S0009838821000355 |issn=0009-8388|hdl=10023/23470 |hdl-access=free }} Varro also cites another Roman writer named Afranius, who calls the puticuli "pit-lights." Afranius referred to the puticuli with these terms since the bodies that were thrown into the grave looked up at the light from the pit.{{Cite book |last=Varro |first=Marcus Terentius |url=http://archive.org/details/onlatinlanguage01varruoft |title=De Lingua Latina |date=1938 |publisher=University of Toronto |location=London |translator-last=Kent |translator-first=Roland |trans-title=On the Latin language}} Puticuli were also filled with waste, animal carcasses, and rubbish;{{Cite book |last=Hardie |first=Philip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fhokCwAAQBAJ |title=Augustan Poetry and the Irrational |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-103771-9 |page=83 |language=en}} they are sometimes seen as an example of waste management in ancient Rome.{{Cite journal |last=Nissin |first=Laura |date=2022 |title=Smellscape of a Pompeian neighborhood |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-archaeology/article/abs/smellscape-of-a-pompeian-neighborhood/655E3495726C4CE2F0890AB584AB341B |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=624 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000830 |s2cid=250716309 |issn=1047-7594 |via=Cambridge Core|url-access=subscription }} Another issue for classicists is the importance of these gravesites to Roman society. It has been argued that the ordered arrangement of graves found in this site implies the Roman government was involved in their creation and regulation. Furthermore, the limited size of the gravesites indicates they were intended for temporary use and were not a commonplace means of burial and disposal.{{Cite journal |last=Graham |first=E.-J. |date=2006 |title=Discarding the Destitute: Ancient and Modern Attitudes Towards Burial Practices and Memory Preservation Amongst the Lower Classes of Rome |url=https://traj.openlibhums.org/article/id/3846/ |journal=Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal |language=en |issue=2005 |page=57 |doi=10.16995/TRAC2005_57_72 |doi-access=free |issn=2515-2289}}

Archaeological excavations conducted by Rodolfo Lanciani in 1874 unearthed mass graves in the Esquiline area.{{Cite journal |last=Lindsay |first=Hugh |date=2011 |title=The Tomb of the Arruntii Sponsoring Burial Arrangements for Slaves and Freedmen the 18th-Century Drawings and the Inscriptions |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24653683 |journal=Mediterranean Archaeology |volume=24 |pages=104 |jstor=24653683 |issn=1030-8482 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Andrews |first1=Margaret |last2=Bernard |first2=Seth |date=2017 |title=Urban development at Rome's Porta Esquilina and church of San Vito over the longue durée |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-archaeology/article/abs/urban-development-at-romes-porta-esquilina-and-church-of-san-vito-over-the-longue-duree/E958B17F58FC59B7FB0C4935F4E643B2 |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=30 |page=251 |doi=10.1017/S1047759400074109 |s2cid=165858076 |issn=1047-7594|url-access=subscription }} These may have been the puticuli described by Varro.{{Cite journal |last=McInerney |first=Jeremy |date=2019-06-01 |title=Interpreting Funerary Inscriptions from the City of Rome |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jah-2019-0008/html |journal=Journal of Ancient History |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=176 |doi=10.1515/jah-2019-0008 |s2cid=195789298 |issn=2324-8114|url-access=subscription }} According to Lanciani, the puticuli covered an area one thousand feet long and three hundred feet deep.{{Cite book |last=Emmerson |first=Allison L. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53XnDwAAQBAJ |title=Life and Death in the Roman Suburb |date=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-259409-9 |page=92 |language=en}} The burial pits had an average size of 5 meters by 4 meters and were typically about 10 meters deep. Excavators identified a few examples of human remains at this site.{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Keith |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/death-and-renewal/923225A13FA7F25DAAB4A2B2A9023673 |title=Death and Renewal: Sociological Studies in Roman History |date=1983 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-27117-2 |volume=2 |location=Cambridge |page=208}} It is also possible this gravesite was described by Horace.{{Cite book |last1=Hope |first1=Valerie M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=moWEAgAAQBAJ |title=Death and Disease in the Ancient City |last2=Marshall |first2=Eireann |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-61156-0 |page=111 |language=en}} Horace describes a 1,000 by 300-foot potter's field which had gardens built over it by Gaius Maecenas.{{Cite journal |last=Nock |first=Arthur Darby |date=1932 |title=Cremation and Burial in the Roman Empire |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/abs/cremation-and-burial-in-the-roman-empire/2B53C06D3063D879FDDC9672F729819F |journal=Harvard Theological Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=321–359 |doi=10.1017/S0017816000021313 |s2cid=162194875 |issn=1475-4517 |via=Cambridge Core|url-access=subscription }}{{Citation |title=The First Book of Satires of Horace |work=The works of Horace |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_works_of_Horace/First_Book_of_Satires |access-date=2024-01-22}} This potter's field is possibly the same as the Esquilline puticuli.{{Cite book |last=Kyle |first=Donald G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2DkmT79JeMC |title=Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-86271-9 |page=164 |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=McInerney |first=Jeremy |date=2019-06-01 |title=Interpreting Funerary Inscriptions from the City of Rome |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jah-2019-0008/html |journal=Journal of Ancient History |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=176–177 |doi=10.1515/jah-2019-0008 |s2cid=195789298 |issn=2324-8114|url-access=subscription }} Lanciani excavated another gravesite underneath the Servian Wall. This may be another example of a puticuli. It consisted of about 75 pits which were 12 feet wide and 30 feet deep. They were lined with tufa and separated by a travertine wall. Lanciani found an epigraph that described a praetor named Gaius Sextius marking the limits of the area with stone.{{Cite book |last=Lanciani |first=Rodolfo Amedeo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohcDAAAAMAAJ |title=Ancient and Modern Rome |date=1925 |publisher=George G. Harrap & Company Limited |pages=19–20 |language=en}}