scanning probe lithography

The different approaches towards SPL can be classified by their goal to either add or remove material, by the general nature of the process either chemical or physical, or according to the driving mechanisms of the probe-surface interaction used in the patterning process: mechanical, thermal, diffusive and electrical.

Mechanical scanning probe lithography (m-SPL) is a nanomachining or nano-scratching{{Cite journal|title = Top-Down Nanomechanical Machining of Three-Dimensional Nanostructures by Atomic Force Microscopy |journal = Small|doi=10.1002/smll.200901947|pmid = 20166110|volume=6|issue = 6|pages=724–728|year = 2010|last1 = Yan|first1 = Yongda|last2 = Hu|first2 = Zhenjiang|last3 = Zhao|first3 = Xueshen|last4 = Sun|first4 = Tao|last5 = Dong|first5 = Shen|last6 = Li|first6 = Xiaodong|doi-access = free}} top-down approach without the application of heat.{{Cite journal|title = Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance in Lithographically Fabricated Single Gold Nanowires|journal = The Journal of Physical Chemistry C|date = June 17, 2010|issn = 1932-7447|pages = 10359–10364|volume = 114|issue = 23|doi = 10.1021/jp1014725|first1 = Hsiang-An|last1 = Chen|first2 = Hsin-Yu|last2 = Lin|first3 = Heh-Nan|last3 = Lin}} Thermo-mechanical SPL applies heat together with a mechanical force, e.g. indenting of polymers in the Millipede memory.

{{Main|Thermal scanning probe lithography}}

Thermal scanning probe lithography (t-SPL) uses a heatable scanning probe in order to efficiently remove material from a surface without the application of significant mechanical forces. The patterning depth can be controlled to create high-resolution 3D structures.{{Cite journal|title = Direct three-dimensional nanoscale thermal lithography at high speeds using heated atomic-force microscope cantilevers|date = 2007|pages = 65171L–65171L–6|volume = 6517|doi = 10.1117/12.713374|first1 = Yueming|last1 = Hua|first2 = Shubham|last2 = Saxena|first3 = Jung C.|last3 = Lee|first4 = William P.|last4 = King|first5 = Clifford L.|last5 = Henderson|editor1-first = Michael J|editor1-last = Lercel|journal=Emerging Lithographic Technologies XI|bibcode = 2007SPIE.6517E..1LH|s2cid = 120189827}}{{Cite journal|title = Nanoscale Three-Dimensional Patterning of Molecular Resists by Scanning Probes|journal = Science|date = 2010|issn = 0036-8075|pmid = 20413457|pages = 732–735|volume = 328|issue = 5979|doi = 10.1126/science.1187851|first1 = David|last1 = Pires|first2 = James L.|last2 = Hedrick|first3 = Anuja De|last3 = Silva|first4 = Jane|last4 = Frommer|first5 = Bernd|last5 = Gotsmann|first6 = Heiko|last6 = Wolf|first7 = Michel|last7 = Despont|first8 = Urs|last8 = Duerig|first9 = Armin W.|last9 = Knoll|bibcode = 2010Sci...328..732P |s2cid = 9975977|doi-access = free}}

{{Main|Thermochemical nanolithography}}

Thermochemical scanning probe lithography (tc-SPL) or thermochemical nanolithography (TCNL) employs the scanning probe tips to induce thermally activated chemical reactions to change the chemical functionality or the phase of surfaces. Such thermally activated reactions have been shown in proteins,{{Cite journal|title = Large-scale Nanopatterning of Single Proteins used as Carriers of Magnetic Nanoparticles |journal = Advanced Materials|doi=10.1002/adma.200902568|pmid = 20217754|volume=22|issue = 5|pages=588–591|year = 2010|last1 = Martínez|first1 = Ramsés V|last2 = Martínez|first2 = Javier|last3 = Chiesa|first3 = Marco|last4 = Garcia|first4 = Ricardo|last5 = Coronado|first5 = Eugenio|last6 = Pinilla-Cienfuegos|first6 = Elena|last7 = Tatay|first7 = Sergio| bibcode=2010AdM....22..588M |hdl = 10261/45215| s2cid=43146735 |hdl-access = free}} organic semiconductors,{{Cite journal|title = Thermochemical nanopatterning of organic semiconductors|journal = Nature Nanotechnology|date = October 2009|issn = 1748-3387|pages = 664–668|volume = 4|issue = 10|doi = 10.1038/nnano.2009.254|first1 = Oliver|last1 = Fenwick|first2 = Laurent|last2 = Bozec|first3 = Dan|last3 = Credgington|first4 = Azzedine|last4 = Hammiche|first5 = Giovanni Mattia|last5 = Lazzerini|first6 = Yaron R.|last6 = Silberberg|first7 = Franco|last7 = Cacialli|pmid=19809458|bibcode = 2009NatNa...4..664F }} electroluminescent conjugated polymers,{{Cite journal|title = Direct writing and characterization of poly(p-phenylene vinylene) nanostructures|journal = Applied Physics Letters|date = 2009-12-07|issn = 0003-6951|pages = 233108|volume = 95|issue = 23|doi = 10.1063/1.3271178|first1 = Debin|last1 = Wang|first2 = Suenne|last2 = Kim|first3 = William D. Underwood|last3 = Ii|first4 = Anthony J.|last4 = Giordano|first5 = Clifford L.|last5 = Henderson|first6 = Zhenting|last6 = Dai|first7 = William P.|last7 = King|first8 = Seth R.|last8 = Marder|first9 = Elisa|last9 = Riedo|bibcode = 2009ApPhL..95w3108W | hdl=1853/46878 |hdl-access = free}} and nanoribbon resistors.{{Cite journal|title = On-Demand Patterning of Nanostructured Pentacene Transistors by Scanning Thermal Lithography |journal = Advanced Materials|doi=10.1002/adma.201202877|pmid = 23138983|volume=25|issue = 4|pages=552–558|year = 2013|last1 = Shaw|first1 = Joseph E|last2 = Stavrinou|first2 = Paul N|last3 = Anthopoulos|first3 = Thomas D| bibcode=2013AdM....25..552S |hdl = 10044/1/19476| s2cid=205247133 |hdl-access = free}} Furthermore, deprotection of functional groups{{Cite journal|title = Thermochemical Nanolithography of Multifunctional Nanotemplates for Assembling Nano-Objects |journal = Advanced Functional Materials|doi=10.1002/adfm.200901057|volume=19|issue = 23|pages=3696–3702|year = 2009|last1 = Wang|first1 = Debin|last2 = Kodali|first2 = Vamsi K|last3 = Underwood Ii|first3 = William D|last4 = Jarvholm|first4 = Jonas E|last5 = Okada|first5 = Takashi|last6 = Jones|first6 = Simon C|last7 = Rumi|first7 = Mariacristina|last8 = Dai|first8 = Zhenting|last9 = King|first9 = William P|last10 = Marder|first10 = Seth R|last11 = Curtis|first11 = Jennifer E|last12 = Riedo|first12 = Elisa| s2cid=96263209 }} (sometimes involving a temperature gradients{{Cite journal|title = Fabricating Nanoscale Chemical Gradients with ThermoChemical NanoLithography|journal = Langmuir|date = July 9, 2013|issn = 0743-7463|pages = 8675–8682|volume = 29|issue = 27|doi = 10.1021/la400996w|pmid = 23751047|first1 = Keith M.|last1 = Carroll|first2 = Anthony J.|last2 = Giordano|first3 = Debin|last3 = Wang|first4 = Vamsi K.|last4 = Kodali|first5 = Jan|last5 = Scrimgeour|first6 = William P.|last6 = King|first7 = Seth R.|last7 = Marder|first8 = Elisa|last8 = Riedo|first9 = Jennifer E.|last9 = Curtis}}), reduction of oxides,{{Cite journal|title = Nanoscale Tunable Reduction of Graphene Oxide for Graphene Electronics|journal = Science|date = 11 Jun 2010|issn = 0036-8075|pmid = 20538944|pages = 1373–1376|volume = 328|issue = 5984|doi = 10.1126/science.1188119|first1 = Zhongqing|last1 = Wei|first2 = Debin|last2 = Wang|first3 = Suenne|last3 = Kim|first4 = Soo-Young|last4 = Kim|first5 = Yike|last5 = Hu|first6 = Michael K.|last6 = Yakes|first7 = Arnaldo R.|last7 = Laracuente|first8 = Zhenting|last8 = Dai|first9 = Seth R.|last9 = Marder|bibcode = 2010Sci...328.1373W |citeseerx = 10.1.1.635.6671|s2cid = 9672782}} and the crystallization of piezoelectric/ferroelectric ceramics{{Cite journal|title = Direct Fabrication of Arbitrary-Shaped Ferroelectric Nanostructures on Plastic, Glass, and Silicon Substrates |journal = Advanced Materials|volume = 23|issue = 33|pages = 3786–90|doi=10.1002/adma.201101991|pmid = 21766356|year = 2011|last1 = Kim|first1 = Suenne|last2 = Bastani|first2 = Yaser|last3 = Lu|first3 = Haidong|last4 = King|first4 = William P|last5 = Marder|first5 = Seth|author6-link=Kenneth Sandhage |last6 = Sandhage|first6 = Kenneth H|last7 = Gruverman|first7 = Alexei|last8 = Riedo|first8 = Elisa|last9 = Bassiri-Gharb|first9 = Nazanin| bibcode=2011AdM....23.3786K | s2cid=205241466 }} has been demonstrated.

{{Main|Dip-pen nanolithography}}

Dip-pen scanning probe lithography (dp-SPL) or dip-pen nanolithography (DPN) is a scanning probe lithography technique based on diffusion, where the tip is employed to create patterns on a range of substances by deposition of a variety of liquid inks.{{Cite journal|title = Deposition of Organic Material by the Tip of a Scanning Force Microscope|journal = Langmuir|date = April 1, 1995|issn = 0743-7463|pages = 1061–1064|volume = 11|issue = 4|doi = 10.1021/la00004a004|first1 = Manfred|last1 = Jaschke|first2 = Hans-Juergen|last2 = Butt}}{{Cite journal|title = The Evolution of Dip-Pen Nanolithography |journal = Angewandte Chemie International Edition|doi=10.1002/anie.200300608|pmid = 14694469|volume=43|issue = 1|pages=30–45|year = 2004|last1 = Ginger|first1 = David S|last2 = Zhang|first2 = Hua|last3 = Mirkin|first3 = Chad A|citeseerx = 10.1.1.462.6653}}{{Cite journal|title = "Dip-Pen" Nanolithography|journal = Science|date = 1999-01-29|issn = 0036-8075|pmid = 9924019|pages = 661–663|volume = 283|issue = 5402|doi = 10.1126/science.283.5402.661|first1 = Richard D.|last1 = Piner|first2 = Jin|last2 = Zhu|first3 = Feng|last3 = Xu|first4 = Seunghun|last4 = Hong|first5 = Chad A.|last5 = Mirkin| s2cid=27011581 }} Thermal dip-pen scanning probe lithography or thermal dip-pen nanolithography (TDPN) extends the usable inks to solids, which can be deposited in their liquid form when the probes are pre-heated.{{Cite journal|title = Direct deposition of continuous metal nanostructures by thermal dip-pen nanolithography|journal = Applied Physics Letters|date = 2006-01-16|issn = 0003-6951|pages = 033104|volume = 88|issue = 3|doi = 10.1063/1.2164394|first1 = B. A.|last1 = Nelson|first2 = W. P.|last2 = King|first3 = A. R.|last3 = Laracuente|first4 = P. E.|last4 = Sheehan|first5 = L. J.|last5 = Whitman|bibcode = 2006ApPhL..88c3104N }}{{Cite journal|title = Chemically Isolated Graphene Nanoribbons Reversibly Formed in Fluorographene Using Polymer Nanowire Masks|journal = Nano Letters|date = December 14, 2011|issn = 1530-6984|pages = 5461–5464|volume = 11|issue = 12|doi = 10.1021/nl203225w|first1 = Woo-Kyung|last1 = Lee|first2 = Jeremy T.|last2 = Robinson|first3 = Daniel|last3 = Gunlycke|first4 = Rory R.|last4 = Stine|first5 = Cy R.|last5 = Tamanaha|first6 = William P.|last6 = King|first7 = Paul E.|last7 = Sheehan|pmid=22050117|bibcode = 2011NanoL..11.5461L}}{{Cite journal|title = Maskless Nanoscale Writing of Nanoparticle−Polymer Composites and Nanoparticle Assemblies using Thermal Nanoprobes|journal = Nano Letters|date = January 13, 2010|issn = 1530-6984|pages = 129–133|volume = 10|issue = 1|doi = 10.1021/nl9030456|first1 = Woo Kyung|last1 = Lee|first2 = Zhenting|last2 = Dai|first3 = William P.|last3 = King|first4 = Paul E.|last4 = Sheehan|bibcode = 2010NanoL..10..129L|pmid=20028114}}

{{Main|Local oxidation nanolithography}}

Oxidation scanning probe lithography (o-SPL), also called local oxidation nanolithography (LON), scanning probe oxidation, nano-oxidation, local anodic oxidation, AFM oxidation lithography is based on the spatial confinement of an oxidation reaction.{{Cite journal|title = Modification of hydrogen-passivated silicon by a scanning tunneling microscope operating in air|journal = Applied Physics Letters|date = 1990-05-14|issn = 0003-6951|pages = 2001–2003|volume = 56|issue = 20|doi = 10.1063/1.102999|first1 = J. A.|last1 = Dagata|first2 = J.|last2 = Schneir|first3 = H. H.|last3 = Harary|first4 = C. J.|last4 = Evans|first5 = M. T.|last5 = Postek|first6 = J.|last6 = Bennett|bibcode = 1990ApPhL..56.2001D |url = https://zenodo.org/record/1231820}}{{Cite journal|title = Nano-chemistry and scanning probe nanolithographies - Chemical Society Reviews (RSC Publishing)|url = http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=B501599P|journal = Chemical Society Reviews| date=16 December 2006 | volume=35 | issue=1 | pages=29–38 | doi=10.1039/B501599P |access-date = 2015-05-08 | last1=Garcia | first1=Ricardo | last2=Martinez | first2=Ramses V. | last3=Martinez | first3=Javier | pmid=16365640 | hdl=10261/18736 | hdl-access=free }}

Bias-induced scanning probe lithography (b-SPL) uses the high electrical fields created at the apex of a probe tip when voltages are applied between tip and sample to facilitate and confining a variety of chemical reactions to decompose gases{{Cite journal|title = Nanopatterning of carbonaceous structures by field-induced carbon dioxide splitting with a force microscope|journal = Applied Physics Letters|date = 2010-04-05|issn = 0003-6951|pages = 143110|volume = 96|issue = 14|doi = 10.1063/1.3374885|first1 = R.|last1 = Garcia|first2 = N. S.|last2 = Losilla|first3 = J.|last3 = Martínez|first4 = R. V.|last4 = Martinez|first5 = F. J.|last5 = Palomares|first6 = Y.|last6 = Huttel|first7 = M.|last7 = Calvaresi|first8 = F.|last8 = Zerbetto|bibcode = 2010ApPhL..96n3110G |hdl = 10261/25613|hdl-access = free}} or liquids{{Cite journal|title = Patterning Polymeric Structures with 2 nm Resolution at 3 nm Half Pitch in Ambient Conditions|journal = Nano Letters|date = July 1, 2007|issn = 1530-6984|pages = 1846–1850|volume = 7|issue = 7|doi = 10.1021/nl070328r|first1 = R. V.|last1 = Martínez|first2 = N. S.|last2 = Losilla|first3 = J.|last3 = Martinez|first4 = Y.|last4 = Huttel|first5 = R.|last5 = Garcia|bibcode = 2007NanoL...7.1846M|pmid=17352509}}{{cite journal | last1 = Suez | first1 = Itai | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = High-Field Scanning Probe Lithography in Hexadecane: Transitioning from Field Induced Oxidation to Solvent Decomposition through Surface Modification | journal = Advanced Materials | volume = 19 | issue = 21| pages = 3570–3573 | doi = 10.1002/adma.200700716 | bibcode = 2007AdM....19.3570S | s2cid = 55556149 }} in order to locally deposit and grow materials on surfaces.

In current induced scanning probe lithography (c-SPL) in addition to the high electrical fields of b-SPL, also a focused electron current which emanates from the SPM tip is used to create nanopatterns, e.g. in polymers{{Cite journal|title = Electrostatic nanolithography in polymers using atomic force microscopy|journal = Nature Materials|date = July 2003|issn = 1476-1122|pages = 468–472|volume = 2|issue = 7|doi = 10.1038/nmat926|pmid = 12819776|first1 = Sergei F.|last1 = Lyuksyutov|first2 = Richard A.|last2 = Vaia|first3 = Pavel B.|last3 = Paramonov|first4 = Shane|last4 = Juhl|first5 = Lynn|last5 = Waterhouse|first6 = Robert M.|last6 = Ralich|first7 = Grigori|last7 = Sigalov|first8 = Erol|last8 = Sancaktar|bibcode = 2003NatMa...2..468L |s2cid = 17619099}} and molecular glasses.{{Cite journal|title = Nanolithography by scanning probes on calixarene molecular glass resist using mix-and-match lithography|journal = Journal of Micro/Nanolithography, MEMS, and MOEMS |doi=10.1117/1.JMM.12.3.031111|volume=12|issue = 3 |pages=031111|bibcode=2013JMM&M..12c1111K|year = 2013|last1 = Kaestner|first1 = Marcus|last2 = Hofer |first2 = Manuel |last3 = Rangelow |first3 = Ivo W |s2cid = 122125593 |url = https://zenodo.org/record/3437544 }}

Various scanning probe techniques have been developed to write magnetization patterns into ferromagnetic structures which are often described as magnetic SPL techniques. Thermally-assisted magnetic scanning probe lithography (tam-SPL){{cite journal|last1=Albisetti|first1=E.|last2=Petti|first2=D.|last3=Pancaldi|first3=M.|last4=Madami|first4=M.|last5=Tacchi|first5=S.|last6=Curtis|first6=J.|last7=King|first7=W. P.|last8=Papp|first8=A.|last9=Csaba|first9=G.|last10=Porod|first10=W.|last11=Vavassori|first11=P.|last12=Riedo|first12=E.|last13=Bertacco|first13=R.|title=Nanopatterning reconfigurable magnetic landscapes via thermally assisted scanning probe lithography|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|volume=11|issue=6|pages=545–551|doi=10.1038/nnano.2016.25|pmid=26950242|language=En|issn=1748-3395|bibcode=2016NatNa..11..545A|year=2016|hdl=11311/1004182|url=https://re.public.polimi.it/bitstream/11311/1004182/1/post-print.pdf|hdl-access=free}} operates by employing a heatable scanning probe to locally heat and cool regions of an exchange-biased ferromagnetic layer in the presence of an external magnetic field. This causes a shift in the hysteresis loop of exposed regions, pinning the magnetization in a different orientation compared to unexposed regions. The pinned regions become stable even in the presence of external fields after cooling, allowing arbitrary nanopatterns to be written into the magnetization of the ferromagnetic layer.

In arrays of interacting ferromagnetic nano-islands such as artificial spin ice, scanning probe techniques have been used to write arbitrary magnetic patterns by locally reversing the magnetization of individual islands. Topological defect-driven magnetic writing (TMW){{cite journal|last1=Gartside|first1=J. C.|last2=Arroo|first2=D. M.|last3=Burn|first3=D. M.|last4=Bemmer|first4=V. L.|last5=Moskalenko|first5=A.|last6=Cohen|first6=L. F.|last7=Branford|first7=W. R.|title=Realization of ground state in artificial kagome spin ice via topological defect-driven magnetic writing|journal=Nature Nanotechnology|volume=13|issue=1|pages=53–58|date=2017|doi=10.1038/s41565-017-0002-1|pmid=29158603|language=en|arxiv=1704.07439|bibcode=2018NatNa..13...53G|s2cid=119338468}} uses the dipolar field of a magnetized scanning probe to induce topological defects in the magnetization field of individual ferromagnetic islands. These topological defects interact with the island edges and annihilate, leaving the magnetization reversed. Another way of writing such magnetic patterns is field-assisted magnetic force microscopy patterning,{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Yong-Lei|last2=Xiao|first2=Zhi-Li|last3=Snezhko|first3=Alexey|last4=Xu|first4=Jing|last5=Ocola|first5=Leonidas E.|last6=Divan|first6=Ralu|last7=Pearson|first7=John E.|last8=Crabtree|author-link8=George Crabtree|first8=George W.|last9=Kwok|first9=Wai-Kwong|title=Rewritable artificial magnetic charge ice|journal=Science|date=20 May 2016|volume=352|issue=6288|pages=962–966|doi=10.1126/science.aad8037|pmid=27199423|language=en|issn=0036-8075|arxiv=1605.06209|bibcode=2016Sci...352..962W|s2cid=28077289}} where an external magnetic field a little below the switching field of the nano-islands is applied and a magnetized scanning probe is used to locally raise the field strength above that required to reverse the magnetization of selected islands.

In magnetic systems where interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interactions stabilize magnetic textures known as magnetic skyrmions, scanning-probe magnetic nanolithography has been employed for the direct writing of skyrmions and skyrmion lattices.{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Senfu|last2=Zhang|first2=Junwei|last3=Zhang|first3=Qiang|last4=Barton|first4=Craig|last5=Neu|first5=Volker|last6=Zhao|first6=Yuelei|last7=Hou|first7=Zhipeng|last8=Wen|first8=Yan|last9=Gong|first9=Chen|last10=Kasakova|first10=Olga|last11=Wang|first11=Wenhong|last12=Peng|first12=Yong|last13=Garanin|first13=Dmitry A.|last14=Chudnovsky|first14=Eugene M.|last15=Zhang|first15=Xixiang|title=Direct writing of room temperature and zero field skyrmion lattices by a scanning local magnetic field|journal=Applied Physics Letters|volume=112|pages=132405|date=2018|issue=13|doi=10.1063/1.5021172|bibcode=2018ApPhL.112m2405Z|hdl=10754/627497|language=en|hdl-access=free}}{{cite journal|last1=Ognev|first1=A. V.|last2=Kolesnikov|first2=A. G.|last3=Kim|first3=Yong Jin|last4=Cha|first4=In Ho|last5=Sadnikov|first5=A. V.|last6=Nikitov|first6=S. A.|last7=Soldatov|first7=I. V.|last8=Talapatra|first8=A.|last9=Mohanty|first9=J.|last10=Mruczkiewicz|first10=M.|last11=Ge|first11=Y.|last12=Kerber|first12=N.|last13=Dittrich|first13=F.|last14=Virnau|first14=P.|last15=Kläui|first15=M.|last16=Kim|first16=Young Keun|last17=Samardak|first17=A. S.|title=Magnetic Direct-Write Skyrmion Nanolithography|journal=ACS Nano|volume=14|issue=11|pages=14960–14970|date=2020|doi=10.1021/acsnano.0c04748|pmid=33152236|s2cid=226270306 |url=http://raiith.iith.ac.in/11228/1/Magnetic_direct_write_skyrmion_nanolithography.pdf |language=en}}

Being a serial technology, SPL is inherently slower than e.g. photolithography or nanoimprint lithography, while parallelization as required for mass-fabrication is considered a large systems engineering effort (see also Millipede memory). As for resolution, SPL methods bypass the optical diffraction limit due to their use of scanning probes compared with photolithographic methods. Some probes have integrated in-situ metrology capabilities, allowing for feedback control during the write process.[https://register.epo.org/application?number=EP13184651&tab=main] Scanning probe nanolithography system and method (EP2848997 A1) SPL works under ambient atmospheric conditions, without the need for ultra high vacuum (UHV), unlike e-beam or EUV lithography.

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Category:Lithography (microfabrication)

Category:Nanotechnology

Category:Scanning probe microscopy