solar deity

File:Stèle Rocher des Doms.jpg culture, 5th-4th millennia BC]]

Predynasty Egyptian beliefs attribute Atum as the Sun god and Horus as a god of the sky and Sun. As the Old Kingdom theocracy gained influence, early beliefs were incorporated into the expanding popularity of Ra and the Osiris-Horus mythology. Atum became Ra-Atum, the rays of the setting Sun. Osiris became the divine heir to Atum's power on Earth and passed his divine authority to his son, Horus.{{cite book|title=Ancient Civilizations- Egypt- Land and lives of Pharaohs revealed|publisher=Global Book Publishing|isbn=1740480562|pages=79|date=30 October 2005}}{{better source needed|date=March 2025}} Other early Egyptian myths imply that the Sun is incorporated with the lioness Sekhmet at night and is reflected in her eyes; or that the Sun is found within the cow Hathor during the night and reborn each morning as her son (bull).{{Cite web|title=Ancient Egyptian Gods & Goddesses Facts For Kids|url=https://www.historyforkids.net/egyptian-gods.html|access-date=2021-01-20|website=History for kids|date=18 June 2019 |language=en-US}}{{better source needed|date=March 2025}}

Mesopotamian Shamash played an important role during the Bronze Age, and "my Sun" was eventually used to address royalty. Similarly, South American cultures have a tradition of Sun worship as with the Incan Inti.{{Cite web|last=Minster|first=Christopher|date=May 30, 2019|title=All About the Inca Sun God|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/inti-the-inca-sun-god-2136316|website=ThoughtCo.}}

In Germanic mythology, the solar deity is Sol; in Vedic, Surya; and in Greek, Helios (occasionally referred to as Titan) and (sometimes) as Apollo. In Proto-Indo-European mythology the sun appears to be a multilayered figure manifested as a deity but also perceived as the eye of the sky father Dyeus.{{cite journal |last1=Sick |first1=David |title=Mit(h)ra(s) and the Myths of the Sun |journal=Numen |date=2004 |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=432–467 |doi=10.1163/1568527042500140}}

{{See also|Solar myths}}

Three theories exercised great influence on nineteenth and early twentieth century mythography. The theories were the "solar mythology" of Alvin Boyd Kuhn and Max Müller, the tree worship of Mannhardt, and the totemism of J. F. McLennan.{{cite web |url=http://www.theatrehistory.com/origins/ridgeway003.html |title=Solar Myths, Tree Spirits, and Totems, The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races |first=William |last=Ridgeway |date=1915 |pages=11–19 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=19 March 2015}}

Müller's "solar mythology" was born from the study of Indo-European languages. Of them, Müller believed Archaic Sanskrit was the closest to the language spoken by the Aryans. Using the Sanskrit names for deities as a base, he applied Grimm's law to names for similar deities from different Indo-European groups to compare their etymological relationships to one another. In the comparison, Müller saw the similarities between the names and used these etymological similarities to explain the similarities between their roles as deities. Through the study, Müller concluded that the Sun having many different names led to the creation of multiple solar deities and their mythologies that were passed down from one group to another.{{cite journal |last1=Carrol |first1=Michael P. |title=Some third thoughts on Max Müller and solar mythology |journal=European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie / Europäisches Archiv für Soziologie |date=1985 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=263–281 |jstor=23997047 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23997047 |access-date=2 October 2021}}

R. F. Littledale criticized the Sun myth theory, pointing out that by his own principles, Max Müller was himself only a solar myth. Alfred Lyall delivered another attack on the same theory's assumption that tribal gods and heroes, such as those of Homer, were only reflections of the Sun myth by proving that the gods of certain Rajput clans were actual warriors who founded the clans a few centuries ago, and were the ancestors of the present chieftains.

File:Ra Barque.jpg in his barque]]

File:Nebra disc 1.jpg, Germany, {{circa|1800}}–1600 BC]]

The Sun was sometimes envisioned as traveling through the sky in a boat. A prominent example is the solar barque used by Ra in ancient Egyptian mythology.{{cite book |last1=Baines |first1=John R. |editor1-last=Johnston |editor1-first=Sarah Iles |title=Religions of the ancient world : a guide |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge, Massachusetts : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |page=600 |url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofancie0000unse_d0s1/page/n2/mode/2up?q=barque |access-date=3 October 2021 |chapter=Visual Representation|isbn=9780674015173 }} The Neolithic concept of a "solar barge" (also "solar bark", "solar barque", "solar boat" and "sun boat", a mythological representation of the Sun riding in a boat) is found in the later myths of ancient Egypt, with Ra and Horus. Several Egyptian kings were buried with ships that may have been intended to symbolize the solar barque,{{cite web |url= http://www.solarnavigator.net/egyptian_solar_boat.htm |title=Egypt solar boats |website=solarnavigator.net}} including the Khufu ship that was buried at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza.{{cite book |last1=Siliotti |first1=Alberto| first2=Zahi |last2=Hawass |year=1997 |title=Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt |pages=54–55}}

File:Heracles on the sea in the bowl of Helios.jpg in the golden cup-boat of the sun god Helios, 480 BC]]

Solar boats and similar vessels also appear in Indo-European mythologies, such as a 'hundred-oared ship' of Surya in the Rig Veda, the golden boat of Saulė in Baltic mythology, and the golden bowl of Helios in Greek mythology.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC |title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth |date=2007 |last=West |first=M.L. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199280759 |pages=208–209}}{{cite journal |last1=Massetti |first1=Laura |date=2019 |title=Antimachus's Enigma: On Erytheia, the Latvian Sun-goddess and a Red Fish |url=https://www.academia.edu/40428177 |journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |volume=47 |pages=223–240 |quote=synchronic analysis of Greek passages dealing with the journey of Helios reveals that the poetic image of the golden ‘cup, vessel’ hints at the solar boat.}} Numerous depictions of solar boats are known from the Bronze Age in Europe.{{cite book |title=The World of Stonehenge |date=June 2022 |pages=147–148 |publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=9780714123493 |last1=Garrow |first1=Duncan |last2=Wilkin |first2=Neil |oclc=1297081545}}{{cite book |title=Gold und Kult der Bronzezeit |publisher=Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg |year=2003 |isbn=3-926982-95-0}}{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/24174809 |journal=Hyperboreus |volume=18 |issue=1 |date=2012 |title=Scandinavian Background of Greek Mythic Cosmography: The Sun's Water Transport |last=Panchenko |first=Dmitri |pages=5–20}} Possible solar boat depictions have also been identified in Neolithic petroglyphs from the Megalithic culture in western Europe,{{cite thesis |last=McVeigh |first=Thor |date=2016 |title=Calendars, feasting, cosmology and identities: later Neolithic-early Bronze Age Ireland in European context |url=https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/handle/10379/6074 |type=PhD |chapter=5.4 Boats and the sun's daily journey |publisher=University of Galway |pages=168–174}} and in Mesolithic petroglyphs from northern Europe.{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/36843380 |title=

North Meets South: Theoretical Aspects on theNorthern and Southern Rock Art Traditions in Scandinavia |date=2017 |publisher=Oxbow Books |chapter=The Circumpolar Context of the ‘Sun Ship’ Motif in South Scandinavian Rock Art |last=Lahelma |first=Antti |pages=144–171 |isbn=978-1-78570-820-6}}

Examples of solar vessels include:

• Neolithic petroglyphs which are interpreted as depicting solar barges.
• The many early Egyptian goddesses that were seen as sun deities, and the later gods Ra and Horus were depicted as riding in a solar barge. In Egyptian myths of the afterlife, Ra rides in an underground channel from west to east every night so that he can rise in the east the next morning.
• The Nebra sky disk, {{circa|1800}}–1600 BC, associated with the Unetice culture, which is thought to show a depiction of a gold solar boat.{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/80363367|title=Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany|chapter=The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power|last=Meller|first=Harald|date=2021|publisher=Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale).|isbn=978-3-948618-22-3}}
• Gold lunulae associated with the Bell Beaker culture, {{circa|2400}}–2000 BC, thought to represent solar boats.{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/11627053|title='Here comes the sun....: solar symbolism in Early Bronze Age Ireland'|date=Spring 2015|journal=Archaeology Ireland |volume=29|issue=1|pages=26–33|last1=Cahill|first1=Mary}}
• Nordic Bronze Age petroglyphs, including those found in Tanumshede, often contain barges and sun crosses in different constellations. Solar boat imagery also appears on bronze razors from the period.
• Miniature gold boats from Nors in Denmark, dating from the Nordic Bronze Age.{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kx_lxoNwpBo|title=The World of the Nebra Sky Disc: The Nors Boats|last=Meller|first=Harald|website=Halle State Museum of Prehistory|date=2022}}
• The Caergwrle Bowl from Wales, dating from the British Bronze Age, {{circa|1300 BC}}.{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nzh0pnpZudw|title=The World of the Nebra Sky Disc: The Caergwrle Ship|last=Meller|first=Harald|website=Halle State Museum of Prehistory|date=2022}}
• Solar boat motifs depicted on bronze artefacts from the Urnfield culture and Lusatian culture, {{circa|1300}}–500 BC.
• Depictions of solar boats on Iron Age Celtic artefacts, such as the Petrie Crown from Ireland (1st century AD), and ornaments on the Vix grave wagon from France (500 BC).{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/27838177|title=Reflections on the Past. Essays in honour of Frances Lynch|chapter=Tal-y-Llyn and the nocturnal voyage of the sun|date=2012|last=Waddell|first=John|editor-last1=Britnell|editor-first1=W.J.|editor-last2=Silvester|editor-first2=R.J.|publisher=Cambrian Archaeological Association|isbn=9780947846084|pages=337–350}}{{cite book|url=https://www.sidestone.com/books/l-archeologie-et-la-mythologie-celtique|title=l'Archeologie et la Mythologie Celtique|last=Waddell|first=John|date=2022|publisher=Sidestone Press|isbn=9789464260595}}{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzAcx8kr6SM&t=2630s|last=Waddell|first=John|title=2014 Rhind Lecture 2: "The Otherworld Hall on the Boyne"|website=Society of Antiquaries of Scotland|date=2014}}

{{redirect-multi|4|Solar chariot|Sun chariot|Sun Chariot|Chariot of the Sun|the racehorse|Sun Chariot (horse)}}

File:Solvognen-00100.jpg, Denmark, {{circa|1500-1300 BC}}]]

The concept of the "solar chariot" is younger than that of the solar barge and is typically Indo-European, corresponding with the Indo-European expansion after the invention of the chariot in the 2nd millennium BC.{{cite journal |last1=Feldman |first1=Marian H. |last2=Sauvage |first2=Caroline |title=Objects of Prestige? Chariots in the Late Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean and Near East |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |date=2010 |volume=20 |pages=67–181 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23789937 |access-date=2 October 2021 |publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|doi=10.1553/AEundL20s67 |jstor=23789937 }} The reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European religion features a "solar chariot" or "sun chariot" with which the Sun traverses the sky.{{cite journal |last1=Kristiansen |first1=Kristian |year=2005 |title=The Nebra find and early Indo-European religion |journal=Congresses of the Halle State Museum for Prehistory |volume=5 |publisher=Halle State Museum of Prehistory |url=https://www.academia.edu/565963 |via=Academia.edu}}

File:The struggle of the nations - Egypt, Syria, and Assyria (1896) (14774936871).jpg, {{circa|1550 BC}}.{{cite web |url=https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-1d719880b541134441d428b23398713e |title=Photo of queen Ahhotep's gold boat model}}]]

Chariots were introduced to Egypt in the Hyksos period, and were seen as solar vehicles associated with the sun god in the subsequent New Kingdom period.{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/5630117 |title=Chasing Chariots. Proceedings of the First International Chariot Conference |date=2012 |publisher=Sidestone Press |chapter=Vehicle of the Sun: The Royal Chariot in the New Kingdom |last=Calvert |first=Amy |pages=45–71}} A gold solar boat model from the tomb of Queen Ahhotep, dating from the beginning of the New Kingdom ({{circa|1550 BC}}), was mounted on four-spoked chariot wheels.{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/4635066 |journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections |volume=2 |issue=3 |date=2010 |title=Ahhotep's Silver Ship Model: The Minoan Context |last=Wachsmann |first=Shelley |pages=31–41|doi=10.2458/azu_jaei_v02i3_wachsmann |doi-access=free }} Similarities have been noted with the Trundholm Sun Chariot from Denmark, dating from {{circa|1500}}–1400 BC, which was also mounted on four-spoked wheels.

Examples of solar chariots include:

• In Norse mythology, the chariot of the goddess Sól, drawn by Árvakr and Alsviðr (‘early awake’ and ‘all-swift’). The Trundholm sun chariot dates to the Nordic Bronze Age, about 2,500 years earlier than written attestations of the Norse myth, but is often associated with it.
• Greek Helios (or Apollo) riding in a chariot.{{cite web |url=http://www.theoi.com/Titan/Helios.html |title=Helios |website= Theoi.com |access-date=22 September 2010}} (See also Phaëton){{cite web |url=http://thanasis.com/helios.htm |title=Helios & Phaethon | website= Thanasis.com |access-date=18 September 2010}}
• Sol Invictus depicted riding a quadriga on the reverse of a Roman coin.Image of Probus Coin
• Hindu Surya riding in a chariot drawn by seven horses.

In Chinese culture, the sun chariot is associated with the passage of time. For instance, in the poem Suffering from the Shortness of Days, Li He of the Tang dynasty is hostile towards the legendary dragons that drew the sun chariot as a vehicle for the continuous progress of time. The following is an excerpt from the poem:

{{poem quote|

I will cut off the dragon's feet, chew the dragon's flesh,

so that they can't turn back in the morning or lie down at night.

Left to themselves the old won't die; the young won't cry.{{cite book |last1=Bien |first1=Gloria |title=Baudelaire in China a Study in Literary Reception |date=2012 |publisher=University of Delaware |location=Lanham |isbn=9781611493900 |page=20}}

}}

File:Origin of the Cave Door Dance (Amaterasu) by Shunsai Toshimasa 1889.jpg]]

Solar deities are often thought of as male (and lunar deities as being female) but the opposite has also been the case.{{sfn|Monaghan|2010|pp=xix-xxi}} In Germanic mythology, the Sun is female, and the Moon is male. Other European cultures that have sun goddesses include the Lithuanians (Saulė) and Latvians (Saule), the Finns (Päivätär, Beiwe) and the related Hungarians. Sun goddesses are found around the world in Australia (Bila, Wala); in Indian tribal religions (Bisal-Mariamma, Bomong, 'Ka Sgni) and Sri Lanka (Pattini); among the Hittites (Wurusemu), Berbers (Tafukt), Egyptians (Hathor, Sekhmet), and Canaanites (Shapash); in the Canary Islands (Chaxiraxi, Magec); in Native America, among the Cherokee (Unelanuhi), Natchez (Oüa Chill/Uwahci∙ł), Inuit (Siqiniq), and Miwok (He'-koo-lās); and in Asia among the Japanese (Amaterasu).{{sfn|Monaghan|2010|pp=xix-xxi}}

The cobra (of Pharaoh, son of Ra), the lioness (daughter of Ra), and the cow (daughter of Ra), are the dominant symbols of the most ancient Egyptian deities. They were female and carried their relationship to the sun atop their heads, and their cults remained active throughout the history of the culture. Later another sun god (Aten) was established in the eighteenth dynasty on top of the other solar deities, before the "aberration" was stamped out and the old pantheon re-established. When male deities became associated with the sun in that culture, they began as the offspring of a mother (except Ra, King of the Gods who gave birth to himself).{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

Sun worship was prevalent in ancient Egyptian religion. The earliest deities associated with the Sun are all goddesses: Wadjet, Sekhmet, Hathor, Nut, Bast, Bat, and Menhit. First Hathor, and then Isis, give birth to and nurse Horus and Ra, respectively. Hathor the horned-cow is one of the 12 daughters of Ra, gifted with joy and is a wet-nurse to Horus.{{Cite web|last=Kamrin|first=Janice|date=March 2015|title=Papyrus in Ancient Egypt|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/papy/hd_papy.htm|website=The Metropolitan Museum}}

File:Ra_Enthroned_in_the_Tomb_of_Roy.jpg

From at least the 4th Dynasty of ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshiped as the deity Ra (meaning simply {{'}}the sun{{'}}), and portrayed as a falcon-headed god surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. Re supposedly gave warmth to the living body, symbolized as an ankh: a "☥" shaped amulet with a looped upper half. The ankh, it was believed, was surrendered with death, but could be preserved in the corpse with appropriate mummification and funerary rites. The supremacy of Re in the Egyptian pantheon was at its highest with the Fifth Dynasty, when open-air solar temples became common.

In the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, Ra lost some of his preeminence to Osiris, lord of the west, and judge of the dead. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle, whose spherical ball of dung was identified with the Sun. In the form of the sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the pharaoh, Akhenaten.{{cite book|last1=Teeter|first1=Emily|title=Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780521848558}}{{cite book|last1=Frankfort|first1=Henri|title=Ancient Egyptian Religion: an Interpretation|date=2011|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0486411385}}

The Sun's movement across the sky represents a struggle between the pharaoh's soul and an avatar of Osiris. Ra travels across the sky in his solar-boat; at dawn he drives away the god of chaos, Apep.{{cite book |last1=Assman |first1=Jan |editor1-last=Johnston |editor1-first=Sarah Iles |title=Religions of the ancient world : a guide |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge, Massachusetts : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |page=18 |url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofancie0000unse_d0s1/page/n5/mode/2up?q=sun-god+travels |access-date=3 October 2021 |chapter=Monotheism and Polytheism|isbn=9780674015173 }}{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=John J. |editor1-last=Johnston |editor1-first=Sarah Iles |title=Religions of the ancient world : a guide |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge, Massachusetts : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |page=61 |url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofancie0000unse_d0s1/page/n5/mode/2up?q=sun-god+travels |access-date=3 October 2021 |chapter=Cosmology: Time and History|isbn=9780674015173 }} The "solarisation" of several local gods (Hnum-Re, Min-Re, Amon-Re) reached its peak in the period of the Fifth Dynasty.{{Citation |last=Kockel |first=Ullrich |title=Fifth Journey — Towards Castalia: To Re-Place Europe |date=2010 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230282988_6 |work=Re-Visioning Europe |pages=155–188 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |doi=10.1057/9780230282988_6 |isbn=978-1-349-52060-2 |access-date=2022-10-17}}

{{Hiero|Akhet (horizon)|N27|align=right|era=egypt}}

File:Aker.svg guarding the horizon]]

Rituals to the god Amun, who became identified with the sun god Ra, were often carried out on the top of temple pylons. A pylon mirrored the hieroglyph for 'horizon' or akhet, which was a depiction of two hills "between which the sun rose and set",Wilkinson, op. cit., p.195 associated with recreation and rebirth. On the first pylon of the temple of Isis at Philae, the pharaoh is shown slaying his enemies in the presence of Isis, Horus, and Hathor.{{Cite web|title=Temple of Isis at Philae {{!}} Ancient Egypt Online|url=https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/isisphilae/|access-date=2021-06-05|language=en-GB}}

In the Eighteenth Dynasty, the earliest-known monotheistic head of state, Akhenaten, changed the polytheistic religion of Egypt to a monotheistic one, Atenism. All other deities were replaced by the Aten, including Amun-Ra, the reigning sun god of Akhenaten's own region. Unlike other deities, Aten did not have multiple forms. His only image was a disk—a symbol of the Sun.{{Cite web|title=Amarna Period of Egypt|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Amarna_Period_of_Egypt/|access-date=2021-06-05|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}

Soon after Akhenaten's death, worship of the traditional deities was reestablished by the religious leaders (Ay the High-Priest of Amen-Ra, mentor of Tutankhaten/Tutankhamen) who had adopted the Aten during the reign of Akhenaten.{{Cite book|last=Silverman|first=David|title=Ancient Egypt|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-521952-4|location=New York, NY|pages=128–9}}

File:Kongo Cosmogram 3.png]]

In Kongo religion, Nzambi Mpungu is the Sky Father and god of the Sun, while that his female counterpart, Nzambici, is Sky Mother and the god of the Moon and Earth.{{cite book | last1=Asante | first1=Molefi Kete | last2=Mazama | first2=Ama | title=Encyclopedia of African Religion | publisher=SAGE | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-4129-3636-1 | pages = 120–124, 165–166, 361}} The Sun is very significant to Bakongo people, who believe that the position of the sun marks the different seasons of a Kongo person's life as they transition between the four moments of life: conception (musoni), birth (kala), maturity (tukula), and death (luvemba). The Kongo cosmogram, a sacred symbol in Bakongo culture, depicts these moments of the sun.{{cite journal | last=Luyaluka | first=Kiatezua Lubanzadio | title=The Spiral as the Basic Semiotic of the Kongo Religion, the Bukongo | journal=Journal of Black Studies | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=48 | issue=1 | date=2016-11-21 | issn=0021-9347 | doi=10.1177/0021934716678984 | pages=91–112 | jstor = 26174215 | s2cid = 152037988| doi-access=free }}

Kalenjin mythology was based upon the belief in a supreme god, Asis or Cheptalel, represented in the form of the sun (asista), although the sun itself was not considered to be God. He lives in the sky and is supreme, omnipotent, and the guarantor of right.Kipkorir B.E, The Marakwet of Kenya: A preliminary study. East Africa Literature Bureau, 1973, p. 8-9. Among the Northern sections of the Kalenjin he is also commonly referred to as Tororut.Robins, P, Red Spotted Ox: A Pokot Life. IWGIA, 2010, p. 14. Beneath Asis is Elat, who controls thunder and lightning.

{{main|Dielli (Albanian paganism)}}

File:Albanian tattoo patterns – Sun and Fire symbols.png) and Fire (Zjarri) symbols in Albanian traditional tattoo patterns (19th century).{{sfn|Murray-Aynsley|1891|pp=29, 31}} The cross (also swastika in some tattoos) is the Albanian traditional way to represent the deified Fire – Zjarri, evidently also called with the theonym Enji.{{harvnb|Treimer|1971|p=32}}; {{harvnb|Murray-Aynsley|1891|pp=29, 31}}.]]

File:Albanian traditional carving patterns.png before 1928. They are representations of the Sun (Dielli) and the Moon (Hana), sometimes also rayed, symbolizing their light, which is favored within the dualistic struggle between light and darkness.]]

The Sun ({{langx|sq|Diell-i}}) holds the primary role in Albanian pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths, and legends. Albanian major traditional festivities and calendar rites are based on the Sun, worshiped as the god of light, sky and weather, giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye.{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68, 70–72, 249–254}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|p=181}}; {{harvnb|Hysi|2006|pp=349–361}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=85–86}}. In Albanian tradition the fire – zjarri, evidently also called with the theonym Enji – worship and rituals are particularly related to the cult of the Sun. Ritual calendar fires or bonfires are traditionally kindled before sunrise in order to give strength to the Sun and to ward off evil.{{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327}}. Many rituals are practiced before and during sunrise, honoring this moment of the day as it is believed to give energy and health to the body.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|pp=86–87}} As the wide set of cultic traditions dedicated to him indicates, the Albanian Sun-god appears to be an expression of the Proto-Indo-European Sky-god (Zot or Zojz in Albanian).{{sfn|Treimer|1971|p=31}}

Albanians were firstly described in written sources as worshippers of the Sun and the Moon by German humanist Sebastian Franck in 1534,{{cite web|editor-last=Elsie|editor-first=Robert|title=1534. Sebastian Franck: Albania: A Mighty Province of Europe|url=http://www.albanianhistory.net/1534_Franck/|website=Texts and Documents of Albanian History }} but the Sun and the Moon have been preserved as sacred elements of Albanian tradition since antiquity. Illyrian material culture shows that the Sun was the chief cult object of the Illyrian religion.{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|p=156}}; {{harvnb|Dobruna-Salihu|2005|pp=345–346}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–70}}; {{harvnb|Egro|2003|p=35}}; {{harvnb|Stipčević|1974|p=182}}. Finding correspondences with Albanian folk beliefs and practices, the Illyrian Sun-deity is figuratively represented on Iron Age plaques from Lake Shkodra as the god of the sky and lightning, also associated with the fire altar where he throws lightning bolts.{{sfn|Brahaj|2007|pp=16–18}} The symbolization of the cult of the Sun, which is often combined with the crescent Moon, is commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, including traditional tattooing, grave art, jewellery, embroidery, and house carvings.{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|pp=155–157}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–82}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001|pp=181, 244}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928a|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=120–125}}. Solemn oaths (Besa), good omens, and curse formulas, involve and are addressed to, or taken by, the Sun.{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001|pp=193, 244}}; {{harvnb|Cook|1964|p=197}}. Prayers to the Sun, ritual bonfires, and animal sacrifices have been common practices performed by Albanians during the ritual pilgrimages on mountain tops.{{harvnb|Tirta|2004|p=75}}; {{harvnb|Gjoni|2012|pp=81–87}}; {{harvnb|Xhemaj|1983|pp=104–121}}.

In Albanian pagan beliefs and mythology the Sun is a personified male deity, and the Moon ({{lang|sq|Hëna}}) is his female counterpart.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 128}}{{sfn|Dushi|2020|p=21}} In pagan beliefs the fire hearth ({{lang|sq|vatra e zjarrit}}) is the symbol of fire as the offspring of the Sun.{{sfn|Gjoni|2012|p=90}} In some folk tales, myths and legends the Sun and the Moon are regarded as husband and wife, also appearing as the parents of E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit ("the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun"); in others the Sun and the Moon are regarded as brother and sister, but in this case they are never considered consorts.{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 128}}{{sfn|Dushi|2020|p=21}} Nëna e Diellit ("the Mother of the Sun" or "the Sun's Mother") also appears as a personified deity in Albanian folk beliefs and tales.{{harvnb|Golan|1991|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Daum|1998|p=236}}; {{harvnb|Golan|2003|pp=93–94}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=259–260}}; {{harvnb|Neziri|2015|p=124}}.

Albanian beliefs, myths and legends are organized around the dualistic struggle between good and evil, light and darkness, which cyclically produces the cosmic renewal.{{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Doja|2005|pp=449–462}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=179}} The most famous representation of it is the constant battle between drangue and kulshedra, which is seen as a mythological extension of the cult of the Sun and the Moon, widely observed in Albanian traditional art.{{harvnb|Galaty|Lafe|Lee|Tafilica|2013|pp=155–157}}; {{harvnb|Lelaj|2015|pp=91–118}}; {{harvnb|Tirta|2004|pp=68–82}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001|pp=181, 244}}; {{harvnb|Poghirc|1987|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928a|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Durham|1928b|pp=120–125}}. In Albanian traditions, kulshedra is also fought by the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun, who uses her light power against pride and evil,{{sfn|Shuteriqi|1959|p=66}} or by other heroic characters marked in their bodies by the symbols of celestial objects,{{sfn|Tirta|2004|pp=72, 127–128}} such as Zjermi ({{lit|the Fire}}), who notably is born with the Sun on his forehead.{{sfn|Schirò|1923|pp=411–439}}

In Armenian mythology and in the vicinity of Carahunge, the ancient site of interest in the field of archaeoastronomy, people worshiped a powerful deity or intelligence called Ara, embodied as the sun (Ar{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w36gAAAAMAAJ&q=god|title=Armenians and old Armenia: archaeoastronomy, linguistics, oldest history|last=Herouni|first=Paris M.|date=2004|publisher=Tigran Metz Publishing House|language=en|page=127|isbn=9789994101016}} or Arev). The ancient Armenians called themselves "children of the sun".{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSRKAQAAMAAJ&q=children+of+the+sun&pg=RA2-PA56|title=Armenian Legends and Festivals|last=Boettiger|first=Louis Angelo|date=1918|publisher=University of Minnesota|language=en}} (Russian and Armenian archaeoastronomers have suggested that at Carahunge seventeen of the stones still standing were associated with observations of sunrise or sunset at the solstices and equinoxes.{{Citation | first = A. César | last = González-Garcia | chapter = Carahunge - A Critical Assessment | date = 2015 | editor-last = Ruggles | editor-first = Clive L. N. | editor-link = Clive Ruggles | title = Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy | pages = 1453–1460 | place = New York | publisher = Springer Science+Business Media | doi = 10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_140 | isbn = 978-1-4614-6140-1}})

Those who practice Dievturība, beliefs of traditional Latvian culture, worship the Sun goddess Saule, known in traditional Lithuanian beliefs as Saulė. Saule is among the most important deities in Baltic mythology and traditions.{{cite web|title=Saule (Baltic deity)|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saule|author=((Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica))|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=29 July 2020}}

The sun in Insular Celtic culture is assumed to have been feminine,{{cite book |last=Monaghan |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Monaghan |year=2014 |title=The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-1438110370 |page=433}}Koch, John T., Celtic Culture: Aberdeen breviary-celticism, page 1636. and several goddesses have been proposed as possibly solar in character."(...) the Celtic Sun-deities, however, were often (perhaps originally) feminine". Jones, Prudence; Pennick, Nigel (1995). A History of Pagan Europe. Routledge. p. 88. {{ISBN|978-1-136-14172-0}}. In Continental Celtic culture, the sun gods, like Belenus, Grannus, and Lugus, were masculine.{{Cite book|title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise : une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental|last=X.|first=Delamarre|date=2003|publisher=Errance|isbn=9782877723695|edition=2e éd. rev. et augm|location=Paris|pages=72 & 183 & 211|oclc=354152038}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyWvBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31|title=The Celtic and Scandinavian Religions|last=MacCulloch|first=J. A.|date=1 August 2005|publisher=Chicago Review Press|isbn=9781613732298|pages=31|language=en}}

In Irish, the name of the Sun, Grian, is feminine. The figure known as Áine is generally assumed to have been either synonymous with her, or her sister, assuming the role of Summer Sun while Grian was the Winter Sun.{{sfn|MacKillop|1998|pp=10, 70, 92}} Similarly, Étaín has at times been considered to be another theonym associated with the Sun; if this is the case, then the pan-Celtic Epona might also have been originally solar in nature.{{sfn|MacKillop|1998|pp=10, 70, 92}}

The British Sulis has a name cognate with that of other Indo-European solar deities such as the Greek Helios and Indic Surya,Delamarre, Xavier, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Errance, 2003, p. 287Zair, Nicholas, Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic, Brill, 2012, p. 120 and bears some solar traits like the association with the eye as well as epithets associated with light. The theonym Sulevia, which is more widespread and probably unrelated to Sulis,Nicole Jufer & Thierry Luginbühl (2001). Les dieux gaulois : répertoire des noms de divinités celtiques connus par l'épigraphie, les textes antiques et la toponymie. Editions Errance, Paris. pp. 15, 64. is sometimes taken to have suggested a pan-Celtic role as a solar goddess.

The Welsh Olwen has at times been considered a vestige of the local sun goddess, in part due to the possible etymological associationSimon Andrew Stirling, The Grail: Relic of an Ancient Religion, 2015 with the wheel and the colors gold, white and red.

Brighid has at times been argued as having had a solar nature, fitting her role as a goddess of fire and light.

File:转动的太阳神鸟金饰 Spinning Golden Sun Bird.gif by ancient Shu people. The center is a sun pattern with twelve points around which four birds fly in the same counterclockwise direction, Shang dynasty]]

File:Xi He.JPG charioteering the sun, being pulled by a dragon, in Hangzhou]]

In Chinese mythology (cosmology), there were originally ten suns in the sky, who were all brothers. They were supposed to emerge one at a time as commanded by the Jade Emperor. They were all very young and loved to fool around. Once they decided to all go into the sky to play, all at once. This made the world too hot for anything to grow. A hero named Hou Yi, honored to this day, shot down nine of them with a bow and arrow to save the people of the Earth.{{cite web|title=Hou Yi|url=https://mythopedia.com/chinese-mythology/gods/hou-yi/|last=Hamilton|first=Mae|website=Mythopedia|access-date=29 July 2020}}

In another myth, a solar eclipse was said to be caused by a magical dog or dragon biting off a piece of the Sun. The referenced event is said to have occurred around 2136 BC; two royal astronomers, Ho and Hi, were executed for failing to predict the eclipse. There was a tradition in China to make lots of loud celebratory sounds during a solar eclipse to scare the sacred beast away.{{cite web|title=How 5 Ancient Cultures Explaiined Solar Eclipses|url=https://www.history.com/news/how-5-ancient-cultures-explained-solar-eclipses|last=Waldek|first=Stefanie|website=History.com|access-date=29 July 2020|date=30 August 2018}}

The Deity of the Sun in Chinese mythology is Ri Gong Tai Yang Xing Jun (Tai Yang Gong/Grandfather Sun) or Star Lord of the Solar Palace, Lord of the Sun. In some mythologies, Tai Yang Xing Jun is believed to be Hou Yi.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

Tai Yang Xing Jun is usually depicted with the Star Lord of the Lunar Palace, Lord of the Moon, Yue Gong Tai Yin Xing Jun (Tai Yin Niang Niang/Lady Tai Yin). Worship of the moon goddess Chang'e and her festivals are very popular among followers of Chinese folk religion and Taoism. The goddess and her holy days are ingrained in Chinese popular culture.{{cite web|title=Chang'e|last=Hamilton|first=Mae|url=https://mythopedia.com/chinese-mythology/gods/chang-e/|website=Mythopedia|access-date=29 July 2020}}

In Germanic mythology the Sun is personified as a woman, Old Norse Sól, Old High German Sunna. In the Norse tradition, the Sun is driven through the sky on a chariot pulled by two horses named Árvakr and Alsviðr (“Early-awake” and “All-swift”. {{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

First century historian Tacitus, in his book Germania, mentioned that "beyond the Suiones [tribe]" a sea was located where the sun maintained its brilliance from its rising to its sunset, and that "[the] popular belief" was that "the sound of its emergence was audible" and "the form of its horses visible".{{cite web |url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/tacitus-germania/1914/pb_LCL035.207.xml |title=TACITUS, Germania LCL 35: 206-20 |website=www.loebclassics.com}}{{cite journal |last1=Beare |first1=W. |title=Tacitus on the Germans |journal=Greece & Rome |date=1964 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=64–76 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500012675 |jstor=642633 |s2cid=163536034 |issn=0017-3835}}{{cite journal |last1=O'Gorman |first1=Ellen |title=No Place Like Rome: Identity and Difference in the Germania of Tacitus |journal=Ramus |date=1993 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=135–154 |doi=10.1017/S0048671X00002484|s2cid=131482053 }}

In Norway, Sun worship was common until the last century, usually as a simple ritual of leaving butter in a saucer on a windowsill, so the Sun can melt it, when its light comes into the window. Alternatively, the glass on the window itself could be smeared by butter, or the butter could be put on the roof or wall. Similar rituals are attested among the Sami people. Usually, the ritual was connected to the day, when the sun shows up from horizon or mountain (or in the eastern window of the main house of the farm) after the period of polar night, when there is no sun at all, or the sun is so low, that it is hidden behind mountains. Because of these reasons, the date of the ritual varied from farm to farm, or wasn’t practiced at all (e.g. in Oslo area, which is flat and has no real polar night).{{sfn|Rise|1947}}{{sfn|Havdal|1968}}{{sfn|Skar|1916}}{{sfn|Matlaus|Olrik|1905}}

A ritual of greating the first sun after the polar night while standing on top of a mountain is mentioned by Procopius in his description of the Northerners, but is also attested in modern time in area of Glomfjord, and a similar one in southern Vest-Agder. Another ritual is known from southern Vest-Agder, when small round stones are supposed to be taken up to a mountain top and put in a heap as an offering to the Spring Sun. The stone offering heaps itself are very common in Scandinavia, but only in Vest-Agder they are connected to the Sun worship.{{sfn|Matlaus|Olrik|1905}}

Among famous people, who were practicing the butter-in-saucer ritual were poets Ivar Mortensson-Egnund and Astrid Krog Halse.{{sfn|Havdal|1968}}{{sfn|Matlaus|Olrik|1905}}

{{main|Helios|Sol (Roman mythology)}}

In Greek mythology, Helios, a Titan, was the personification of the Sun; however, with the notable exception of the island of Rhodes and nearby parts of southwestern Anatolia,{{efn|see Colossus of Rhodes.}} he was a relatively minor deity. The Ancient Greeks also associated the Sun with Apollo, the god of enlightenment. Apollo (along with Helios) was sometimes depicted as driving a fiery chariot.{{cite web |first=N.S. |last=Gill |date=3 December 2019 |title=Everything you need to know about Apollo |website=Thought Co |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/apollo-greek-god-sun-music-prophecy-111902 |access-date=2021-06-29 |language=en}}

The Greek astronomer Thales of Miletus described the scientific properties of the Sun and Moon, making their godship unnecessary.{{sfn|Smith|1952|p=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/143 143]}} Anaxagoras was arrested in 434 BC and banished from Athens for denying the existence of a solar or lunar deity.{{sfn|Smith|1952|p=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/145 145]}} The titular character of Sophocles' Electra refers to the Sun as "All-seeing". Hermetic author Hermes Trismegistus calls the Sun "God Visible".

The Minotaur has been interpreted as a solar deity (as Moloch or Chronos),{{sfn|Smith|1952|p=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/137 137]}} including by Arthur Bernard Cook, who considers both Minos and Minotaur as aspects of the sun god of the Cretans, who depicted the sun as a bull.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

During the Roman Empire, a festival of the birth of the Unconquered Sun (or Dies Natalis Solis Invicti) was celebrated on the winter solstice—the "rebirth" of the Sun—which occurred on 25 December of the Julian calendar. In late antiquity, the theological centrality of the Sun in some Imperial religious systems suggests a form of a "solar monotheism". The religious commemorations on 25 December were replaced under Christian domination of the Empire with the birthday of Christ."Sun worship." Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009

Much more ancient was the cult of Sol Indiges, supposed to have been introduced among Roman deities by the Sabines at the times of Titus Tatius.

Copernicus describing the Sun mythologically, drawing from Greco-Roman examples:

{{blockquote|In the middle of all sits the Sun on his throne. In this loveliest of temples, could we place the luminary in any more appropriate place so that he may light the whole simultaneously. Rightly is he called the Lamp, the Mind, the Ruler of the Universe: Hermes Trismegistus entitles him the God Visible. Sophocles' Electra names him the All-seeing. Thus does the Sun sit as upon a royal dais ruling his children the planets which circle about him.{{cite book |last=Gillispie |first=Charles Coulston |author-link=Charles Coulston Gillispie |title=The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas |year=1960 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-02350-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char |url-access=limited |page=[https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char/page/26 26]}}}}

The concept of the sun in Pre-Islamic Arabia, was abolished only under Muhammad."The Sun and the Moon are from among the evidences of God. They do not eclipse because of someone's death or life." Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi, The Life of Muhammad, American Trush Publications, 1976, {{ISBN|0-89259-002-5}} [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/campaign_of_tabuk_and_death_of_ibrahim.htm] The Arabian solar deity appears to have been a goddess, Shams/Shamsun, most likely related to the Canaanite Shapash and broader middle-eastern Shamash. She was the patron goddess of Himyar, and possibly exalted by the Sabaeans .Yoel Natan, Moon-o-theism, Volume I of II, 2006{{Unreliable source?|date=September 2021}}Julian Baldick (1998). Black God. Syracuse University Press. p. 20. {{ISBN|0815605226}}.Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, 1999 – 1181 páginas

In Yazidism, the angel Şêşims is venerated as the Xudan or Lord of sun and light. He is also linked with fire, which is his terrestrial counterpart, and oaths, which are sworn by the doorway of his shrine. Annually, during the Feast of the Assembly, a ceremonial bull sacrifice is performed in front of his shrine at Lalish.{{Cite report |last1=Fobbe, Sean |last2=Navrouzov, Natia |last3=Hopper, Kristen |last4=Khudida Burjus, Ahmed |last5=Philip, Graham |last6=Nawaf, Maher G |last7=Lawrence, Daniel |last8=Walasek, Helen |last9=Birjandian, Sara |last10=Ali, Majid Hassan |last11=Rashidani, Salim |date=2019-08-02 |title=Destroying the Soul of the Yazidis: Cultural Heritage Destruction during the Islamic State's Genocide against the Yazidis |url=https://zenodo.org/record/3826126 |journal= |language=en |pages=55–109 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.3826126}}{{Cite book |last=Murad |first=Jasim Elias |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WdTxtgAACAAJ |title=The Sacred Poems of the Yazidis: An Anthropological Approach |date=1993 |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |pages=313–326 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Kreyenbroek |first=Philip G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTQqAQAAMAAJ |title=Yezidism--its Background, Observances, and Textual Tradition |date=1995 |publisher=E. Mellen Press |isbn=978-0-7734-9004-8 |pages=92–124, 127 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Aysif |first=Rezan Shivan |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1295094056 |title=The role of nature in Yezidism poetic texts and living tradition |date=2021 |others=Georg-August-Universität Göttingen |isbn=978-3-86395-514-4 |location=Göttingen |pages=49, 95, 107, 150 |oclc=1295094056}} Yazidi religious texts refer to the light of the sun as a manifestation of God's light, therefore, Yazidis direct their faces in the sun's direction while praying. There are daily Yazidi prayers that are recited during the daytime, divided into three main phases of the day, the morning prayers include "Dua Şifaqê" (the dawn prayer), "Dua Sibê" (the morning prayer), "Duaya Rojhelatî" (the sunrise prayer). For the noon there is "Dua Nîvro" (the noon prayer) and at evening there is the "Duaya Hêvarî" (the evening prayer).

File:Huitzilopochtli_1.jpg, the Aztec god of the sun and war.]]

In Aztec mythology, Tonatiuh ({{langx|nah|Ollin Tonatiuh}}, "Movement of the Sun") was the sun god. The Aztec people considered him the leader of Tollan (heaven). He was also known as the fifth sun, because the Aztecs believed that he was the sun that took over when the fourth sun was expelled from the sky. According to their cosmology, each sun was a god with its own cosmic era. According to the Aztecs, they were still in Tonatiuh's era. According to the Aztec creation myth, the god demanded human sacrifice as tribute and without it would refuse to move through the sky. The Aztecs were fascinated by the Sun and carefully observed it, and had a solar calendar similar to that of the Maya. Many of today's remaining Aztec monuments have structures aligned with the Sun.{{cite book|title=Diccionario de Mitología Nahua|editor=Biblioteca Porrúa. Imprenta del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnología|language=es|year=1905|location=México|pages=648, 649, 650|isbn=978-9684327955}}

In the Aztec calendar, Tonatiuh is the lord of the thirteen days from 1 Death to 13 Flint. The preceding thirteen days are ruled over by Chalchiuhtlicue, and the following thirteen by Tlaloc.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

File:Pachacuteckoricancha.jpg worshiping Inti in the temple Coricancha, drawing by Martín de Murúa of 1613.]]

Inti is the ancient Incan sun god. He is revered as the national patron of the Inca state. Although most consider Inti the sun god, he is more appropriately viewed as a cluster of solar aspects, since the Inca divided his identity according to the stages of the sun.{{Cite journal |last1=Murra |first1=John V. |last2=Conrad |first2=Geoffrey W. |last3=Demarest |first3=Arthur A. |date=1985–2009 |title=Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2802453 |journal=Man |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=553 |doi=10.2307/2802453 |jstor=2802453 |issn=0025-1496}} Inti is represented as a golden disk with rays and a human face.

The Inca dedicated many ceremonies to the Sun in order to ensure the Sapa Inca's welfare.{{sfn|D'Altroy|2003|p=148}} The Incas would set aside large quantities of natural and human resources throughout the empire for Inti. Each conquered province was supposed to dedicate a third of their lands and herds to Inti as mandated by the Inca. Each major province would also have a Sun Temple in which male and female priests would serve.{{sfn|D'Altroy|2003|p=148}}

The comparison of Christ with the astronomical Sun is common in ancient Christian writings.Hartmut Miethe, Hilde Heyduck-Huth, Jesus (Taylor & Francis), p. 104 By "the sun of righteousness" in Malachi 4{{Bibleverse||Malachi|4:2|ESV}} "the fathers, from Justin downward, and nearly all the earlier commentators understand Christ, who is supposed to be described as the rising sun".Carl Friedrich Keil, Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament (Eerdmans 1969), vol. 25, p. 468; The New Testament itself contains a hymn fragment in Ephesians 5: "Awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead, and Christ will shine on you."{{Bibleverse||Ephesians|5:14|ESV}} Clement of Alexandria wrote of "the Sun of the Resurrection, he who was born before the dawn, whose beams give light".Clement of Alexandria, Protreptius 9:84, quoted in David R. Cartlidge, James Keith Elliott, The Art of Christian Legend (Routledge 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-41523392-7}}), p. 64

Image:Horus Jesus.png left and Jesus right, both presented as "solar messiahs" in Zeitgeist: the Movie]]

The pseudodocumentary Zeitgeist: The Movie (2007) asserts that Judas Iscariot is an allegory of Scorpio (with Jesus being a personification of the sun passing through the twelve constellations).{{cite journal |last=McKnight |first=Scot |authorlink=Scot McKnight |title=Jesus and the Twelve |journal=Bulletin for Biblical Research |volume=11 |number=2 |year=2001 |pages=203–231 |doi=10.2307/26422271 |jstor=26422271 |url=http://www.ibr-bbr.org/files/bbr/BBR_2001b_04_McKnight_JesusTwelve.pdf |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-date=18 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318111227/https://www.ibr-bbr.org/files/bbr/BBR_2001b_04_McKnight_JesusTwelve.pdf |url-status=dead }} When the sun transits Scorpio, Judas schemes with the Sanhedrin to arrest Jesus by kissing him.{{cite web |title=Gospel Zodiac |website=The Unspoken Bible |url=http://www.usbible.com/Astrology/gospel_zodiac.htm |accessdate=11 September 2017}} In the metaphorical sense, as the sun exited Libra in late autumn it enters Scorpio to be "kissed" by its stinger, which signifies the sun getting weaker as winter approaches.{{cite web |author=Acharya S/D.M. Murdock |year=2011 |title=Origins of Christianity |publisher= Stellar House Publishing |url=http://www.stellarhousepublishing.com/originsofchristianity.pdf |accessdate=11 September 2017}}Nicholas Campion, The Book of World Horoscopes, The Wessex Astrologer, 1999, p. 489 clearly refers to both conventions adopted by many astrologers basing the Ages on either the zodiacal constellations or the sidereal signs.{{cite book |first=Jim |last=Tester |title=A History of Western Astrology |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Suffolk, UK |year=1999}} The three days after December 21 are the darkest as the sun is low in the sky, under Sagittarius's arrow, and therefore it is allegorized that, at this time, Jesus (the sun) dies for three days.{{cite web |last=Elie |first=Benedict |title= Aquarius Pisces Age | publisher=Astro Software | url=http://www.astrosoftware.com/AquariusPiscesAge.htm | accessdate=11 September 2017}} After December 25, the Sun moves 1 degree north, which indicate longer days or Jesus's resurrection.{{cite book |last=Declercq |first=Georges |title=Anno Domini: The Origins of the Christian Era |publisher=Turnhout |location=Belgium |year=2000 |series=Brepols Essays in European Culture |isbn=9782503510507}}

American theosophist Alvin Boyd Kuhn had postulated that Jesus or the Abrahamic God is a sun god, with other figures in the Old Testament such as Samson (whose name means "sun" in Hebrew), King David, Solomon, Saul (meaning soul, or sol, the sun), Abraham, Moses, Gideon and Jephtha also being solar allegories. To corroborate his argument about God being a solar deity, Kuhn cites the Psalm's verses such as, "Our God is a living fire," "Our God is a consuming fire", "The Lord God is a sun", in addition to Jesus's "Christ will shine upon thee!", "I am come to send fire on earth" and "I am the light of the world".{{cite web |last=Kuhn |first=Alvin Boyd |year=1996 |title=The Great Myth of the SUN-GODS |publisher=Mountain Man Graphics, Australia | url=http://www.mountainman.com.au/ab_kuhn.html| accessdate=11 September 2017}} This is a reprint; Kuhn died in 1963.

{{main|Christmas#History of religions hypothesis}}

File:ChristAsSol.jpg or Apollo-Helios in Mausoleum M in the pre-4th-century necropolis beneath{{cite web|url=http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Necropolis/Scavi.htm|title=The Vatican Necropolis - Scavi Tomb of St Peter|website=www.saintpetersbasilica.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109120942/http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Necropolis/Scavi.htm |archive-date=9 November 2007 |url-status=usurped}} St. Peter's in the Vatican, which some interpret as representing Christ.]]

According to one hypothesis about Christmas, the date was set to 25 December because it was the date of the festival of Sol Invictus. The idea became popular especially in the 18thSir Edward Burnett Tylor, Researches Into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, Volume 2, p. 270; John Murray, London, 1871; revised edition 1889.Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Volume 3, 1885, T and T Clark, Edinburgh, page 396; see also Volume 4 in the 3rd edition, 1910 (Charles Scribner's Sons, NY). and 19th centuries.{{cite web |url=https://melkite.org/tag/feast-of-the-annunciation |title=The Day God Took Flesh |date=25 March 2012 |website=Melkite Eparchy of Newton of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church}}{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|last=Martindale |first=Cyril |wstitle=Christmas }}

The Philocalian calendar of AD 354 marks a festival of Natalis Invicti on 25 December. There is limited evidence that the festival was celebrated at around the time before the mid-4th century.Wallraff 2001: 174–177. Hoey (1939: 480) writes: "An inscription of unique interest from the reign of Licinius embodies the official prescription for the annual celebration by his army of a festival of Sol Invictus on December 19". The inscription (Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 8940) actually prescribes an annual offering to Sol on November 18 (die XIV Kal(endis) Decemb(ribus), i.e. on the fourteenth day before the Kalends of December).Text at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Chronography_of_354] Parts 6 and 12 respectively.

The earliest-known example of the idea that Christians chose to celebrate the birth of Jesus on 25 December because it was the date of an already existing festival of the Sol Invictus was expressed in an annotation to a manuscript of a work by 12th-century Syrian bishop Jacob Bar-Salibi. The scribe who added it wrote: "It was a custom of the Pagans to celebrate on the same 25 December the birthday of the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these solemnities and revelries the Christians also took part. Accordingly when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnized on that day."(cited in Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Ramsay MacMullen. Yale:1997, p. 155){{cite web|url=https://melkite.org/tag/feast-of-the-annunciation|title=» Feast of the Annunciation|website=melkite.org}}[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia: Christmas]: Natalis Invicti

The charioteer in the mosaic of Mausoleum M has been interpreted by some as Christ by those who argue that Christians adopted the image of the Sun (Helios or Sol Invictus) to represent Christ. In this portrayal, he is a beardless figure with a flowing cloak in a chariot drawn by four white horses, as in the mosaic in Mausoleum M discovered under Saint Peter's Basilica and in an early-4th-century catacomb fresco.{{cite book |first=Kurt |last=Weitzmann |title=Age of Spirituality |url=https://archive.org/details/agespiritualityl00artm |url-access=limited |location=Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=1979 |isbn= 978-0-87099179-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/agespiritualityl00artm/page/n570 522]}} The nimbus of the figure under Saint Peter's Basilica is rayed, as in traditional pre-Christian representations. Clement of Alexandria had spoken of Christ driving his chariot across the sky.{{cite book |first=Matilda |last=Webb |title=The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-90221058-2 |page=18}} This interpretation is doubted by others: "Only the cross-shaped nimbus makes the Christian significance apparent".{{cite book |first=Martin |last=Kemp |title=The Oxford History of Western Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19860012-1 |page=70}}, emphasis added and the figure is seen by some simply as a representation of the sun with no explicit religious reference whatever, pagan or Christian.{{sfn|Hijmans|2009|p=567-578}}

File:Surya Narayana.jpg

{{further|Saura (Hinduism)}}

The sun is prayed to by South Indians during the harvest festival.{{cite book|author1=Jain Chanchreek|author2=K.L. Chanchreek|author3=M.K. Jain|title=Encyclopaedia of Great Festivals |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=TicTAQAAIAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=Shree Publishers |isbn=978-81-8329-191-0|pages=36–38}}

In Tamil Nadu, the Tamil people worship the sun god during the Tamil month of Thai, after a year of crop farming. The month is known as the harvesting month and people pay respects to the sun on the first day of the Thai month known as Thai pongal, or Pongal, which is a four-day celebration.{{Cite web|url=https://www.pongal-festival.com/|title=502 Bad Gateway nginx openresty 208.80.154.49|website=www.pongal-festival.com|access-date=18 July 2019|archive-date=30 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830101945/https://pongal-festival.com/|url-status=dead}} It is one of the few indigenous worships by the Tamil people.{{cite web |url=http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thaipongal.htm |title=Tamizhs festival |publisher=ntyo.org |access-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011227113057/http://www.ntyo.org/kolangal/thaipongal.htm |archive-date=27 December 2001 |url-status=usurped }}

In other parts of India, the festival is celebrated as Makar Sankranti and is mostly worshiped by Hindu diaspora.{{Cite news|agency=PTI|date=2022-01-14|title=Different festivals being celebrated today signify India's vibrant cultural diversity: PM Modi|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/different-festivals-being-celebrated-today-signify-indias-vibrant-cultural-diversity-pm-modi/article38271076.ece|access-date=2022-01-21|issn=0971-751X}}

Solar deities are revered in new religious movements.

The primary local deity in theosophy is the Solar Logos, "the consciousness of the sun".Powell, A.E. The Solar System London:1930 The Theosophical Publishing House (A Complete Outline of the Theosophical Scheme of Evolution). Lucifer, represented by the sun, the light.

Thelema adapts its gods and goddesses from Ancient Egyptian religion, particularly those named in the Stele of Revealing, among whom is the Sun god Ra-Hoor-Khuit, a form of Horus. Ra-Hoor-Khuit is one of the principal deities described in Aleister Crowley's Liber AL vel Legis.{{sfnmp|1a1=Crowley|1y=1976|2a1=Crowley|2y=1997}}

In Thelema, Ra-Hoor-Khuit represents the active, warlike aspect of the solar deity Horus, embodying the principles of strength and power. The Stele of Revealing, a funerary tablet from the 26th dynasty of Egypt, plays a central role in Crowley's cosmology, symbolizing the New Aeon of Horus. This Aeon is characterized by the themes of individualism, self-realization, and the discovery of one's True Will.{{sfn|Kaczynski|2012}}

One of the key practices in Thelema is the daily performance of Liber Resh vel Helios, a set of solar adorations composed by Crowley. These rituals are performed at dawn, noon, sunset, and midnight, each directed towards different aspects of the Sun—Ra, Ahathoor, Tum, and Khephra, respectively. The practice aims to align the practitioner with the natural cycles of the Sun and to integrate the physical and spiritual dimensions of existence in accordance with Thelemic principles.{{sfn|DuQuette|2003}}

The adoration of Ra-Hoor-Khuit and the performance of Liber Resh are intended to serve as daily reminders of the central Thelemic tenet, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law."{{sfn|Crowley|1976|loc=ch. I, v. 40.}} By engaging in these rituals, Thelemites seek to harmonize their personal will with the divine will, achieving greater spiritual enlightenment and alignment with the cosmic order.{{sfn|Kaczynski|2012}}

{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}

• Abram Smythe Palmer
• Ame-no-Uzume
• Beaivi
• Canticle of the Sun
• Eki (goddess)
• Five Suns
• List of solar deities
• Lunar deity
• Nature worship
• Phoenix
• Solar symbol
• White horses in mythology
• Worship of heavenly bodies
• Zunbils

{{Div col end}}

{{notelist}}

{{incomplete citations|date=March 2025}}

{{reflist|30em}}

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{{refend}}

{{refbegin|2}}

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• {{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Ranjan Kumar |title=Surya: the God and His Abode |date=2010 |publisher=Parijat |location=Patna, Bihar, India |isbn=978-81-903561-7-6 |edition=1st |ref=none}}
• {{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/tianshu.html |chapter=The Sun God and the Wind Deity at Kizil |first=Tianshu |last=Zhu |title=Ēran ud Anērān: Studies presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday

|editor1-last=Compareti |editor1-first=Matteo |editor2-last=Raffetta |editor2-first=Paola |editor3-last=Scarcia |editor3-first=Gianroberto |publisher=Cafoscarina |year=2006 |place=Venice |isbn=88-7543-105-1 |ref=none}}

{{refend}}

• [http://www.solarnavigator.net/egyptian_sun_god_ra.htm The Sun God Ra and Ancient Egypt]

{{The Sun}}

{{List of mythological figures by region}}

{{Thelema series}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Solar Deity}}

Category:Comparative mythology

Category:Mythological archetypes