tawaif

File:Mir Miran 001.jpg

Tawaifs have existed for centuries in the Indian subcontinent, with one of the earliest references to the profession being the character Vasantasena from the 5th century BC Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika. In early India, Gaṇikā referred to a courtesan or public dancing girl. Ganikas were trained in fine arts like dance and music to entertain kings, princes, and other wealthy patrons on religious and social occasions.{{Cite web |title=The Ganika in Buddhist and Jaina literature |url=http://indianculture.gov.in/ganika-buddhist-and-jaina-literature |access-date=20 December 2023 |website=INDIAN CULTURE |language=en}} Women competed to win the title of a Nagarvadhu. The most beautiful woman, and most talented in various dance forms, was chosen as the Nagarvadhu.[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20001224/spectrum/main1.htm Spectrum lead article, The Sunday Tribune, 24 Dec 2000] For example, Amrapali is a famous Nagarvadhu or royal dancer.{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2008/20081214/spectrum/main6.htm |title=The Sunday Tribune - Spectrum|work=tribuneindia.com|access-date=4 July 2016}}

It is believed in folkloric history that Urvashi was said to have been born on earth as a devadasi and imparted the divine knowledge of dance unto humans. The first dance of the devadasi took place in a temple in the presence of a king who honoured her with titles and gifts, and she was well-versed in temple rituals and took part in temple festivals. Devadasis were well received across North India and modern-day Pakistan and Chinese pilgrim Huein Tsang who visited India in the 7th century testified to a large number of dancing girls in the Sun Temple of Multan. Al-Biruni in his famous study of India in the 11th century recorded that about 500 dancing girls were active in the Somnath temple.{{Cite book |last=Nevile |first=Pran |title=Nautch girls of India: Dancers, singers, playmates |date=1996 |publisher=Prakriti India |isbn=978-8190068802 |pages=19–22}}

The patronage of the Mughal court in the Doab region and the subsequent atmosphere of 16th century Awadh made arts-related careers a viable prospect. Mughal Emperor Akbar himself was enchanted by a Portuguese expert dancing girl whom he named Dilruba (heart warmer).{{Cite book |last=Nevile |first=Pran |title=Nautch girls of India: dancers, singers, playmates |date=1996 |publisher=Ravi Kumar Publisher |isbn=9788190068802 |pages=35}} In 1623, Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle noted that the majority of public courtesans in the Empire were Mohammedan women, who partook in various acts, including singing and dancing, as opposed to the indigenous women of India, who often refused to partake, deeming it immodest.{{Cite book |last1=Della Valle |first1=Pietro |url=https://archive.org/details/travelsofpietrod00dell/page/46/mode/2up |title=The travels of Pietro della Valle in India: from the old English translation of 1664 |last2=Havers |first2=G. (George) |last3=Grey |first3=Edward |date=1892 |publisher=London : Printed for the Hakluyt Society |others=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill University Library}}

File:Nautch girls, Kashmir by Samuel Bourne.jpg girls in Kashmir, an albumen print by Frith, {{Circa|1870s}}]]

Many girls were taken at a young age and trained in both performing arts, including mujra, Kathak, and Hindustani classical music, as well as literature, poetry (particularly ghazal), thumri, and dadra. The training of young tawaifs also encompassed urdu writing and enunciation, as well as social skills employed in cultivating patrons and retaining them, particularly the complex etiquette associated with their craft, in which they were seen as experts.{{cite news |title= A hundred years of unsung love|url= http://www.mid-day.com/articles/a-hundred-years-of-unsung-love/85029|newspaper= Mid Day|access-date=22 January 2012}} During the Mughal period, prostitutes were known as randi, kasbi, and thakahi,{{cite web |title=7 - Cultural Clash: From Tawaif to Kasbi |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/struggle-for-identity/cultural-clash-from-tawaif-to-kasbi/D60C7E4DDE7263104BE4CD680AD7246D |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913091859/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/struggle-for-identity/cultural-clash-from-tawaif-to-kasbi/D60C7E4DDE7263104BE4CD680AD7246D |archive-date=13 September 2024}} some prostitutes also sing and dance,{{Cite book |title=UMRAO JAN ADA: THE COURTESAN OF LUCKNOW |date=1970 |publisher=ORIENT PAPERBACKS |isbn=978-8122203936 |pages=104}} but many of them did not even have access to artistic training.{{Cite book |last=Vikram |first=Sampath |title=Mera Naam Gauhar Jaan Hai |date=2012 |publisher=Rupa Publications India |isbn=978-8129120588 |pages=45}}

Once a trainee had matured and possessed a sufficient command over dancing and singing, she became a tawaif, a high-class courtesan who served the rich and noble.{{cite news |title= The Last Song of Awadh|url= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/the-last-song-of-awadh/502153/0|newspaper=Indian Express |access-date=22 January 2012}} Unsurprisingly then, their training in music and dance started at a very young age, under the guidance and tutelage of renowned ustaads (masters). Young girls regularly spent hours in riyaz, a term connoting abstinence, devotion, discipline, and hard labour, learning songs and dance to the exacting standards set by their teachers. At a mundane level, regular riyaz is necessary for a flawless performance before an audience.{{Cite book |last=Saba |first=Dewan |title=Tawaifnama |date=2019 |publisher=Context |isbn=978-9388754347 |pages=90}} Many well-known tawaifs practiced and learned music throughout their careers, seeking masters from different gharanas "music traditions" to add to their performance style.{{cite web | url=https://shinjinim-com.translate.goog/2021/07/07/tawaifnama-a-brief-history-of-tawaif-culture-in-india/?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=zh-CN&_x_tr_hl=zh-CN&_x_tr_pto=sc | title=Tawaifnama: A brief history of Tawaif culture in India | date=7 July 2021 }}

The tawaif's introduction into her profession was marked by a celebration, the so-called missī ceremony, that customarily included the inaugural blackening of her teeth.{{cite web|url=https://oxford.academia.edu/ThomasZumbroich |title=Zumbroich, Thomas J. (2015) 'The missī-stained finger-tip of the fair': A cultural history of teeth and gum blackening in South Asia. eJournal of Indian Medicine 8(1): 1–32|access-date=31 March 2015}}

It is also believed that young nawabs-to-be were sent to these tawaifs to learn tameez ({{lang|ur|تمیز}} "etiquette, good behavior") and Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, which included the ability to recognise and appreciate good music and literature, perhaps even practice it, especially the art of ghazal writing. They also became teachers for the sons of wealthy and elite families, who would often send their sons to kothas so they could learn proper Hindustani language, poetry and etiquette from tawaifs. The boys would be told to sit and observe how a tawaif goes about her interactions. The tawaif's contribution to society came from a tradition of families and enjoyed a hierarchy. The uppermost echelon of tawaifs was entrusted with the responsibility of teaching adab (etiquette) and qa'ida (manners) to the kings and young princes. They would also familiarize the royalty with the finer nuances of poetry, music, dance and literature. By the 18th century, they had become the central element of polite, refined culture in North India.{{cite web | url=https://www.himalmag.com/chronicling-courtesans-tawaifnama-saba-dewan-2020/ | title=Chronicling courtesans | date=11 February 2020 }}{{cite web | url=https://indiaeducationdiary.in/prabha-khaitan-foundation-launches-vikram-sampaths-book-mera-naam-gauhar-jaan-hai/ | title=Prabha Khaitan Foundation launches Vikram Sampath's book 'Mera Naam Gauhar Jaan Hai' | date=29 March 2022 }}

The kotha of a tawaif is a performance space and as a guardian of arts and culture, and is only open to the city's elite and wealthy patrons. In these rarified spaces, tawaifs would compose poetry, sing and dance with live musical composition, as well as performing at banquets, all of which required years of rigorous training. Tawaif is a performer who thrives on sponsorship from royal and aristocratic families, and the dancers are responsible for performing mujra dance with good manners. True mujra is elegant, complex, and artistic, presented elegantly. The tawaif is also invited to perform at grand occasions such as a marriage or the birth of a male heiren. In such occasions, they usually perform a mythological or legendary story, like singing. The tawaifs would dance, sing (especially ghazals), recite poetry (shairi) and entertain their suitors at mehfils.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} File:Mah Laqa Bai dancing.jpg

Like the geisha tradition in Japan,{{cite news |title= Courtesans resisted male dominance|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Courtesans-resisted-male-dominance/articleshow/32700270.cms|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110916050107/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2002-12-29/lucknow/27292450_1_male-dominance-oldenburg-lucknow|url-status= live|archive-date= 16 September 2011|date= 29 December 2002|newspaper= The Times of India|access-date=22 January 2012}} their main purpose was to professionally entertain their guests, and while sex was often incidental, it was not assured contractually. High-class or the most popular tawaifs could often pick and choose among the best of their suitors. Tawaifs performed at temples during holidays and participated in temple celebrations, which had been passed down from generation to generation. They also had the tradition of performing at the Burhwa Mangal bazaar in the spring after Holi. Such events provided a significant platform for tawaifs, not just for the patronage but also for the opportunity it offered for tawaifs to showcase their skills to general audiences and, thereby, retain societal acceptability for their trade. Due to their popularity, many dancing girls became very wealthy. According to Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes, dancing girls were fabulously rich. Domingo was "struck by their collars of gold studded with diamonds, rubies and pearls, bracelets on their arms, girdles below and, of necessity, anklets on their feet."{{Cite book |last=Nevile |first=Pran |title=Nautch girls of India : dancers, singers, playmates |date=1996 |publisher=Ravi Kumar Publisher |isbn=9788190068802 |pages=30}}

File:Courtesan - Unknown - 19 1927 2 89.jpg

There were hierarchies among the performing artists, and the tawaifs were at the top, a class distinct from street performers and prostitutes. Tawaif kothas, where the tawaifs often lived and performed, would host meetings of local intelligentsia, presided mostly by the most senior tawaif of the kotha. Tawaifs enjoyed influence among writers, journalists and poets. The poets longed for a tawaif to sing their works and asked the famous tawaif if she could sing his poems. In those days, having tawaif perform their own work was a way to ensure that poetry would be remembered and passed down from generation to generation.{{cite news |last=Deodhar |first=Neerja|date=11 June 2019 |title=Tawaifs and tehzeeb: Notes from a symposium on courtesans' contributions to art, freedom struggle|url= https://www.firstpost.com/living/tawaifs-and-tehzeeb-notes-from-a-symposium-on-courtesans-contributions-to-art-freedom-struggle-6739081.html|work=FirstPost|location=Mumbai}} A Tawaif had an unconventional approach to relationships, where female performers were expected to remain unmarried but were permitted to have relationships with patrons. Tawaifs traditionally served loyal mistresses to wealthy patrons. Only once a relationship was terminated, either due to the death of their patron or a mutual decision to part ways, would a tawaif look to enter into another relationship.{{cite web | url=https://www-outlookindia-com.translate.goog/magazine/national/the-sonshine-years-magazine-184829?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=zh-CN&_x_tr_hl=zh-CN&_x_tr_pto=sc | title=The Sonshine Years: Bitter-sweet Memories of Growing up in Kamathipura | date=4 March 2022 }}{{Cite book |last=Fouzia |first=Saeed |title=TABOO: The Hidden Culture of a Red Light District |date=2014 |publisher=Made for Success |isbn=978-1483007397 |pages=85–86}}

However, by the time the British Raj had annexed Punjab, the services of tawaifs were no longer valued, and even the most highly trained dancing girls were reviled as lewd by the Victorian standards of the British. Despite this, British men were happy to take local women as concubines and mistresses but were uninterested in becoming patrons of the formerly well tolerated tawaifs of Lahore, and even less interested in spending lavish sums upon them.{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Louise T. |title=Dancing Girls of Lahore |date=2006 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |isbn=0060740434 |pages=34–36}}

Some of the most prominent tawaifs in history were Anarkali, Mah Laqa Bai, Bhagmati, Lal Kunwar, Qudsia Begum, Zainabadi Mahal, Mubarak Begum and Begum Samru (who rose to rule the principality of Sardhana in western Uttar Pradesh), Moran Sarkar (who became the wife of Maharaja Ranjit Singh), Wazeeran (patronised by Lucknow's last nawab Wajid Ali Shah), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Wajid Ali's first wife who played an important role in the Indian Rebellion), Gauhar Jaan (a notable classical singer who sang for India's first-ever record), and Zohrabai Agrewali.

A number of television and film actresses from Pakistan were tawaifs, including Niggo, Nadira, and Naina. A number of singers from Pakistan also were tawaifs, including Zeenat Begum and Tamancha Jan.{{Cite book |last=Fouzia |first=Saeed |title=TABOO: The Hidden Culture of a Red Light District |date=2014 |publisher=Made for Success |isbn=978-1483007397 |pages=325}}{{Cite book |last=Fouzia |first=Saeed |title=TABOO: The Hidden Culture of a Red Light District |date=2014 |publisher=Made for Success |isbn=978-1483007397 |pages=158}}{{Cite book |last=Fouzia |first=Saeed |title=TABOO: The Hidden Culture of a Red Light District |date=2014 |publisher=Made for Success |isbn=978-1483007397 |pages=377–378}}

File:Gauhar_Jaan.jpg (1873–1930)]]

The annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856 sounded the first death knell for this medieval-era institution. It was soon looked down upon with disfavour by the colonial government, and the tawaifs were eventually forced to go into prostitution due to a lack of employment opportunities. Social reformers in India opposed them as social decadence.Indian Classical Dance and the Making of Postcolonial National Identities: Dancing on Empire's Stage, Sitara Thobani, Routledge, 27 March 2017 But some tawaif and institutions still survived until India's independence in 1947. Some of the famous tawaifs include:[http://chandrakantha.com/articles/tawaif/6_passing_the_torch.html A Few Famous Tawaifs of the Time, THE TAWAIF, THE ANTI – NAUTCH MOVEMENT, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF NORTH INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC: Part 6 – The Passing of the Torch], David Courtney, 23 February 2016

• Begum Akhtar (7 October 1914 – 30 October 1974), Indian singer and actress, known as "Mallika-e-Ghazal" (Queen of Ghazals).
• Binodini Dasi (1862–1941), Indian actress, pioneering entrepreneur of the Bengali stage.
• Fatma Begum (1892–1983), Indian actress, director and screenwriter.
• Husna Bai, thumri singer.
• Jaddanbai (1892–1949), Indian master music composer, singer, actress, and film maker.
• Rattan Bai (15 July 1890 – 1 January 1986), Indian actress and singer.{{cite web | url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/a-tale-of-two-women-in-search-of-their-own-songs/cid/445350 | title=A TALE OF TWO WOMEN - in search of their own songs }}
• Kajjanbai (15 February 1915 – 20 December 1945) Indian singer and actress, often referred to as the "Nightingale of Bengal".
• Kajjan Begum (24 January 1932 – 10 February 2000) Pakistani classical singer and playback singer.
• Malika Pukhraj (1912 – 2004), Pakistani ghazal and folk singer.
• Malka Jaan, and daughter Gauhar Jaan (1873–1930), who created the first Indian song recording in 1902.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pQF3KazeZc GAUHER JAN FIRST INDIAN RECORD IN KOLKATTA, Oct 31, 2009]
• Mukhtar Begum (12 July 1901 – 25 February 1982), Pakistani classical, ghazal singer and actress. She was known as The Queen of Music for singing songs in films and on radio.
• Chamiyan Bai (1898 – 14 August 1998), Indian singer and classical singer. She was also known as Shamshad Begum and was known as The Queen of Music. She is the mother of Naseem Banu and grandmother of Saira Banu.
• Rasoolan Bai (1902 – 15 December 1974), Indian Hindustani classical music vocal musician.
• Roshan Ara Begum (1917 – 6 December 1982), vocalist belonging to the Kirana gharana of Hindustani classical music. She is also known by her honorific title Malika-e-Mauseeqi (The Queen of Music) in both Pakistan and India.
• Shobha Gurtu (1925–2004), Indian singer in the light Hindustani classical style, known as The Thumri Queen.
• Zareena Begum of Lucknow (1947 – 12 May 2018), Indian classical singer.{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/zareena-begum-awadh-s-last-royal-singer-dies-at-88/story-7D9j517oIinlqRuTUlh34H.html|title=Zareena Begum, Awadh's last royal singer, dies at 88|date=12 May 2018|work=www.hindustantimes.com|access-date=4 August 2018|language=en}}
• Zohrabai (1868–1913), Hindustani classical singer of the Agra gharana.
• Zeenat Begum (11 November 1931 – 11 December 2007), Pakistani singer, known as "The Queen of Yesteryear" for singing songs in films and on radio.
• Tamancha Jan (10 July 1918 – 20 October 2008), Pakistani folk singer, known as "The Singing Siren" and "The Nightingale of Lahore".

The tawaifs had actively participated in anti-British actions behind the scenes. Their buildings, known as "kothas", became meeting areas and hiding places for anti-British elements. Those tawaifs who accumulated wealth provided financial support to anti-British elements. Some tawaifs suffered retaliation from colonial authorities. Their kotha was searched and their belongings confiscated. The Victorian-era morality project placed a premium on women's chastity and domesticity. As public performers, tawaifs were equated with prostitutes and their kothas were branded as brothels.{{cite news |last=Rao |first=Soumya |date=20 June 2019 |title=Tawaifs: The Unsung heroes of India's Freedom Struggle |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1489351 |access-date= |work=Dawn |location=Lahore}} Mujra dance originally did not refer to vulgar dance, but an elegant and ceremonial dance, usually performed by tawaif. During the British colonial period, some tawaifs became prostitute. The distinction between prostitutes and tawaifs began to blur. Some prostitutes also called their erotic dances mujra dance. Mujra dance gradually became associated with sex and prostitution.[https://www.desiblitz.com/content/the-history-of-mujra-dancing-in-pakistan The History of Mujra Dancing in Pakistan]. Desi Blitz.[https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Culture/Dance/Mujra,-a-misunderstood-concept-1.aspx Mujra: A Misunderstood Concept]. esamskriti.com

File:Mushaira by courtesans in Hyderabad, India.jpg

They used to be the only source of popular music and dance and were often invited to perform on weddings and other occasions. Some of them became concubines and wives of maharajas and wealthy individuals. They were the first singers to record on gramophone with the emergence of that new technology. With the emergence of movies, however, they lost popularity. With their traditional spaces and modes of music rehearsal under attack, many tawaifs found space as performers in the newly emerging industries of mass entertainment, such as the gramophone, theatre and later films. The earliest singers to record for the gramophone, in the early 20th century, came from tawaif backgrounds, as did the first actresses of Parsi theatre and, later, the ‘talkies’, films with sound. A majority of tawaifs could not make this transition, however, and continued to perform within their kothas to a dwindling group of patrons.{{cite web | url=https://www.himalmag.com/in-search-of-the-other-song/ | title=In search of the other song | date=25 January 2011 }}

After the British colonization, although more brothels and prostitutes were operating in Heera Mandi, there were still tawaif performing activities in the area, Heera Mandi retained its reputation as a centre of the performing arts.{{cite web | url=https://www.peepultree.world/livehistoryindia/story/places/heera-mandi | title=Heera Mandi: Red-Light Area With ARoyal Past| date=3 March 2021}} After the partition, young and attractive tawaifs from Heera Mandi became the first choice of Pakistan filmmakers. Tawaifs from Heera Mandi joined the Lollywood industry and gained much fame and wealth. Some of the most skilled tawaifs performed as backup dancers in early Pakistan films.{{Cite web |date=7 June 2017 |title=Niggo - A Heera Mandi girl in Lollywood and victim of honour killing |url=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/lifestyle/niggo-a-heera-mandi-girl-in-lollywood-and-victim-of-honour-killing/ |access-date=1 January 2024 |website=Daily Pakistan Global |language=en}} In Heera Mandi and surrounding areas, there were many dance classrooms and music classrooms, which were closed as the tawaifs and musicians left.{{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1201815 | title=Footprints: When shahi mohallah fell silent| date=21 August 2015}}Image:Nautch dancer.jpg, c. 1900]]

With the development of time, the tawaif in India has gradually disappeared. In the 1980s, when kothas were no longer recognized as centres for aesthetics, and society disapproved of the tawaif's art, as they felt it was sex work in the guise of adakari (performance). It was an era when tawaifs had to dodge guns, goons and Ghalib's ghazals. The tawaifs who are still performing no longer have the same literary education as before, but they are not sex workers, "a courtesan is no less than a circus performer, balancing a bottle on her head".{{cite web | url=https://www.vogue.in/content/beyond-heeramandi-a-brief-history-of-indias-courtesans-sans-the-glamour-of-bollywood | title=Beyond Heeramandi: A brief history of India's courtesans sans the glamour of Bollywood| date=2 February 2024}}{{Cite book |last=Manish |first=Gaekwad |title=The Last Courtesan : Writing My Mother's Memoir |date=2023 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-9356993129 |pages=155}}{{Cite book |last=Manish |first=Gaekwad |title=The Last Courtesan : Writing My Mother's Memoir |date=2023 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-9356993129 |pages=171}} They are all trained in Kathak, to regale the men who visit them in the evenings. Another skill they are expected to master is singing. Tawaifs are versed in ghazals, hori and thumris, but many now know just enough to earn a livelihood.{{Cite book |last=Manish |first=Gaekwad |title=The Last Courtesan : Writing My Mother's Memoir |date=2023 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-9356993129 |pages=28–34}}{{cite web |title=Revisiting The Courtesans of Bombay |url=https://madraswallah.com/2018/04/25/revisiting-the-courtesans-of-bombay/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913091859/https://madraswallah.com/2018/04/25/revisiting-the-courtesans-of-bombay/ |archive-date=13 September 2024}} In addition to performing at kotha, tawaifs also performed during weddings at home, celebrations of child birth and other festivities, provided the entertainment of singing and dancing.{{cite web |title=Courtesans of Bombay |url=https://www.merchantivory.com/film/courtesansofbombay |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913091859/https://www.merchantivory.com/film/courtesansofbombay |archive-date=13 September 2024}} The 1993 Bow Bazaar bomb blast in Calcutta brought an end to the kothas in the busy commercial district. As dance bars and disco music replaced mujras, kathak and thumri, the tawaifs abandoned the profession.

"Tawaifs & Kothas" cultural tour initiated by "Enroute Indian History". Explore the lives of the tawaifs or dancing girls on a heritage walk through the streets of Shahjahanabad with Enroute Indian History.{{cite web | url=https://insider.in/tawaifs-kothas-exploring-chawri-bazaar-sep17-2023/event | title=Tawaifs & Kothas : Exploring Chawri Bazaar (Old Delhi Heritage Walk)}}

{{In popular culture|date=September 2021}}

The image of the tawaif has had an enduring appeal, immortalized in Bollywood and Lollywood movies and Pakistani dramas.{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/resource/work/406806|title=Making a Woman from a Tawaif:Courtesans as Heroes in Hindi Cinema|first= Gregory D|last=Booth|publisher=University of Auckland}}

Films with a tawaif as a character include:

• Devdas (1935)
• Devdas (1936)
• Devdas (1937)
• Anhonee (1952)
• Anarkali (1953)
• Devadasu (1953)
• Chandni Chowk (1954)
• Mirza Ghalib (1954)
• Devdas (1955)
• Anarkali (1955)
• Mehndi (1958)
• Zindagi Ya Toofan (1958)
• Jalsaghar (1958)
• Mughal-E-Azam (1960)
• Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (1962)
• Uttar Falguni (1963)
• Mujhe Jeene Do (1963)
• Benazir (1964)
• Devdas (1965)
• Kaajal (1965)
• Mamta (1966)
• Teesri Kasam (1966)
• Anarkali (1966)
• Bahu Begum (1967)
• Mere Huzoor (1968)
• Sunghursh (1968)
• Kaviya Thalaivi (1970)
• Sharafat (1970)
• Aansoo Aur Muskan (1970)
• Insan Aur Aadmi (1970)
• Khilona (1970)
• Pakeezah (1972)
• Gomti Ke Kinare (1972)
• Amar Prem (1972)
• Dharma (1973)
• Pran Jaye Par Vachan Na Jaye (1974)
• Devadasu (1974)
• Sharafat Chhod Di Maine (1976)
• Harmonium (1976)
• Shatranj Ke Khilari (1977)
• Kasme Vaade (1978)
• Muqaddar Ka Sikandar (1978)
• Devadasu Malli Puttadu (1978)
• Suhaag (1979)
• Umrao Jaan (1981)
• Daasi (1981)
• Deedaar-e-Yaar (1982)
• Prem Tapasya (1983)
• Ghungroo (1983)
• Maati Maangey Khoon (1984)
• Tawaif (1985)
• Angaaray (1986)
• Maa Beti (1986)
• Pati Patni Aur Tawaif (1990)
• Dil Aashna Hai (1992)
• In Custody (1993)
• Sardari begum (1996)
• Devdas (2002){{cite news |title= Umrao Jaan|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/hindi/Umrao-Jaan-/moviereview/312971.cms|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120503103411/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-11-04/hindi/27807887_1_umrao-jaan-dream-lover-urdu|url-status= live|archive-date= 3 May 2012|date= 4 November 2006|newspaper= The Times of India|access-date=22 January 2012}}
• Mangal Pandey: The Rising (2005)
• Kisna: The Warrior Poet (2005)
• Bhagmati (2005)
• Umrao Jaan (2006){{cite news |title=Ash glows at the mahurat of Umrao Jaan |url= http://inhome.rediff.com/movies/2005/oct/10ash.htm|newspaper= Rediff|access-date=22 January 2012}}
• Yatra (2006)
• Devdas (2010)
• The Black Woman (2011) (depicts a tawaif in a supporting role, often in situations where a man in a loveless marriage goes to her.){{cite news|title= The Black Woman|url= http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/42323411-black-woman|newspaper= Washington Bangla Radio|access-date= 22 January 2012|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110427040728/http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/42323411-black-woman|archive-date= 27 April 2011|df= dmy-all}}
• Dedh Ishqiya (2014)
• Jaanisaar (2015)
• Thugs Of Hindostan (2018)
• Ek Je Chhilo Raja (2018)
• Kalank (2019)
• Hamidabai Ki Kothi (2019)
• Qala (2022)

• Anarkali (1958)
• Ghalib (1961)
• Anjuman (1970)
• Afshan (1971)
• Umrao Jaan Ada (1972)
• Deedar (1974)
• Izzat (1975)
• Surraya Bhopali (1976)
• Pakeeza (1979)
• Bazar-e-Husn (1988)
• Bol (2011)
• Mah e Mir (2016)
• Huey Tum Ajnabi (2023){{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1749715| title=THE ICON REVIEW: A SEPARATION FROM HISTORY| date=30 April 2023}}

• The Courtesans of Bombay (1983)
• The Other Song (2009)

• Umrao jaan Ada (2014){{cite web |title=Umrao Jaan Ada |url=http://www.samvaad.com/tv-production/umrao-jaan-ada.htm |publisher=Samvaad Video Pvt.Ltd.}}
• Lajwanti (2015){{Cite web|title = TV adaptation of Rajinder Singh Bedi's 'Lajwanti' launched|date = 15 September 2015|url = http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/tv-adaptation-of-rajinder-singh-bedis-lajwanti-launched/|accessdate = 28 September 2015}}
• Bhabiji Ghar Par Hain! (2015)
• Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali (2018)
• A Suitable Boy (TV series) (2020)
• Jubilee (TV series) (2023)
• Heeramandi:The Diamond Bazaar (2024)

• Chand Grehan (1995), drama on STN
• Red Card (1995), drama on STN
• Samandar Hai Darmiyan (1998)
• Ghulam Gardish (1998)
• Umrao Jaan Ada (2003)
• Aatish (2004), PTV drama
• Adhoray Khawab (2004)
• Bazar (2004), PTV telefilm based on story by Saadat Hasan Manto{{Cite web|access-date=29 January 2021|publisher=KTV Prime|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89Spz2xvK8A/|title=Bazar 1990 comprehension {{!}}Manto {{!}} bazar{{!}} telefilm |via=YouTube|date=27 May 2019 }}
• Kaantay (2004), PTV drama
• Bheegi Palkain (2005)
• Makan Aka Home a Heaven (2006)
• Bhool (2006), PTV drama
• Sitam (2006), PTV drama
• Jhumka Jaan (2007)
• Mere Humnasheen (2009), a television film
• Saza Aur Jaza (2010), PTV drama
• Chand Chehra (2013)
• Anjuman (2013), a television film
• Mein Sitara (2016)
• Alif Allah Aur Insaan (2017)
• Kahan Ho Tum(2018)
• Alif (2019)
• Deewar-e-Shab (2019){{Cite web|access-date=29 January 2023|publisher=propakistani.pk|url=https://propakistani.pk/lens/deewar-e-shab-teaser-is-all-about-an-artisans-love-story-video/|title="Deewar-e-Shab" Teaser Is All About An Artisan's Love Story [Video]|date=28 December 2022}}
• Raqs e Bismil (2020)
• Khuda Aur Mohabbat (2021)
• Pehli Si Muhabbat (2021){{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1638021| title=THE TUBE Pehli Si Muhabbat| date=August 2021}}
• Badzaat (2022)
• Dil Awaiz (2022)
• Nauroz (2023)
• Namak Haram (2024){{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1818732| title=THE TUBE Namak Haram| date=3 March 2024}}

• Tawaifnama{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/tawaifnama-review-banaras-down-the-ages-through-the-eyes-of-tawaifs/article29862627.ece|title='Tawaifnama' review: Banaras down the ages through the eyes of tawaifs|website=The Hindu|access-date=2 November 2019}} by Saba Dewan
• Mera Naam Gauhar Jaan Hai by Vikram Sampath
• TABOO: The Hidden Culture of a Red Light DistrictTaboo Urdu edition release www.oup.com.pk/pdf/higherEducation/urdu.pdf Kalunk by Fouzia Saeed
• Umrao Jaan Ada novel by Mirza Hadi Ruswa
• Nashtar novel by Hasan Shah{{cite web | url=http://www.streeshakti.com/bookK.aspx?author=20 | title=StreeShakti - the Parallel Force }}
• Bazar story by Saadat Hasan Manto
• The Last Courtesan by Manish Gaekwad
• Song Sung True by Malika Pukhraj
• Akhtari : The Life and Music of Begum Akhtar by Yatindra Mishra, Maneesha Taneja
• Nautch Girls of India by Pran Nevile
• The Unsung Martyred Tawayafs by Dr. K.S. Bhardwaj
• Dance to Freedom by A.K. Gandhi

{{div col|colwidth=15em}}

• Similar professions in other cultures
• Almah, a similar profession in the Middle East
• Ca trù, a similar profession in Vietnam
• Geisha, a similar profession in Japan
• Shirabyōshi, a similar profession in Japan
• Kisaeng, a similar profession in Korea
• Qiyan, a similar profession in the pre-modern Islamic world
• Nagarvadhu, a similar profession in ancient India
• Gaṇikā, a similar profession in ancient India
• Shamakhi dancers, a similar profession in Azerbaijan
• Gējì, a similar profession in China
• Similar topics in India
• Bargirl
• Dance bar
• Mujra
• Nautch
• Devdasi
• Related topics
• Prostitution in colonial India
• Prostitution in India
• Prostitution in Pakistan{{div col end}}

{{reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite book |title=The tribes and castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh |last=Crooke |first=William |year=1999 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1210-5 |page=364 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MvAtxnxTWpwC&q=Tawaif&pg=PA364 |access-date=10 May 2008}}

{{refend}}

• Martha Feldman, Bonnie Gordon. [https://books.google.com/books?id=U-iuYBiOkRgC The courtesan's arts: cross-cultural perspectives]. pp. 312–352.
• [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urdu/umraojan/txt_bautze_2009.pdf Essay on Asia art, history, epigraphy and culture in Honour of Gouriswar Bhattacharya]

{{Wiktionary|tawaif}}

• [http://chandrakantha.com/articles/tawaif/index.html The Tawaif, The Anti – Nautch Movement, and the Development of North Indian Classical Music]

{{Prostitution in India}}

{{Social issues in India}}

{{Alcohol in India}}

Category:Obsolete occupations

Category:Sex industry in India

Category:Courtesans by type

Category:Culture of Lucknow

Category:Culture of Uttar Pradesh

Category:Indian courtesans

Category:Pakistani tawaifs