peat

File:Peat Lewis.jpg, Scotland]]

Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses, sedges and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges and raised bogs. The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins, which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age.Vitt, D.H., L.A. Halsey and B.J. Nicholson. 2005. The Mackenzie River basin. pp. 166–202 in L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 488 p. Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, UK. Cambridge. 497 p. Chapter 7. The estimated carbon content is {{Convert|415|Gt|e9ST|abbr=off}} (northern peatlands), {{Convert|50|Gt|e9ST|abbr=unit}} (tropical peatlands) and {{Convert|15|Gt|e9ST|abbr=unit}} (South America).{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Zicheng |last2=Loisel |first2=Julie |last3=Brosseau |first3=Daniel P. |last4=Beilman |first4=David W. |last5=Hunt |first5=Stephanie J. |date=2010 |title=Global peatland dynamics since the Last Glacial Maximum |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2010GL043584 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=37 |issue=13 |at=L13402 |doi=10.1029/2010GL043584 |bibcode=2010GeoRL..3713402Y |issn=0094-8276}}

Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5872e/x5872e07.htm|title=5. CLASSIFICATION|website=fao.org|access-date=2017-03-28}}

Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.

Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties—it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings.

In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they say are the same)Supported by the "Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS) under the [https://www.wetlands.org/projects/GPI/default.htm Global Peatland Initiative] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120212051/http://www.wetlands.org/projects/GPI/default.htm|date=2008-11-20}}, managed by Wetlands International in co-operation with the IUCN – Netherlands Committee, Alterra, the International Mire Conservation Group and the International Peatland Society." as:

the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over {{convert|4|e6km2|e6sqmi |abbr=off |disp=sqbr}} or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions.

File:PEATMAP.jpg

A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP,{{Cite book |last1=Xu |first1=Jiren |title=PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis. |last2=Morris |first2=Paul J. |last3=Liu |first3=Junguo |last4=Holden |first4=Joseph |chapter=F840 |date=2017 |publisher=University of Leeds |doi=10.5518/252}} based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at {{Convert|4.23|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=off}} approximately 2.84% of the world land area.{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Jiren |last2=Morris |first2=Paul J. |last3=Liu |first3=Junguo |last4=Holden |first4=Joseph |name-list-style=and |date=2018 |title=PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/194000/1/194000.pdf |journal=CATENA |language=en |volume=160 |pages=134–140 |bibcode=2018Caten.160..134X |doi=10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.010}} In Europe, peatlands extend to about {{cvt|515000|km2}}.[http://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/sites/all/files/IUCN%20UK%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20on%20Peatlands%20Full%20Report%20spv%20web.pdf IUCN UK Commission of Inquiry on Peatlands] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307180047/http://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/sites/all/files/IUCN%20UK%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20on%20Peatlands%20Full%20Report%20spv%20web.pdf |date=2014-03-07 }} Full Report, IUCN UK Peatland Programme October 2011 About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat.

Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Mackenzie River Valley.Fraser, L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). 2005. The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 488 p. and P.A. Keddy (eds.). 2005. The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 488 p.

There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. The world's largest tropical peatland is located in Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo).{{Cite web |title=CongoPeat - Past, Present & Future of the Peatlands of the Central Congo Basin |url=https://congopeat.net/ |access-date=2023-03-06 |website=CongoPeat |language=en-US}} In addition, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia/Tierra del Fuego) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape. Peat can be found in New Zealand, Kerguelen, the Falkland Islands and Indonesia (Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya (West Kalimantan) and Sumatra). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by {{convert|100000|ha}} per year.{{cite web|url=http://waspada.co.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=193680:us-ri-discuss-future-of-peat-land-mangroves&catid=30:english-news&Itemid=101|title=Waspada Online|access-date=25 October 2015}} A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands.{{cite web | title=An Author Catalog of the Peat Research Collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth. |last=Sandy | first=John H. |date=31 October 2022 | url=https://ir.ua.edu/handle/123456789/9811 | access-date = 2023-10-29 }}

About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry.{{cite web|url=http://www.volcanowoodfuels.co.uk/sitefiles/37/5/6/375680/WER_2013_6_Peat.pdf|title=World Energy Resources: Peat – World Energy Council 2013|website=Volcano Wood Fuels|publisher=World Energy Council|access-date=2016-02-25}} Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time.

File:Feu de tourbe.JPGPeat can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally, peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period.{{Cite web |title=Culture & history {{!}} IUCN UK Peatland Programme |url=https://www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/about-peatlands/peatland-benefits/culture-history |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=IUCN Peatland Programme |language=en}} For industrial uses,{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed.

{{See also|Potting soil#Peat}}

File:Peatcuttingulsta.jpg, near Ulsta, Yell, Shetland Islands]]

Peat has been discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, since 2003.{{cite web|title=Peat-free compost at Kew| publisher = RBG Kew| year = 2011 | url = http://www.kew.org/visit-kew-gardens/garden-attractions-A-Z/kids-attractions/compost-heap.htm| access-date = 2011-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916065726/http://www.kew.org/visit-kew-gardens/garden-attractions-A-Z/kids-attractions/compost-heap.htm|archive-date=2011-09-16|url-status=dead}} While bark or coir-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat is still used as raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.

Peatland can also be an essential source of drinking water, providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Jiren |last2=Morris |first2=Paul J. |last3=Liu |first3=Junguo |last4=Holden |first4=Joseph |date=2018 |title=Hotspots of peatland-derived potable water use identified by global analysis |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/129766/12/Hotspots%20of%20peatland-derived%20potable%20water%20-%20Figures%20and%20tables.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427175642/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/129766/12/Hotspots%20of%20peatland-derived%20potable%20water%20-%20Figures%20and%20tables.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-27 |url-status=live |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=246–253 |doi=10.1038/s41893-018-0064-6 |bibcode=2018NatSu...1..246X |issn=2398-9629 |s2cid=134230602}}File:Shovel-Falklands.jpg shovelling peat in the 1950s]]

Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages, being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour.

Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.{{Cite book |title=Assessment on peatlands, biodiversity and climate change: main report |date=2008 |publisher=Global Environment Centre |isbn=978-983-43751-0-2 |editor-last=UNEP |editor-link=United Nations Environment Programme |location=Kuala Lumpur}}{{Cite web |title=Article 4: Ecosystem Biodiversity In Malaysia |url=https://globinmed.com/conservation/article-4-ecosystem-biodiversity-in-malaysia/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=GlobinMed |language=en-US}}

Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria. It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have many other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants and fishes' reproductive health. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.{{cite book | last=Scheurmann | first=Ines | others=(trans. for Barron's Educational Series, Hauppauge, New York: 2000) | title=Natural Aquarium Handbook, The | year=1985 | publisher=Gräfe & Unzer GmbH | location=Munich, Germany }}

Peat is widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease).{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Myeongkyu |last2=Lee |first2=Kyu Hoon |last3=Han |first3=Seung Hoon |last4=Lee |first4=Sung Jae |last5=Kim |first5=Choong-Gon |last6=Choi |first6=Jae Ho |last7=Hwang |first7=Sun Hee |last8=Park |first8=Si-Bog |date=2020-01-20 |title=Effect of Peat Intervention on Pain and Gait in Patients with Knee Osteoarthritis: A Prospective, Double-Blind, Randomized, Controlled Study |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |language=en |volume=2020 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1155/2020/8093526 |doi-access=free |issn=1741-427X |pmc=7201632 |pmid=32419828}} Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries, including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices and suspension baths.[http://www.peatsociety.org/about-us/commissions-and-working-groups/c6-balneology?id=90 International Peatland Society]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Peat Balneology, Medicine and Therapeutics

Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described the concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981.{{cite book |last=Godwin |first=Harry Sir |author-link=Harry Godwin |title=The archives of the peat bogs |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1981 |location=Cambridge}}{{cite book |first1=Håkan |last1=Rydin |first2=John K. |last2=Jeglum |date=18 July 2013 |pages=400 |title=The Biology of Peatlands |edition=2 |series=Biology of Habitats |orig-year=8 Jun 2006 |publisher=University of Oxford Press |isbn=978-0198528722 |ref={{SfnRef|Rydin|Jeglum|2014}}}}{{citation |last=Keddy |first=P.A. |year=2010 |title=Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation |edition=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK. |pages=323–325}}

{{blockquote|sign=|source=Rydin, 2013|In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed the peat archives.}}

In Quaternary Palaeoecology, first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place."{{cite book |title=Quaternary Palaeoecology |first1= Harry John Betteley |last1=Birks |first2=Hilary H. |last2=Birks |publisher=Blackburn Press |orig-year=1980 |year=2004 |pages=289 pages}}

Scientists continue to compare modern mercury (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example.{{citation |url=http://www.metla.fi/julkaisut/workingpapers/2009/mwp128-13.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916091927/http://www.metla.fi/julkaisut/workingpapers/2009/mwp128-13.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-16 |url-status=live |series=Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research Institute |number=128|title=Modelling Past Mercury Deposition from Peat Bogs – The Influence of Peat Structure and 210Pb Mobility |first1=Harald |last1=Biester |first2=Richard |last2=Bindler |access-date=21 October 2014 |year=2009}} Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS),{{cite journal|url=http://www.elmvale.org/elmvalefoundation/publications/A64.pdf |url-status=live|journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|volume=74|year=2010|pages=1963–1981|title=The isotopic evolution of atmospheric Pb in central Ontario since AD 1800, and its impacts on the soils, waters, and sediments of a forested watershed, Kawagama Lake|first1=W.|last1=Shotyk|first2=M.|last2=Krachler|issue=7 |doi=10.1016/j.gca.2010.01.009 |bibcode=2010GeCoA..74.1963S |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206132705/http://www.elmvale.org/elmvalefoundation/publications/A64.pdf|archive-date=2023-02-06}} and more recently the initial penetration (IP).{{cite conference| title=Modeling the downward transport of 210Pb in mires and repercussions on the deriv| conference=EGU General Assembly |bibcode=2013EGUGA..1511054O}}

{{See also|Bog body}}

Naturally mummified human bodies, often called "bog bodies" have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as by the antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan.{{cite journal |last=Painter |first=Terence J. |title=Lindow man, tollund man and other peat-bog bodies: The preservative and antimicrobial action of Sphagnan, a reactive glycuronoglycan with tanning and sequestering properties |journal=Carbohydrate Polymers |date=1 January 1991 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=123–142 |doi=10.1016/0144-8617(91)90028-B |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0144-8617%2891%2990028-B |access-date=29 October 2023 |issn=0144-8617|url-access=subscription }} A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark. Having been discovered in 1950 after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, he was exhumed for scientific purposes and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC. Before that, another bog body, the Elling Woman, had been discovered in 1938 in the same bog about {{Convert|60|m}} from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was a ritual sacrifice. In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits.{{Cite web |title=NOVA | The Perfect Corpse | PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bog/ |website=pbs.org}}

File:Co2.recent.ch.png]]

The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, whilst Siberian cranes nest in the West Siberian peatland. Palsa mires have a rich bird life and are an EU-red listed habitat,{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1017/S0376892904001018| volume = 31| issue = 1| pages = 30–37| last1 = Luoto| first1 = Miska| last2 = Heikkinen| first2 = Risto K.| last3 = Carter| first3 = Timothy R.| title = Loss of palsa mires in Europe and biological consequences| journal = Environmental Conservation| access-date = 2022-03-04| date = 2004| bibcode = 2004EnvCo..31...30L| s2cid = 86157282| url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/loss-of-palsa-mires-in-europe-and-biological-consequences/C704EC2EF3CD217FF7D6E1567A92008F#| url-access = subscription}} and in Canada riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears.{{Cite journal| volume = 83| issue = 6| pages = 860| last1 = Richardson| first1 = Evan| last2 = Stirling| first2 = Ian| last3 = Hik| first3 = David S.| title = Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) maternity denning habitat in western Hudson Bay: a bottom-up approach to resource selection functions| journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology| access-date = 2023-07-31| date = 2005| doi = 10.1139/z05-075| bibcode = 2005CaJZ...83..860R| url = https://www.academia.edu/4675165}} Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. For more on biological communities, see wetland, bog or fen.

Around half of the area of northern peatlands is permafrost-affected, and this area represents around a tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere.{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1073/pnas.1916387117| issn = 0027-8424| volume = 117| issue = 34| pages = 20438–20446| last1 = Hugelius| first1 = Gustaf| last2 = Loisel| first2 = Julie| last3 = Chadburn| first3 = Sarah| last4 = Jackson| first4 = Robert B.| last5 = Jones| first5 = Miriam| last6 = MacDonald| first6 = Glen| last7 = Marushchak| first7 = Maija| last8 = Olefeldt| first8 = David| last9 = Packalen| first9 = Maara| last10 = Siewert| first10 = Matthias B.| last11 = Treat| first11 = Claire| last12 = Turetsky| first12 = Merritt| last13 = Voigt| first13 = Carolina| last14 = Yu| first14 = Zicheng| title = Large stocks of peatland carbon and nitrogen are vulnerable to permafrost thaw| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| date = 2020-08-25| pmid = 32778585| pmc = 7456150| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2020PNAS..11720438H}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tarnocai |first1=C. |last2=Canadell |first2=J. G. |last3=Schuur |first3=E. A. G. |last4=Kuhry |first4=P. |last5=Mazhitova |first5=G. |last6=Zimov |first6=S. |date=2009 |title=Soil organic carbon pools in the northern circumpolar permafrost region |journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles |volume=23 |issue=2 |bibcode=2009GBioC..23.2023T |doi=10.1029/2008GB003327 |issn=1944-9224 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Zimov |first1=Sergey A. |last2=Schuur |first2=Edward A. G. |last3=Chapin |first3=F. Stuart III |name-list-style=and |date=2006-06-16 |title=Permafrost and the Global Carbon Budget |url=https://science.sciencemag.org/content/312/5780/1612 |journal=Science |volume=312 |issue=5780 |pages=1612–1613 |doi=10.1126/science.1128908 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=16778046 |s2cid=129667039 |access-date=2020-02-14|url-access=subscription }} Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm⁻¹K⁻¹) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw.{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.coldregions.2007.08.002| issn = 0165-232X| volume = 52| issue = 3| pages = 408–414| last1 = Kujala| first1 = Kauko| last2 = Seppälä| first2 = Matti| last3 = Holappa| first3 = Teuvo| title = Physical properties of peat and palsa formation| journal = Cold Regions Science and Technology| access-date = 2023-07-03| date = 2008-05-01| bibcode = 2008CRST...52..408K| url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165232X07001644| url-access = subscription}} The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus.{{Cite journal| doi = 10.2307/521453| issn = 0435-3676| volume = 68| issue = 3| pages = 141–147| last = Seppälä| first = Matti| title = The Origin of Palsas| journal = Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography| access-date = 2020-10-22| date = 1986| url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/521453| jstor = 521453| url-access = subscription}} Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in methane emissions and a small increase in carbon dioxide uptake, meaning that it contributes to the permafrost carbon feedback.{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01267.x| issn = 1365-2486| volume = 12| issue = 12| pages = 2352–2369| last1 = Johansson| first1 = Torbjörn| last2 = Malmer| first2 = Nils| last3 = Crill| first3 = Patrick M.| last4 = Friborg| first4 = Thomas| last5 = Åkerman| first5 = Jonas H.| last6 = Mastepanov| first6 = Mikhail| last7 = Christensen| first7 = Torben R.| title = Decadal vegetation changes in a northern peatland, greenhouse gas fluxes and net radiative forcing| journal = Global Change Biology| access-date = 2021-08-11| date = 2006| bibcode = 2006GCBio..12.2352J| s2cid = 34813903| url = https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01267.x| url-access = subscription}}{{Cite journal| doi = 10.5194/bg-7-95-2010| issn = 1726-4170| volume = 7| issue = 1| pages = 95–108| last1 = Bäckstrand| first1 = K.| last2 = Crill| first2 = P. M.| last3 = Jackowicz-Korczyñski| first3 = M.| last4 = Mastepanov| first4 = M.| last5 = Christensen| first5 = T. R.| last6 = Bastviken| first6 = D.| title = Annual carbon gas budget for a subarctic peatland, Northern Sweden| journal = Biogeosciences| access-date = 2021-08-11| date = 2010-01-11| url = https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/7/95/2010/| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2010BGeo....7...95B}}{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1029/2003GL018680| issn = 1944-8007| volume = 31| issue = 4| last1 = Christensen| first1 = Torben R.| last2 = Johansson| first2 = Torbjörn| last3 = Åkerman| first3 = H. Jonas| last4 = Mastepanov| first4 = Mihail| last5 = Malmer| first5 = Nils| last6 = Friborg| first6 = Thomas| last7 = Crill| first7 = Patrick| last8 = Svensson| first8 = Bo H.| title = Thawing sub-arctic permafrost: Effects on vegetation and methane emissions| journal = Geophysical Research Letters| date = 2004| s2cid = 129023294| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2004GeoRL..31.4501C}} Under 2 °C global warming, 0.7 million km² of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6 °C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100. The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions.

One characteristic of peat is the bioaccumulation of metals concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern.{{Cite journal|author1=Mitchell, Carla P. J. |author2=Branfireun, Brian A. |author3=Kolka, Randall K. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008|title=Spatial Characteristics of Net Methylmercury Production Hot Spots in Peatlands|journal=Environmental Science and Technology|publisher=American Chemical Society|volume=42|number=4|pages=1010–1016|url=http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2008/nrs_2008_mitchell_001.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031163040/http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2008/nrs_2008_mitchell_001.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2008|url-status=live|doi=10.1021/es0704986|pmid=18351065 |bibcode=2008EnST...42.1010M}}

Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry and peat extraction (i.e. through canals{{Cite web|url=http://www.borneonaturefoundation.org/en/saving-the-rainforest/canal-blocking/|title=Peatland drainage through canals|access-date=2020-11-23|archive-date=2020-11-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128231248/http://www.borneonaturefoundation.org/en/saving-the-rainforest/canal-blocking/|url-status=dead}}). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change.{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/peatlands-and-climate-change|title=Peatlands and climate change|date=2017-11-06|website=IUCN|language=en|access-date=2020-01-23}} As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon—which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater—is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide ({{CO2}}), which is released into the atmosphere.[https://qualitywatertreatment.com/pages/saving-peatlands-their-carbon-nature Content from Wetlands.org], Wetlands International | Peatlands and CO₂ Emissions The global {{CO2}} emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea are the fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/{{CO2}}-eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/{{CO2}}-eq./yr, the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton), the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland {{CO2}} (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total {{CO2}} emissions from the worldwide 500,000 km² of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires), which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions.[http://www.wetlands.org/peatco2 Wetlands.org]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, The Global Peat CO2 Picture, Wetlands International and Greifswald University, 2010{{Obsolete source|reason=This source is old and needs update |date=November 2023}}

{{See also|Slash and burn|Stubble burning|Arctic methane release}}

File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpgn fires, 1997]]

Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain.{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Shaorun |last2=Cheung |first2=Yau Kuen |last3=Xiao |first3=Yang |last4=Huang |first4=Xinyan |date=2020-07-20 |title=Can rain suppress smoldering peat fire? |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720319811 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=727 |page=138468 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.72738468L |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138468 |issn=0048-9697 |pmid=32334212 |s2cid=216146063 |hdl=10397/89496|hdl-access=free }} Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present.

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer.

Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Utricularia (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily, toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence and absence of fire.{{cite web|url=http://www.pitcherplant.org/|title=Meadowview Biological Research Station – Preserving and Restoring Pitcher Plant Bogs|author=Michael Kevin Smith|access-date=25 October 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://www.unc.edu/news/archives/may03/lilly050903.html|title=New lily species found in eastern N.C. Sandhills|access-date=25 October 2015}}[http://www.dmr.state.ms.us/Coastal-Ecology/preserves/plants/grasses-sedges-rushes/toothache-grass/toothache-grass.htm toothache-grass] www.dmr.state.ms.us{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than {{Convert|50|e9t|e9ST e9LT|abbr=off}} of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels.{{Cite web|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/vast-peat-fires-threaten-health-and-boost-global-warming/|title=Vast Peat Fires Threaten Health and Boost Global Warming|last=Lim|first=XiaoZhi|website=Scientific American|language=en|access-date=2019-08-16}} Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040.{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4208564.stm | work=BBC News | title=Asian peat fires add to warming | date=2005-09-03 | access-date=2010-05-22}}{{cite book |author=Joel S. Levine |title=Wildland fires and the environment: a global synthesis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLSPnDrb0LsC |access-date=9 May 2011 |date= 1999 |publisher=UNEP/Earthprint |isbn=978-92-807-1742-6 }} [http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/biomass_burn/wildland.html web link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050902225846/http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/biomass_burn/wildland.html |date=2005-09-02 }}

It is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between {{Convert|0.81 and 2.57|Gt|e9ST e9LT|abbr=off}} of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998.Cat Lazaroff, [http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908133919/http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2002/2002-11-08-06.asp |date=2019-09-08 }}, Environment News ServiceFred Pearce [https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6613-massive-peat-burn-is-speeding-climate-change/ Massive peat burn is speeding climate change], New Scientist, 6 November 2004 More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above the ground.

In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades.{{cite web |title=Florida Everglades |url=http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/circular/1182/ |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=11 June 2013 |date=15 January 2013 |archive-date=26 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626081529/http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/circular/1182/|url-status=dead}} Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization.{{Cite journal |first1=Nicole |last1=Fenton |first2=Nicolas |last2=Lecomte |first3=Sonia |last3=Légaré |name-list-style=amp |first4=Yves |last4=Bergeron |title=Paludification in black spruce (Picea mariana) forests of eastern Canada: Potential factors and management implications |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |volume=213 |issue=1–3 |year=2005 |pages=151–159 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.017 |bibcode=2005ForEM.213..151F }}

In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to {{cvt|40|C}} ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket. The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010.{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-10762921 |title=Fog from peat fires blankets Moscow amid heat wave |work=BBC |date=26 July 2010 }}{{Cite news |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2012486819_apeurussiafires.html |title=Russia begins to localize fires, others rage |agency=Associated Press |date= 30 July 2010}}

In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/weather/2019/07/23/arctic-fires-shown-satellite-concerning-scientists/1793530001/|title=Thanks to climate change, parts of the Arctic are on fire. Scientists are concerned|first=Morgan|last=Hines|website=USA Today}} in the Arctic emitted {{Convert|50|Mt|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} of CO₂, which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions.{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/26/unprecedented-more-than-100-wildfires-burning-in-the-arctic-in-worst-ever-season|title='Unprecedented': more than 100 Arctic wildfires burn in worst ever season|date=July 26, 2019|website=The Guardian}} The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20190822-why-is-the-arctic-on-fire|title=Why the Arctic is smouldering|last=Cormier|first=Zoe|website=bbc.com|date=27 August 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-08-28}}{{Cite journal|last1=Turetsky|first1=Merritt R.|last2=Benscoter|first2=Brian|last3=Page|first3=Susan|last4=Rein|first4=Guillermo|last5=van der Werf|first5=Guido R.|last6=Watts|first6=Adam|date=2014-12-23|title=Global vulnerability of peatlands to fire and carbon loss|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2325.epdf|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=11–14|doi=10.1038/ngeo2325|issn=1752-0894|hdl=10044/1/21250|hdl-access=free}}File:Peat haggs at start of Allt Lagan a' Bhainne tributary on Eilrig - geograph.org.uk - 1420692.jpg

Peat "hags" are a form of erosion that occur at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat; they sometimes also occur in isolation.[http://www.yppartnership.org.uk/restoration/peat-hags/ Peat Hags] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712032305/http://www.yppartnership.org.uk/restoration/peat-hags/|date=2016-07-12}} at www.yppartnership.org.uk, website of the Yorkshire Peat Partnership. Accessed 9 July 2016. Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.

{{update section|date=August 2020}}

{{See also|Global Peatlands Initiative}}{{Excerpt|Mire|Management and rehabilitation|paragraphs=1}}

In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for five years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.

In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293563126_Wise_use_of_mires_Background_and_principles "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making"]. This publication aims to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.

In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change, summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a "[https://peatlands.org/assets/uploads/2019/10/srpm2019finalforprint.pdf Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management]", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making.

Peat extraction is forbidden in Chile since April 2024.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=1202472|title=Ley 21660 Sobre protección ambiental de las turberas|date=2024-04-10|access-date=2024-09-11|website=bcn.cl|publisher=Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional|language=Spanish}}

{{Excerpt|Mire|Management and rehabilitation|paragraphs=2-3}}

File:Ķemeru purva laipa.jpg

Latvia has been the biggest exporter of peat in the world by volume, providing more than 19.9% of the world's volume, followed only by Canada with 13% in 2022.{{Cite web |title=What will be the future of peat? |url=https://www.db.lv/zinas/kad-zalais-kurss-nomaldas-no-kursa-512732 |website=db.lv }} In 2020, Latvia exported 1.97 million tons of peat, followed by Germany with 1.5 and Canada with 1.42 million tons.{{Cite web |title=Latvia is the largest exporter of peat in the world |url=https://investinlatvia.org/en/news/latvia-is-the-largest-exporter-of-peat-in-the-world |website=investinlatvia.org}} Nevertheless, although first in the world by volume, in monetary terms, Latvian comes second in the world behind Canada. As an example, Latvia's income from exports was US$237 million.

Latvia's peat deposits have been estimated to equal 1.7 billion tons.{{Cite web |title=What is peat and what is a peat deposit? |url=http://www.latvijaskudra.lv/en/Interesting_information/interesanta_informacija/ |website=latvijaskudra.lv }} Due to its climate, Latvia has several peat bogs, which account for 9.9% of the country's territory.{{Cite web |title=Peat in Latvia |url=https://videscentrs.lvgmc.lv/lapas/peat |website=videscentrs.lvgmc.lv }}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

More than two thirds of the licensed areas for peat extraction are state-owned; 55% belong to the state whilst 23% belong to the municipalities{{Cite web |title=Peat in Latvia |url=http://www.latvijaskudra.lv/en/Interesting_information/interesanta_informacija/ |website=latvijaskudra.lv }}

Bogs in Latvia are considered important habitats due to their ecological values, and up to 128,000 hectares, or 40% of the areas in the territory, are protected by environmental laws. The most famous national parks and reserves are the Ķemeri National Park, Cenas tīrelis and Teiči Nature Reserve.

{{Update section|date=January 2022}}File:Toppila power plant.JPG, a peat-fired facility in Oulu, Finland]]

The climate, geography and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity. Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production.{{Cite web |title=Statistics Finland – Energy supply and consumption |url=https://www.stat.fi/til/ehk/2021/01/ehk_2021_01_2021-06-30_tie_001_en.html |website=stat.fi }}

Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO₂ annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO₂ storage than the original peat bog.

At 106 g CO₂/MJ,[http://www.imcg.net/imcgnl/nl0702/kap05.htm The CO₂ emission factor of peat fuel] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707134451/http://www.imcg.net/imcgnl/nl0702/kap05.htm|date=2010-07-07}}. Imcg.net. accessed on 2011-05-09. the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal (at 94.6 g CO₂/MJ) and natural gas (at 56.1). According to one study, increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture from the current 2.6% to 12.5% would take the emissions down to 93 g CO₂/MJ. That said, little effort is being made to achieve this.{{Cite web |title=VTT 2004: Wood in peat fuel – impact on the reporting of greenhouse gas emissions according to IPCC guidelines |url=http://virtual.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/workingpapers/2004/W12.pdf |website=virtual.vtt.fi |date= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927010519/http://virtual.vtt.fi/inf/pdf/workingpapers/2004/W12.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-27 |access-date=2006-12-20}}

The International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems. This includes the cessation of drainage and peat extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect these sites. A proposal for a Finnish peatland management strategy was presented to the government in 2011, after a lengthy consultation phase.{{cite journal |last1=Salomaa |first1=Anne |last2=Paloniemi |first2=Riikka |last3=Ekroos |first3=Eri |date=2018 |title=The case of conflicting Finnish peatland management – Skewed representation of nature, participation and policy instruments |journal=Journal of Environmental Economics and Management |volume=223 |pages=694–702 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.048 |pmid=29975897 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018JEnvM.223..694S }}

File:Saltmyrans torvtäkt 13.jpg, Sweden]]

About 15% of the land in Sweden is covered by peatlands.{{Cite web |title=Peat |url=https://www.sgu.se/en/physical-planning/energy/peat/ |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=sgu.se |language=en}} Whilst nowadays the main use of such soils is for forestry, peat-rich lands have historically been exploited to produce energy, agricultural land and horticultural substrates. The most common method to extract peat during the 19th and 20th centuries was peat cutting, a process where the land is cleared of forest and subsequently drained. Peat cores are then extracted under dry weather conditions and stored on stacks to let the residual moisture evaporate. Today, clear-cutting for horticultural peat (of which Sweden is an important producer in Europe) is limited to some areas of Sweden and strictly regulated by the [https://www.naturvardsverket.se/en/laws-and-regulations/the-swedish-environmental-code/ Swedish Environmental Code] to prevent that significant groundwater storages and carbon sinks areas are altered and compromised by human activities. At the same time, restoration of drained peatlands through rewetting is urged by national and international policies to exploit the peat-rich soil properties in mitigating climate change effects.{{Cite web |title=Därför är våtmarker viktiga |url=https://www.naturvardsverket.se/amnesomraden/vatmark/varfor-ar-vatmarker-sa-viktiga/ |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=naturvardsverket.se |language=sv}}

File:BordnaMona 2930.jpg in the Irish Midlands: The 'turf' in the foreground is machine-produced for domestic use.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}]]

In Ireland, a state-owned company called {{lang|ga|Bord na Móna}} was responsible for managing peat extraction. It processed the extracted peat into milled peat used in power stations and sold processed peat fuel in the form of peat briquettes, which is used for domestic heating. These are oblong bars of densely compressed, dried, and shredded peat. Peat moss is a manufactured product for garden cultivation. Turf (dried-out peat sods) is also commonly used in rural areas.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

In January 2021, Bord na Móna announced that it had ceased all peat harvesting and cutting operations and would move its business to a climate solutions company.{{cite news |last=O'Doherty |first=Caroline |date=14 January 2021 |title=Bord na Móna confirms it has ended peat harvesting for good |work=Independent |url=https://www.independent.ie/news/bord-na-mona-confirms-it-has-ended-peat-harvesting-for-good-39970397.html |access-date=15 January 2021}}

In 2022, selling peat for burning was prohibited, but some people are still allowed to cut and burn it.{{Cite web |last=Dublin |first=Barry Hartigan in |title=A burning issue for Ireland as the sale of peat is outlawed |url=https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/a-burning-issue-for-ireland-as-the-sale-of-peat-is-outlawedthis-is-a-fuel-poverty-issue-as-there-are-around-100000-homes-that-burn-turf-and-who-dont-have-a-choice/ |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=The Sunday Post |date=7 August 2022 |language=en-US}}

File:Shatura steam power plant (2010).jpg. Russia has the largest peat power capacity in the world.|left]]File:Peat Briquette Factory.jpg, Russia]]{{Update section|date=August 2020}}

The use of peat for energy production was prominent in the Soviet Union, especially in 1965. In 1929, over 40% of the Soviet Union's electric energy came from peat, which dropped to 1% by 1980.

In the 1960s, larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural and mining purposes.{{cite web |author=Serghey Stelmakovich |title=Russia institutes peat fire prevention program |url=http://wildfiremag.com/tactics/russia_institutes_peat/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618114909/http://wildfiremag.com/tactics/russia_institutes_peat/ |archive-date=June 18, 2010 |access-date=August 9, 2010}}

File: 500vc ex leg copy.jpgTwo-and-a-half thousand years ago, the area now named the Netherlands was largely covered with peat. Drainage, causing compaction and oxidation and excavation have reduced peatlands (>{{cvt|40|cm|disp=sqbr}} peat) to about {{cvt|2733|km2}}Joosten, Hans; Tanneberger, Franziska; Moen, Asbjørn. 2017. Mires and peatlands of Europe. Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany. 780 p. Chapter "Netherlands".{{ISBN?}} or 10% of the land area, mostly used as meadows. Drainage and excavation have lowered the surface of the peatlands. In the west of the country, dikes and mills were built, creating polders so that dwelling and economic activities could continue below sea level, the first polder probably in 1533Reh, W., Steenbergen, C., Aten, D. 2007. Sea of Land, The polder as an experimental atlas of Dutch landscape architecture. 344 pp, Uitgeverij Architectura & Natura. {{ISBN|978-9071123962}} and the last one in 1968.

Peat harvesting could continue in suitable locations as the lower layers below the current sea level are exposed. This peat was deposited before the sea level rise in the Holocene. As a result, approximately 26% of the area{{cite journal |last=Schiermeier |first=Quirin |year=2010 |title=Few fishy facts found in climate report |journal=Nature |volume=466 |issue=170 |page=170 |doi=10.1038/466170a |pmid=20613812 |doi-access=free}} and 21% of the population"Milieurekeningen 2008" (PDF). Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. Accessed 4 February 2010. of the Netherlands are presently below sea level. The deepest point is in the Zuidplaspolder, {{cvt|6.76|m}} below average sea level. File:The Netherlands compared to sealevel.png

In 2020, the Netherlands imported 2,156 million kg of peat (5.39 million m³ [400 kg/m³ dry peat]{{Cite web |title=Common substances, materials, foods and gravels |url=https://www.aqua-calc.com/page/density-table |website=aqua-calc.com}}): 44.5% from Germany (2020), 9.5% from Estonia (2018), 9.2% from Latvia (2020), 7.2% from Ireland (2018), 8.0% from Sweden (2019), 6.5% from Lithuania (2020), 5.1% from Belgium (2019) and 1.7% from Denmark (2019); 1.35 million kg was exported.CBS (opendata.cbs.nl), [https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/81268ned/table?dl=2378F Goederensoorten naar land; minerale brandstoffen en chemie] (tr. "Goods by country; mineral fuels and chemistry") Most is used in gardening and greenhouse horticulture.

Since the Netherlands did not have many trees to use as firewood or charcoal, one use the Dutch made of the available peat was to fire kilns to make pottery.Prins, Marcel & Steenhuis, Peter Henk, "Hidden," Arthur A. Levine Books, New York, 2011, p. 205. During World War II, the Dutch Resistance came up with an unusual use for peat. Since peat was so available in the fields, resistance fighters sometimes stacked peat into human-sized piles and used the piles for target practice.Ibid, p. 204.

After oil shale in Estonia, peat is the second-most-mined natural resource.{{Cite web |title=Peat |url=https://www.turbaliit.ee/en/peat/ |access-date=2022-09-01 |website=Turbaliit |language=en-US}} The peat production sector has a yearly revenue of around €100 million and it is mostly export-oriented.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} Peat is extracted from around {{Convert|14|ha}}.[https://www.err.ee/1082339/ministeerium-seisvad-turbamaardlad-on-moistlik-taas-kasutusele-votta "Ministeerium: seisvad turbamaardlad on mõistlik taas kasutusele võtta"] ERR, 25 April 2020 (in Estonian)

The mountains of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau contain pockets of high-altitude wetlands.{{cite journal |last=O'Neill |first=Alexander |display-authors=etal |date=25 February 2020 |title=Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland |journal=Wetlands Ecology & Management |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=375–388 |doi=10.1007/s11273-020-09710-7 |bibcode=2020WetEM..28..375O |s2cid=211081106}} Khecheopalri is one of the Sikkim's most famous and diverse peatlands in the eastern Indian territory of Sikkim, which includes 682 species representing five kingdoms, 196 families and 453 genera.{{cite journal |last=O'Neill |first=A. R. |date=2019 |title=Evaluating high-altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=20 |issue=e00715 |page=19 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00715 |doi-access=free}}

England has around 1 million acres of peatland. Peatlands in England store 584m tonnes of carbon in total but emit around 11 million tonnes of {{CO2}} every year due to degradation and draining. In 2021 only 124 people owned 60% of England's peatland.{{Cite web |date=2021-11-15 |title=Just 124 people own most of England's deep peat – its largest carbon store |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/15/just-124-people-own-most-of-england-deep-peat-its-largest-carbon-store-aoe |access-date=2021-11-15 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}

The extraction of peat from the Somerset Levels began during the Roman times and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained.{{cite web |date=September 2009 |title=Somerset Peat Paper – Issues consultation for the Minerals Core Strategy |url=http://www.somerset.gov.uk/irj/go/km/docs/CouncilDocuments/SCC/Documents/Environment/Minerals%20and%20waste/Mineral%20consultation%20papers/Peat%20Extraction%20Paper.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310135710/http://www.somerset.gov.uk/irj/go/km/docs/CouncilDocuments/SCC/Documents/Environment/Minerals%20and%20waste/Mineral%20consultation%20papers/Peat%20Extraction%20Paper.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2012 |access-date=30 November 2011 |publisher=Somerset County Council |page=7}} On Dartmoor, there were several commercial distillation plants formed and run by the British Patent Naphtha Company in 1844. These produced naphtha on a commercial scale from the high-quality local peat.[http://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk/peat_moor.htm Dartmoor Peat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405153646/http://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk/peat_moor.htm |date=2012-04-05 }}, Dartmoor history

Fenn's, Whixall and Bettisfield Mosses is an element of a post-Ice Age peat bog that straddles the England–Wales border and contains many rare plant and animal species due to the acidic environment created by the peat.{{cite web |title=Mawndiroedd Fenn's, Whixall a Bettisfield |url=http://www.ccgc.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscape/national-nature-reserves/fenns-whixall-and-bettisfiel.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202832/http://www.ccgc.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscape/national-nature-reserves/fenns-whixall-and-bettisfiel.aspx |archive-date=2013-10-29 |access-date=2013-10-27}} Only lightly hand-dug, it is now a national nature reserve and is being restored to its natural condition.

The industrial extraction of peat occurred at the Thorne Moor site, outside Doncaster near the village of Hatfield. Government policy incentivised commercial removal to peat for agricultural use. This caused much destruction of the area during the 1980s. The removal of the peat resulted in later flooding further downstream at Goole due to the loss of water retaining peatlands.Walker, M. D. Sphagnum. Sicklebrook Press. {{ISBN|978-0-359-41313-3}} Recently regeneration of peatland has occurred as part of the Thorne Moors project, and at Fleet Moss, organised by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust.{{cite web |title=Giving peat a(nother) chance {{!}} Yorkshire Wildlife Trust |url=https://www.ywt.org.uk/news/giving-peat-another-chance |access-date=14 January 2021 |website=ywt.org.uk|date=5 January 2021 }}

In Northern Ireland, there is small-scale domestic turf cutting in rural areas, but areas of bogs have been diminished because of changes in agriculture. In response, afforestation has seen the establishment of tentative steps towards conservation such as Peatlands Park, County Armagh which is an Area of Special Scientific Interest.{{cite web |title=Peatlands Park ASSI |url=http://www.wonderfulni.info/protected_areas_home/new_assi_landing_page/county_armagh-2/peatlands_park_assi.htm |access-date=14 August 2010 |work=NI Environment Agency}}{{Dead link|date=May 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}

File:Peat-Stack in Ness, Outer Hebrides, Scotland.jpg on the Isle of Lewis (Scotland)]]

Some Scotch whisky distilleries, such as those on Islay, use peat fires to dry malted barley. The drying process takes about 30 hours. This gives the whiskies a distinctive smoky flavour, often called "peatiness".{{cite web |title=Peat and Its Significance in Whisky |url=http://www.whisky.com/information/knowledge/tasting/flavour/peat-and-its-significance-in-whisky.html |access-date=25 October 2015}}{{Better source needed|reason=need more recent or change sentence to past tense|date=January 2022}}

The peatiness, or degree of peat flavour, of a whisky is calculated in ppm of phenol. Normal Highland whiskies have a peat level of up to 30 ppm, and the whiskies on Islay usually have up to 50 ppm. In rare types like the Octomore,{{cite web |title=Octomore 5 Years 03.1 |url=http://www.whisky.com/whisky-database/bottle-search/details/fdb/Bottles/Details/octomore-031.html |access-date=25 October 2015}} the whisky can have more than 100 ppm of phenol. Scotch Ales can also use peat-roasted malt, imparting a similar smoked flavor.

Because they are easily compressed under minimal weight, peat deposits pose significant difficulties for building structures, roads and railways. When the West Highland railway line was constructed across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a multi-thousand-ton mattress of tree roots, brushwood, earth and ash.

Wales has over 70,000 hectares of peatlands. Most of it is blanket peat bog in the highlands, but there are a few hundred hectares of peatland in lowland areas.{{Cite web |title=Welsh Peatland Sustainable Management Scheme (SMS) Project |url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/abergwesyn-common/features/welsh-peatland-sustainable-management-scheme-sms-project |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=National Trust |language=en}} Some peatland areas in Wales are in poor condition. In 2020, the Welsh Government established a five-year peatland restoration initiative, which will be implemented by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).{{Cite web |title=Natural Resources Wales / The National Peatland Action Programme |url=https://naturalresources.wales/evidence-and-data/maps/the-national-peatland-action-programme/?lang=en |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=naturalresources.wales |language=en-gb}}

There are 294 million acres of peatland in Canada, with approximately 43,500 acres in production and another 34,500 acres involved in past production. The current and past acreage in production amounts to 0.03 percent of Canada's peatland.{{Cite journal |last=Altland |first=James |date=March 2024 |title=Peat industry confusion: The blurring of two separate issues. |journal=GPN Greenhouse Product News |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=10}}

Canada is the top exporter of peat by value. In 2021, top exporters of peat (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated, were Canada ($580,591.39K, 1,643,950,000 kg), European Union ($445,304.42K, 2,362,280,000 kg), Latvia ($275,459.14K, 2,184,860,000 kg), Netherlands ($235,250.84K, 1,312,850,000 kg), Germany ($223,414.66K, 1,721,170,000 kg).{{cite web |title=Peat; (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated exports by country in 2021 |url=https://wits.worldbank.org/trade/comtrade/en/country/ALL/year/2021/tradeflow/Exports/partner/WLD/product/270300 |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=WITS – World Integrated Solution |publisher=World Bank |ref=58}}

{{div col}}

• Acid sulfate soil
• Acrotelm
• Climate change mitigation#Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks
• Gyttja
• Histosol
• Irish Peatland Conservation Council
• Lindow Man, also known as "Pete Marsh"
• List of bogs
• Peat Cutting Monday
• Tropical peat
• Turbary
• Unified Soil Classification System
• :Category:Peat-fired power stations

{{div col end}}

{{Portal inline|Wetlands}}

{{Ibid|date=January 2024}}

{{Reflist|group=Notes}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Wikibooks |Historical Geology|Peat and coal}}

{{Commons category|Peat}}

{{Wiktionary}}

{{NSRW Poster}}

• [https://peatlands.org/ International Peatland Society]
• [http://www.imcg.net International Mire Conservation Group]
• [https://www.ipcc.ie/ Irish Peatland Conservation Council]
• [https://www.rhs.org.uk/science/gardening-in-a-changing-world/peat-use-in-gardens/peat-alternatives Gardening without peat] Royal Horticultural Society
• [https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/advice/gardening-for-wildlife/plants-for-wildlife/peat-free-compost/ Peat-free gardens] RSPB
• [https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6613 Massive peat burn is speeding climate change] From The New Scientist
• [https://www.bbc.com/news/topics/c5rmpkv42j4t/peatlands Peatlands articles] on the BBC
• [http://www.pitcherplant.org Meadowview Biological Research Station]
• [https://ir.ua.edu/handle/123456789/9811 Peat and Peatlands Bibliography]
• [https://peatdatahub.net/ PeatDataHub - combining global peatland datasets]
• {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Peat |volume=21 |page=31 |short=1}}

{{Geotechnical engineering|state=collapsed}}

{{Coal}}

{{Non-timber forest products}}

{{Firefighting}}

{{Authority control}}

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