trap–neuter–return

File:Stray Cat, Singapore (1559759482).jpg

TNR usually stands for trap–neuter–return. It is sometimes described as trap–neuter–release.for example, Joe Vaccarelli, [http://www.denverpost.com/denver/ci_25936330/denver-animal-shelter-partners-up-help-reduce-feral... "Denver Animal Shelter partners up to help reduce feral cat population"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504142526/http://www.denverpost.com/denver/ci_25936330/denver-animal-shelter-partners-up-help-reduce-feral... |date=2015-05-04 }}, The Denver Post, June 12, 2014 The word return emphasizes that most feral cats are returned to their original locations under such a program. Variant acronyms and terms include: TNSR (for 'trap–neuter/spay–return'),[http://www.delta.ca/services/animal-shelter/how-to-help "How to Help: Financial Donations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006152330/http://www.delta.ca/services/animal-shelter/how-to-help |date=2014-10-06 }}, Corporation of Delta, accessed August 6, 2014. Quote: "...our Trap–Neuter/Spay–Return program for feral cats". TNVR ('trap–neuter–vaccinate–return'),Humane Society of Tampa Bay, [http://humanesocietytampa.org/feralcats/abouttnvr/ "Trap / Neuter / Vaccinate / Return (TNVR): What is TNVR?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005093812/http://humanesocietytampa.org/feralcats/abouttnvr/ |date=2014-10-05 }}, accessed June 15, 2014. TNRM ('trap–neuter–release–maintain/manage') where 'maintain' generally means caregivers feed and monitor the feral cats after they are returned to their territories,Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Montreal, Quebec, [http://www.spca.com/?p=6065&lang=en "Do you know about our TNRM program?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006075854/http://www.spca.com/?p=6065&lang=en |date=2014-10-06 }}, July 5, 2013, accessed June 15, 2014 and TTVAR ('trap–test–vaccinate–alter–release').for example, National Pet Alliance [http://www.fanciers.com/npa/ttvar.html "NPA's TTVAR Program: Trap, Test, Vaccinate, Alter and Release"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902071840/http://www.fanciers.com/npa/ttvar.html |date=2014-09-02 }}, accessed June 15, 2014.

TVHR ('trap–vasectomize/hysterectomize–release') refers to a different method of cat population management, despite its similar name.{{Cite web|url=https://www.alleycat.org/resources/trap-vasectomy-hysterectomy-return-tvhr-is-no-substitute-for-trap-neuter-return-tnr/|title=Trap-Vasectomy-Hysterectomy-Return (TVHR) Is No Substitute for Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR)|website=Alley Cat Allies|language=en|access-date=2019-03-17|archive-date=2020-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901211904/https://www.alleycat.org/resources/trap-vasectomy-hysterectomy-return-tvhr-is-no-substitute-for-trap-neuter-return-tnr/|url-status=live}}{{unreliable source?|reason=Seems to be a lobbying group against alternatives to TNR|date=August 2023}}{{Cite journal |first1=Robert J. |last1=McCarthy |first2=Stephen H. |last2=Levine |first3=J. Michael |last3=Reed |title=Estimation of effectiveness of three methods of feral cat population control by use of a simulation model |volume=243 |issue=4 |pages=502–511 |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |date=August 15, 2013 |doi=10.2460/javma.243.4.502 |pmid=23902443 |s2cid=16116016 |doi-access=free }} TVHR differs in the type of sterilization surgery performed on the cats. Unlike traditional spays (ovariohysterectomy) and neuters (castration), which are done in TNR, the vasectomies and hysterectomies in TVHR result in sterile but sexually active cats.{{Cite web|url=http://veterinarynews.dvm360.com/tufts-researchers-say-tnr-not-most-effective-method-control-feral-cat-population|title=Tufts researchers say TNR is not most effective method to control feral cat population |author=|website=DVM360.com|date=September 23, 2013|archive-date=2019-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306153652/http://veterinarynews.dvm360.com/tufts-researchers-say-tnr-not-most-effective-method-control-feral-cat-population|url-status=dead |access-date=May 12, 2025}}

RTF ('return to field') or TNS ('trap, neuter, shelter return') are alternative approaches that simply focus on the trap and desex portion and do not include a colony management aspect. In some instances, a receiving shelter will return a cat to where it was found; in other cases shelters are completely bypassed – a person takes a free-roaming live-trapped cat in for desexing, then returns it to where it was found.{{Cite web|url=https://www.millioncatchallenge.org/resources/return-to-field|title=Million Cat Challenge {{!}} Return to Field|website=www.millioncatchallenge.org|access-date=2019-03-30|archive-date=2019-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330055249/https://www.millioncatchallenge.org/resources/return-to-field|url-status=live}}{{unreliable source?|date=August 2023}}

TNR as a method of managing free-roaming cat populations is controversial. Global attitudes towards these cats vary from those who see them as pets to those who target them as invasive species that need to be eliminated.{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecology.com/2013/08/27/global-impact-feral-cats/|title=The Global Impact of Feral Cats {{!}} The Ecology Global Network|date=2013-08-27|website=Ecology Global Network|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-18|archive-date=2019-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611095455/http://www.ecology.com/2013/08/27/global-impact-feral-cats/|url-status=live}}

Organizations that support TNR include:

• The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals endorses TNR "as the only proven humane and effective method to manage community cat colonies." It clarifies its position by stating that managing "involves a colony caretaker who provides food and adequate shelter and monitors the cats' health."[http://www.aspca.org/adopt/feral-cats-faq "Feral Cats FAQ"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702161319/http://www.aspca.org/adopt/feral-cats-faq|date=2014-07-02}}, ASPCA, second paragraph, accessed June 20, 2014. Resources provided here on TNR and feral cats.
• Humane World for Animals recommends TNR as one of a number of programs which can reduce cat populations. It views TNR as the best way to mitigate cat-wildlife conflict, and opposes removing feral cats from the outdoors, saying that other cats will only appear to replace them.{{Cite web |title=Outdoor cats FAQ {{!}} Humane World for Animals |url=https://www.humaneworld.org/en/resources/outdoor-cats-faq |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=www.humaneworld.org |language=en}}
• The American Humane Association supports TNR programs for cats which can be released into safe cat colonies, where socialized cats are rehomed.{{Cite web |date=Aug 2012 |title=Animal Welfare Policy & Position Statements |url=https://www.americanhumane.org/publication/animal-welfare-policy-position-statements/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003102139/https://www.americanhumane.org/publication/animal-welfare-policy-position-statements/ |archive-date=2017-10-03}}
• The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals "supports Trap, Neuter and Release (TNR) programmes with veterinary support. Healthy cats should be neutered, ear-tipped and returned or, where appropriate, re-sited."{{Cite web |date=2014 |title=RSPCA policies on animal welfare |url=https://www.rspca.org.uk/whatwedo/howwework/policies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818150803/https://www.rspca.org.uk/whatwedo/howwework/policies |archive-date=2018-08-18}}{{cite journal |last1=Grogan |first1=Adam |date=2013 |title=Cats and Wildlife Casualties |journal=Journal of Wildlife Rehabilitation |volume=33 |issue=3 |issn=1071-2232}}

Organizations that oppose TNR include:

• PETA does not endorse TNR, citing research finding it is not an effective intervention, along with data finding short life expectancies and inhumane living conditions for feral cats. The organisation deems TNR to be acceptable when cats are released to areas away from people, wildlife, and traffic, and when they receive regular feeding and medical care.{{cite web |date=10 February 2021 |title=Trap-Neuter-Release: Does TNR Really Save Cats? |url=https://www.peta.org/features/does-tnr-really-save-cats/}}{{cite web | url=https://www.peta.org/about-peta/faq/what-is-petas-stance-on-programs-that-advocate-trapping-spaying-and-neutering-and-releasing-feral-cats/ | title=What is PETA's stance on programs that advocate trapping, spaying and neutering, and releasing feral cats? | date=7 July 2010 }}
• The Wildlife Society opposes TNR programs, stating that such programs result in more cats being abandoned, which "undermines the work of wildlife professionals and severely jeopardizes the integrity of native biodiversity."{{Cite web|url=http://wildlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/FactSheet-FeralCats_FINAL-1.pdf|title=Effects of an Invasive Species: Domestic Cats|date=Mar 2017|archive-date=2018-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517070540/http://wildlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/FactSheet-FeralCats_FINAL-1.pdf|url-status=live}}
• American Bird Conservancy opposes TNR programs due to "the persistent and severe threats posed by feral cat colonies."{{Cite web|url=https://abcbirds.org/program/cats-indoors/|title=Cats Indoors|website=American Bird Conservancy|language=en|access-date=2019-03-22|archive-date=2019-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322044620/https://abcbirds.org/program/cats-indoors/|url-status=live}}
• In a review of TNR programs, RSPCA Australia concluded that although there may be areas of the country where TNR programs could be effective, alongside rehoming and euthanasia schemes, it was "difficult to recommend" nationwide. The review proposed that education initiatives and promoting more responsible ownership of cats would be better ways to allocate resources.{{cite web |title=A review of trap-neuter-return (TNR) for the management of unowned cats |url=https://kb.rspca.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Cats-Trap-Neuter-Release-%E2%80%93-RSPCA-Research-Report-March-2011.pdf |website=RSPCA Australia |access-date=15 June 2024}}
• The Canadian Veterinary Medical Association states that TNR "is ineffective at reducing cat population sizes over reasonable time frames (e.g., less 10 years), with removal strategies such as high-volume adoptions, relocations and euthanasia being more efficacious"{{cite web |title=Free-roaming owned, Abandoned, and Feral Cats |url=https://www.canadianveterinarians.net/policy-and-outreach/position-statements/statements/free-roaming-owned-abandoned-and-feral-cats/ |website=Canadian Veterinary Medical Association |publisher=CVMA |access-date=15 June 2024}}
• The Australian Veterinary Association's policy on cat management in Australia does not support TNR due to the need for additional research in determining its effectiveness.{{cite web |title=Management of cats in Australia |url=https://www.ava.com.au/policy-advocacy/policies/companion-animals-management-and-welfare/management-of-cats-in-australia/#:~:text=Trap%2C%20neuter%20and%20return%20(TNR,shelter%20and%20monitor%20the%20cats. |website=Australian Veterinary Association |publisher=AVA |access-date=15 June 2024}}

Various studies and arguments have been presented both in support of and in opposition to free-roaming cats and TNR.

{{Quote box|quote=The high quality and visibility of the program, which provided food and veterinary care, may have encouraged abandonment of cats if owners believed that the cats would be well taken care of after abandonment. Abandonment may also have occurred if owners believed that cats would be better off under the care of the program rather than surrendered to a shelter where they would face the risk of euthanasia.|author=From Decrease in Population and Increase in Welfare of Community Cats in a Twenty-Three Year Trap-Neuter-Return Program in Key Largo, FL: The ORCAT Program|width=30%}}

In general, trap-neuter-release programs are not effective at reducing the population of feral cats, because the rates of trapping necessary to stop population growth are usually unattainable in real world conditions.

Some long-term studies have claimed or been cited to show that TNR is effective in stopping reproduction and reducing the population over time, but the methodology, analysis and conclusions of some of these studies have been called into question. Reviews of these studies, as well as mathematical models of population growth, have shown that TNR colonies only decrease in population where cats experience very high rates of permanent removal (of at least 50% of the colony cats per year, such as by a combination of adoption and euthanasia), combined with high sterilization rates, and low rates of immigration of new cats into the colony. Unless all of these conditions are met, TNR colonies will not decrease in size over time.

• An eleven-year study of a TNR program at the University of Central Florida achieved a population decrease of 66%, from 68 cats in 1996 (when the census was first completed after some trapping) to 23 cats in 2002. No new kittens were born after 1995, and newly arrived stray or abandoned cats were neutered or adopted to homes. However, as many proponents fail to note, TNR was not the sole reason for success. The population reduction was primarily from adoption (47%) and euthanasia (11%), or due to the cats no longer living on site with their whereabouts unknown (15%).
• A TNR program begun in 1992 by the Merrimack River Feline Rescue Society (MRFRS) on the central waterfront of Newburyport, Massachusetts, has been widely cited as an example of TNR success on a community level; however, only superficial reports about what took place have been available and there is very little statistical data to support the claims.{{Cite journal|last1=Spehar|first1=Daniel D.|last2=Wolf|first2=Peter J.|date=2017-10-31|title=An Examination of an Iconic Trap-Neuter-Return Program: The Newburyport, Massachusetts Case Study|journal= Animals|volume=7|issue=11|pages=81|doi=10.3390/ani7110081|issn=2076-2615|pmc=5704110|pmid=29088106|doi-access=free}}

Other studies have shown some intensive TNR programs to be failures. In San Diego County, California, a TNR program that processed 14,452 cats over eleven years, and in Alachua County, Florida, a TNR program that processed 11,822 cats over six years, led to no reduced proportion of pregnant females and did not stop population growth.{{cite journal |last1=Foley |first1=Patrick |last2=Foley |first2=Janet E. |title=Analysis of the impact of trap-neuter-return programs on populations of feral cats |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |date=2005 |volume=227 |issue=11 |pages=1775–1781 |doi=10.2460/javma.2005.227.1775 |pmid=16342526 |url=https://avmajournals.avma.org/view/journals/javma/227/11/javma.2005.227.1775.xml |access-date=15 April 2025|url-access=subscription }}

The success of specific focused studies to advocate TNR as a solution for controlling and reducing free-roaming cat populations worldwide is problematic. More broad-based approaches include using matrix population models to estimate the efficacy of euthanasia versus trap-neuter-return for management of free-roaming cats, such as the one researchers established for use in urban environments.{{Cite journal|last1=Andersen|first1=Mark C.|last2=Martin|first2=Brent J.|last3=Roemer|first3=Gary W.|date=2004-12-15|title=Use of matrix population models to estimate the efficacy of euthanasia versus trap-neuter-return for management of free-roaming cats|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=225|issue=12|pages=1871–1876|issn=0003-1488|pmid=15643836|doi=10.2460/javma.2004.225.1871|s2cid=17789584|doi-access=free}}

Efforts to assess the effectiveness have been hampered by the lack of sufficient monitoring data. Having some professional assistance, adapting the population monitoring framework developed over decades by wildlife biologists, and systematic monitoring can evolve into a relatively low-cost, high-value adjunct to ongoing management efforts.{{Cite web|url=http://www.acc-d.org/docs/default-source/think-tanks/frc-monitoring-revised-nov-2014.pdf|title=A Generalized Population Monitoring Program to Inform the Management of Free-Roaming Cats.|last1=Boone|first1=J.D.|last2=Slater|first2=M.A.|date=Nov 2014|archive-date=2016-03-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314052520/http://acc-d.org/docs/default-source/think-tanks/frc-monitoring-revised-nov-2014.pdf|url-status=live}}

The public awareness of TNR colonies encourages people to dump their unwanted pet cats there. In one study, to explain the ingression of cats it was found that "the high quality and visibility of the program{{nbsp}}[...] may have encouraged abandonment of cats if owners believed that the cats would be well taken care of after abandonment. Abandonment may also have occurred if owners believed that cats would be better off under the care of the program rather than surrendered to a shelter where they would face the risk of euthanasia." Some of the cats that came in to the TNR colony had already been sterilized; some of these had ear-tips and some did not.{{Cite journal|last1=Levy|first1=Julie K.|last2=Cornell|first2=Heather N.|last3=Kreisler|first3=Rachael E.|date=2019|title=Decrease in Population and Increase in Welfare of Community Cats in a Twenty-Three Year Trap-Neuter-Return Program in Key Largo, FL: The ORCAT Program|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|language=en|volume=6|pages=7|doi=10.3389/fvets.2019.00007|pmid=30775368|pmc=6367225|issn=2297-1769|doi-access=free}}

Introgression, particularly of intact cats, has been noted to be a barrier to decreasing cat populations over time through TNR efforts. It has become apparent that while the TNR process can reduce or limit the growth rate of the colony through reproduction, it may not reduce the population numbers if it is the sole method of intervention. Population reduction occurs primarily through adoptions of non-feral cats, natural death or euthanasia of sick animals, and disappearance or emigration of cats. TNR works together with these factors to reduce reproduction and thus to minimize replacement of animals lost from the colony. Other factors such as immigration of cats from surrounding areas can counteract its effect. Thus, the impact of TNR interventions on unowned cat populations can be complex, and ongoing management of colonies becomes an important component in optimizing reductions in the cat population.{{Cite journal|last1=Swarbrick|first1=Helen|last2=Rand|first2=Jacquie|date=2018-05-17|title=Application of a Protocol Based on Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) to Manage Unowned Urban Cats on an Australian University Campus|journal= Animals|volume=8|issue=5|pages=77|doi=10.3390/ani8050077|issn=2076-2615|pmc=5981288|pmid=29772788|doi-access=free}}

TNR advocates and opponents have different views on what constitutes a successful TNR program. Advocates use broad definitions of success, other than reductions in cat populations, such as claims of lower euthanasia rates, healthier feral cats, and cost savings for animal shelters. Wildlife conservationists and others who oppose TNR say that the only grounds for claiming a TNR program successful would be provable reduction and elimination of the feral cat population.

• When the number of animals coming into a shelter exceeds its ability to care for, hold, or find foster placements, the facility may end up euthanizing animals. This could include even adoptable kittens or cats simply because they cannot be taken care of. A common outcome for a cat judged to be "feral" after being taken to a traditional shelter not practicing no-kill sheltering is euthanasia (humanely putting the animal to death). Feral cats do not tolerate being caged or handled and many shelters are unable to manage them without putting the animal or the staff at risk. TNR could alleviate this.

• In a 10-year study in Orange County, Florida, after a feral cat sterilization program was instituted in which 7,903 feral cats neutered, the cost was an estimated $442,568, as compared to $1,098,517 if they had been impounded and euthanized.{{Cite journal|last1=Hughes|first1=Kathy L.|last2=Slater|first2=Margaret R.|last3=Haller|first3=Linda|date=Oct 2002|title=The Effects of Implementing a Feral Cat Spay/Neuter Program in a Florida County Animal Control Service|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7545325|journal=Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science|volume=5|issue=4|pages=285–298|doi=10.1207/s15327604jaws0504_03|pmid=16221079|s2cid=25906054|issn=1088-8705|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2020-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901211929/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7545325_The_Effects_of_Implementing_a_Feral_Cat_SpayNeuter_Program_in_a_Florida_County_Animal_Control_Service|url-status=live}}
• In Port Orange, Florida, a TNR program started in 2013 in the city's business areas resulted in fewer stray cats and money saved. In the first year, 214 cats were sterilized for $13,000, which was much less than over $50,000 spent in 2010, when most of the impounded cats were euthanized. A theoretical savings of $123,000 was projected based on not having to impound the offspring that the cats may have produced if not spayed."Port Orange expanding feral cat program" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006103033/http://www.news-journalonline.com/article/20130507/NEWS/305079948|date=2014-10-06}}, Ray Weiss, The Daytona Beach News-Journal, May 7, 2013.{{better source needed|date=March 2025}}
• A paper that compared models of TNR and trap-euthanize programs found that TNR would be about twice as expensive as euthanasia, even though TNR relied on volunteers. The models also showed that TNR only worked for populations of cats less than 1000, and that in model runs with 10% annual recruitment rates, the TNR populations never reached zero. In both TNR and trap-euthanize models, the most critical factor for controlling the cat population was to prevent people from abandoning more cats.{{cite journal |last1=Lohr |first1=Cheryl A. |last2=Cox |first2=Linda J. |title=Costs and Benefits of Trap-Neuter-Release and Euthanasia for Removal of Urban Cats in Oahu, Hawaii |journal=Conservation Biology |date=2012 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=64–73 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01935.x |pmid=23009077 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231177038 |access-date=15 April 2025}}
• A study showed that removal-based methods were costlier than sterilization-based approaches, with most of the cost being due to having to hold the cats in the shelter for a mandatory time period before euthanasia. The most expensive option was finding homes for the cats, because those cats were held in the shelter the longest. The data highlighted that while average costs were similar, the 25% removal scenario showed significantly higher cost variability (US$11,370–US$44,435) compared to sterilization (US$6200–US$13,470). Sterilization proved to be more economical and cost-effective, with volunteer labor further increasing its efficiency. The costs of feeding and care for TNR cats after release were not included in the study, because "they are not directly related to population control."{{Cite journal |last=Benka |first=Valerie A. |last2=Boone |first2=John D. |last3=Miller |first3=Philip S. |last4=Briggs |first4=Joyce R. |last5=Anderson |first5=Aaron M. |last6=Slootmaker |first6=Christopher |last7=Slater |first7=Margaret |last8=Levy |first8=Julie K. |last9=Nutter |first9=Felicia B. |last10=Zawistowski |first10=Stephen |date=2022-11-29 |title=Guidance for management of free-roaming community cats: a bioeconomic analysis |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9511502/ |journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=975–985 |doi=10.1177/1098612X211055685 |issn=1532-2750 |pmc=9511502 |pmid=34842477}}

• In 2019, a study was published that concluded "for most Brisbane City (Australia) residents, when awareness is raised about the problem of urban stray cats and management strategies, the majority are supportive of a TNR community program with little or no persuasion required."{{Cite journal|last1=Hayward|first1=Andrea|last2=Lamb|first2=Kate|last3=Fisher|first3=Gina|last4=Rand|first4=Jacquie|date=2019|title=Public Opinions on Strategies for Managing Stray Cats and Predictors of Opposition to Trap-Neuter and Return in Brisbane, Australia|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|language=en|volume=5|pages=290|doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00290|pmid=30834249|pmc=6387915|issn=2297-1769|doi-access=free}}
• TNR programs may have a side effect of reducing the stress and strain volunteers and staff have related to euthanasia in shelters. A 2019 study concluded that euthanasia-related strain is prevalent among shelter employees. Such strain is associated with increased levels of general job stress, work-to-family conflict, somatic complaints, and substance use, and with lower levels of job satisfaction.{{Cite journal|last1=Reeve|first1=Charlie L.|last2=Rogelberg|first2=Steven G.|last3=Spitzmüller|first3=Christiane|last4=Digiacomo|first4=Natalie|date=2005|title=The Caring-Killing Paradox: Euthanasia-Related Strain Among Animal-Shelter Workers1|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=119–143|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02096.x|issn=1559-1816}}

TNR opponents say that public support of TNR may be exaggerated by its advocates, who present it as the only acceptable method for managing feral cats. They cite a 2014 study in Hawaii that found that 87% of respondents wanted there to be fewer cats in the outdoors, a result that TNR does not consistently achieve and that many TNR programs do not consider their goal. The study also found public support was in favor of lethal methods that were humane, with TNR being the least popular option.

A study of global media coverage of the problems associated with outdoor cats found that most coverage by popular media is biased in favor of TNR. Gow et al. wrote: "Most of the people interviewed in the popular press were from non-governmental organizations, mainly from cat welfare or cat rights groups (which are often focused on only one side of the issue). Researchers, shelter organizations, veterinarians, and groups that have different opinions than cat rights or welfare organizations on how to resolve issues surrounding free-roaming cats were rarely interviewed by the popular press. Most articles focused on cat welfare issues and the management strategies of euthanasia or trap–neuter–release (TNR), whereas less than one-third of the articles acknowledged that cats have any impact on wildlife or the broader environment."{{cite journal |last1=Gow |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Burant |first2=Joseph B. |title=Popular press portrayal of issues surrounding free-roaming domestic cats Felis catus |journal=People and Nature |date=20 October 2021 |volume=4 |pages=143–154 |doi=10.1002/pan3.10269 |url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pan3.10269 |access-date=18 April 2025|url-access=subscription }} The study also found that cat management options that might be less controversial than TNR and euthanasia, such as cat sanctuaries, pet owner education, and subsidized spay-neuter programs for pet cats, were not covered.

It has been claimed that TNR programs improve the welfare of free-roaming cats in many ways:

• Spayed female cats will no longer be burdened by pregnancy or nursing litters: Females have been found to be pregnant throughout the year. A study of the reproductive capacity of free-roaming cats showed they may have an average of 1.4 litters a year, with a median of 3 kittens/litter.{{Cite journal|last1=Nutter|first1=Felicia B.|last2=Levine|first2=Jay F.|last3=Stoskopf|first3=Michael K.|date=2004-11-01|title=Reproductive capacity of free-roaming domestic cats and kitten survival rate|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=225|issue=9|pages=1399–1402|doi=10.2460/javma.2004.225.1399|pmid=15552315|issn=0003-1488|doi-access=free}}
• Alleviating unnecessary suffering of kittens: 75% of the kittens born to free-roaming cats being studied died or disappeared before 6 months of age. Trauma was found to be the most common cause of death.
• Improved overall heath: The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) notes that properly managed programs can improve quality of life through better nutrition, vaccination to prevent disease, and euthanasia of sick and debilitated cats.{{Cite web|url=https://www.avma.org/KB/Policies/Pages/Free-roaming-Abandoned-and-Feral-Cats.aspx|title=Free-roaming Abandoned and Feral Cats|website=www.avma.org|access-date=2019-03-25|archive-date=2019-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325040350/https://www.avma.org/KB/Policies/Pages/Free-roaming-Abandoned-and-Feral-Cats.aspx|url-status=live}}
• Fighting may decline, thus reducing injuries: A study between four colonies, two of neutered males and two of intact males, found that the frequency of agonistic behavior was lower in the neutered groups. The agonistic behavior that was noted in the neutered groups was attributable to interactions involving intact males who had moved into them.{{Cite journal|last1=Finkler|first1=Hilit|last2=Gunther|first2=Idit|last3=Terkel|first3=Joseph|date=2011-05-01|title=Behavioral differences between urban feeding groups of neutered and sexually intact free-roaming cats following a trap-neuter-return procedure|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=238|issue=9|pages=1141–1149|doi=10.2460/javma.238.9.1141|pmid=21529236|issn=0003-1488}} As noted above, introgression of cats is a common factor noted in studies.

Not all free-roaming cats, or cats that end up in live traps, are feral. Some are owned, but have been allowed to roam outdoors; some have escaped their homes or owners and are strays; some may have been abandoned or "dumped." The assessment, after trapping, of "social" (friendly and adoptable), "social but timid or scared" (may adjust and be adoptable), "not social" (not feral, prefers to not be handled, hard to adopt out) or "feral" is crucial if TNR is intended to be in the best interest of the animal. When programs provide for feral kittens to be socialized and adopted, and for friendly cats to be adopted, the welfare of those cats is improved.

Managed TNR programs that involve continuous active intervention on detection along with treatment and prevention of some of the more common diseases and parasites may help improve their overall health.

In 2016, investigative reporting by WFLA found that in Hillsborough County, Florida, TNR cats were being returned to the outdoors the day after their surgical sterilizations, because the Tampa Bay Humane Society did not have "a place to put them for a couple of days" where they could be observed in recuperation. WFLA said they had possession of images of TNR cats bleeding from opened surgical wounds, images of TNR cat with maggots in their incisions, and an image of a bloodied cat trap whose occupant had bled out. Officials overseeing that TNR program said that their greatly reduced shelter euthanasia rates were worth it even if their TNR outcomes "weren't perfect".{{cite news |title=Quick release after surgery results in gruesome feral cat deaths |url=https://www.wfla.com/news/quick-release-after-surgery-results-in-gruesome-feral-cat-deaths/ |access-date=20 April 2022 |agency=WFLA News Channel 8}}

TNR may help reduce public complaints pertaining to free-roaming cats. Female cats will 'call' (come into season and be receptive to the male cat) regularly, about every three weeks during sexually active times of the year if they do not get pregnant. Having un-spayed female cats in an area will attract un-neutered males with the attendant problems of spraying, fighting and caterwauling.{{Cite web|url=https://icatcare.org/advice/neutering-your-cat|title=Neutering your cat {{!}} International Cat Care|website=icatcare.org|access-date=2019-03-23|archive-date=2019-03-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323052806/https://icatcare.org/advice/neutering-your-cat|url-status=live}}

• After starting a TNR program in 1995, animal control in Orange County, Florida, received fewer complaints about cats, even after broadening the definition of a nuisance complaint.
• A study of a TNR program at Texas A&M University in 1998–2000 reported that the number of cat complaints received by the university's pest control service decreased from year 1 to year 2.{{Cite journal|last1=Hughes|first1=Kathy L.|last2=Slater|first2=Margaret R.|date=2002|title=Implementation of a feral cat management program on a university campus|journal=Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science |volume=5|issue=1|pages=15–28|doi=10.1207/S15327604JAWS0501_2|issn=1088-8705|pmid=12738586|s2cid=11650452}}

{{main|Cat predation on wildlife}}

Free-roaming domestic cats are considered an invasive species around the world.{{Cite web|url=http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/|title=GISD|website=www.iucngisd.org|access-date=2019-03-30|archive-date=2019-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329124009/http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=http://issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=24&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN|title=issg Database: Ecology of Felis catus|website=issg.org|access-date=2019-03-30|archive-date=2019-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330095057/http://issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=24&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN|url-status=live}} Numerous studies have shown that free-roaming cats can have a significant negative impact on native wildlife through their predation. They cause considerable wildlife destruction and ecosystem disruption, including the deaths of hundreds of millions of birds, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. They have been linked to the extinction of 63 species and pose a threat to 360 more.{{Cite journal|last1=Dickman|first1=Chris R.|last2=Ritchie|first2=Euan G.|last3=Nimmo|first3=Dale G.|last4=Glen|first4=Alistair S.|last5=Doherty|first5=Tim S.|date=2016-10-04|title=Invasive predators and global biodiversity loss|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=113|issue=40|pages=11261–11265|doi=10.1073/pnas.1602480113|issn=0027-8424|pmid=27638204|pmc=5056110|bibcode=2016PNAS..11311261D |doi-access=free}} Cats are now thought to be the single largest cause of anthropogenic bird mortality in North America.{{cite journal|last1=Loss|first1=Scott R.|last2=Will|first2=Tom|last3=Marra|first3=Peter P.|date=29 January 2013|title=The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States|journal=Nature Communications|volume=4|page=1396|doi=10.1038/ncomms3961|pmid=23360987|doi-access=free}}

Predation by cats contributes to declines in wildlife populations that are already affected by habitat loss and fragmentation. Feral cats that are being fed as part of a TNR program are subsidized predators, which means that their population is not limited by the availability of prey species, as would be the case in a natural ecology. Feeding the cats results in larger population densities; although feeding does not reduce their tendency to hunt prey, it does tend to concentrate predation in disturbed areas that are already fragmented by human activity. Feral cats typically occur at population densities from ten to one hundred times higher than those of naturally occurring predators in their size range, and in TNR colonies that are fed the cat populations will not decrease no matter how much the populations of prey species may by reduced by them, a state similar to the phenomenon of hyperpredation that has been observed on some ocean islands.

Studies in California found significant declines in bird populations near TNR colonies where cats were being fed, as compared to normal bird populations at control sites, along with large decreases in native rodent populations, coupled with increases in the invasive house mouse population.

TNR cats are also eaten by wildlife. A California study of coyote stomach contents found that 35% contained domestic cat DNA, and that those coyotes that had eaten cats were taken from high density residential and industrial areas that were also the same types of development where TNR colonies were commonly located. The study suggested that TNR be banned as a potential driver of human-coyote conflict.{{cite journal |last1=Bucklin |first1=Danielle M. |last2=Shedden |first2=Jennifer M. |title=Do trap-neuter-return (TNR) practices contribute to human–coyote conflicts in southern California? |journal=Human–Wildlife Interactions |date=2023 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=46–60 |jstor=27316537 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27316537 |access-date=13 April 2025}}

Wildlife advocates have questioned the underlying ethics of TNR, perceiving an inconsistency in the way that TNR advocates care about the claimed well-being of individual cats while they appear to ignore the harm and suffering that the cats cause to wildlife. Longcore et al. wrote that, "We argue that it is philosophically inappropriate for population-level impacts to be the only criteria by which the effects of cats are judged. People who notice and care about birds are just as attuned to the loss of an individual bird in a backyard, or the decline of local populations of birds, as are feral cat advocates to the loss of individual feral cats. We see no justification for valuing birds and other wildlife only as populations while valuing cats as individuals." Veterinary researcher David A. Jessup wrote, "Wild animals are not only killed by cats but are also maimed, mauled, dismembered, ripped apart, and gutted while still alive, and if they survive the encounter, they often die of sepsis because of the virulent nature of the oral flora of cats....Wild animals experience pain and suffer too. On the basis of compassion alone....the suffering of wildlife must be weighed against the perceived welfare of feral cats."{{cite journal |last1=Jessup |first1=David A. |title=The welfare of feral cats and wildlife |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |date=November 1, 2004 |volume=225 |issue=9 |pages=1377–1383 |doi=10.2460/javma.2004.225.1377 |pmid=15552312 |url=https://www.hahf.org/wp-content/uploads/media-4/Jessup-article-on-Wildlife-impact-javma_225_9_1377.pdf |access-date=14 April 2025}}

Stray animals in general may have significant impacts on public health due to factors such as a lack of preventive measures (e.g. vaccines, deworming), easy access to intermediate hosts (e.g. rats and birds), and unrestricted entry to public areas such as parks and playgrounds. Their presence is a major risk for the transmission of zoonotic diseases.{{Cite journal|title=Implications of zoonotic and vector-borne parasites to free-roaming cats in central Spain|pages=125–130|journal=Veterinary Parasitology|volume=251|doi=10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.01.009|pmid=29426469|date=2018-02-15|last1=Montoya|first1=A.|last2=García|first2=M.|last3=Gálvez|first3=R.|last4=Checa|first4=R.|last5=Marino|first5=V.|last6=Sarquis|first6=J.|last7=Barrera|first7=J. P.|last8=Rupérez|first8=C.|last9=Caballero|first9=L.|last10=Chicharro|first10=C.|last11=Cruz|first11=I.|last12=Miró|first12=G.|doi-access=free}}

Free-roaming cats can act as vectors for diseases that can impact humans as well as other animals, domestic and wild. Transmissions can occur within the species and to other species. Feline leukemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus, ectoparasites (fleas, mites, lice, ticks), intestinal and protozoan parasites,{{Cite web|url = https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-feline-health-center/health-information/feline-health-topics/gastrointestinal-parasites-cats|title = Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cats|date = 2017-10-11|access-date = 2019-03-30|archive-date = 2019-03-30|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190330055256/https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-feline-health-center/health-information/feline-health-topics/gastrointestinal-parasites-cats|url-status = live}} Rickettsia, and Coxiella ("Q Fever") are examples of inter and intra-species shared diseases and parasites.{{Cite journal|title=Ectoparasites of free-roaming domestic cats in the central United States|pages=17–22|journal=Veterinary Parasitology|volume=228|doi=10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.07.034|pmid=27692321|date=2016-09-15|last1=Thomas|first1=J. E.|last2=Staubus|first2=L.|last3=Goolsby|first3=J. L.|last4=Reichard|first4=M. V.}}

There are numerous zoonotic pathogens shed in feline feces, such as Campylobacter and Salmonella spp; ascarids (e.g., Toxocara cati); hookworms (Ancylostoma spp); and the protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium spp, Giardia spp, and T. gondii. Contaminated soil is an important source of infection for humans, herbivores, rodents, and birds and several studies suggest that pet feces contribute to bacterial loading of streams and coastal waters.{{Cite journal|last1=Dabritz|first1=Haydee A.|last2=Atwill|first2=E. Robert|last3=Gardner|first3=Ian A.|last4=Miller|first4=Melissa A.|last5=Conrad|first5=Patricia A.|date=2006-07-01|title=Outdoor fecal deposition by free-roaming cats and attitudes of cat owners and nonowners toward stray pets, wildlife, and water pollution|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=229|issue=1|pages=74–81|doi=10.2460/javma.229.1.74|issn=0003-1488|pmid=16817717|s2cid=15081066|doi-access=free}}

Free-roaming cat populations have been identified as a source for several zoonotic diseases that can and have affected humans, including:{{Cite web|url=https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/feline-arthropods/|title=CAPC Parasite ProtocolsFeline Arthropods|date=2015-01-01|website=Today's Veterinary Practice|language=en|access-date=2019-03-30|archive-date=2019-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330055247/https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/feline-arthropods/|url-status=live}}

• Rabies. Not all TNR programs consider rabies vaccination necessary; bat and skunk rabies are found in wildlife in California, but TNR programs released 90,000 cats there without vaccinating them for rabies. Even when TNR cats receive their initial rabies vaccination, most do not receive their recommended boosters because typical TNR programs trap less than 10% of the cats per year, a level too low to achieve herd immunity, because most do not keep formal records, and because most TNR cats are only trapped once in their lifetimes. Additionally, TNR feeding stations are a food source that attracts skunks, foxes, and raccoons, the North American species that most commonly transmit rabies. Children are more likely to play with TNR cats than with wild animals, and may be less likely to recognize the need for post-exposure prophylaxis after being exposed to rabies.

• Toxoplasmosis
• Various nematode parasites including intestinal worms
• Plague{{Cite book|last1=Control|first1=World Health Organization Epidemic Disease|last2=Tikhomirov|first2=Evgueni|last3=Poland|first3=Jack D.|last4=Gratz|first4=Norman G.|last5=Gage|first5=Kenneth L.|last6=Dennis|first6=David T.|date=1999|title=Plague manual: epidemiology, distribution, surveillance and control|language=en|hdl=10665/66010}}
• Tularemia
• Typhus
• Bacterial diseases such as cat-scratch fever (Bartonella)
• Avian Influenza A/H5N1 virus{{Cite web |url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/micro/AI_QandA_Apr07_EN.pdf |title= QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON AVIAN INFLUENZA In relation to animals, food and water |access-date=2019-03-30 |archive-date=2020-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714205941/https://www.who.int/foodsafety/micro/AI_QandA_Apr07_EN.pdf |url-status=dead }}
• Fungal diseases, including sporotrichosis{{Cite journal|last1=Schubach|first1=Armando|last2=Wanke|first2=Bodo|last3=Gremião|first3=Isabella Dib|last4=Coll|first4=Jesana Ornellas|last5=Schubach|first5=Tania Pacheco|last6=Barros|first6=Monica Bastos de Lima|title=Esporotricose: a evolução e os desafios de uma epidemia|journal=Rev Panam Salud Publica|volume=27|issue=6|date=June 2010|url=http://iris.paho.org/xmlui/handle/123456789/9675|language=en|access-date=2019-03-30|archive-date=2019-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330171506/http://iris.paho.org/xmlui/handle/123456789/9675|url-status=live}}

Domestic cats can be found on every continent except Antarctica.{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Felis_catus/|title=Felis catus (domestic cat)|last=Toenjes|first=Nicolle Birch Anna|website=Animal Diversity Web|language=en|access-date=2019-03-31|archive-date=2019-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331065524/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Felis_catus/|url-status=live}} Of the 700{{nbsp}}million cats in the world, 480{{nbsp}}million of them are feral.Ali Taghipour, Sahar Ghodsian, Mina Shajarizadeh, Mitra Sharbatkhori, Sasan Khazaei, Hamed Mirjalali. "Global prevalence of microsporidia infection in cats: a systematic review and meta-analysis of an emerging zoonotic pathogen." Preventive Veterinary Medicine 188, 105278, 2021.Ali Rostami, Mahdi Sepidarkish, Guangxu Ma, Tao Wang, Maryam Ebrahimi, Yadolah Fakhri, Hamed Mirjalali, Andreas Hofmann, Calum NL Macpherson, Peter J Hotez, Robin B Gasser. "Global prevalence of Toxocara infection in cats". Advances in Parasitology 109, 615-639, 2020.Xuying Zhang, Kokila Jamwal, Ottmar Distl. "Tracking footprints of artificial and natural selection signatures in breeding and non-breeding cats." Scientific reports 12 (1), 18061, 2022. Control of free-roaming dogs and cats is a worldwide problem. Beyond pragmatic and scientific considerations, cultural heritage, ethical beliefs, and social and economic impacts play critical roles in efforts to address it.

The legal status of free-roaming and stray cats varies from location to location, as do the histories and efforts of TNR programs. There are numerous governments supporting trap–neuter–return.

{{Further|Cats in Australia}}

{{As of|2022}}, the only place in Australia where TNR is legal is in the Australian Capital Territory, as Australian laws make the release of invasive species illegal in the rest of the country. TNR programs are active in feral cat communities across Canberra.{{cite news |last1=Radford |first1=Antoinette |title=ACT the only Australian jurisdiction where cat management program trap, neuter, return is legal |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-21/cats-released-in-canberra-at-odds-with-cat-containment/100754100 |access-date=29 December 2024 |work=ABC |date=20 January 2022}} In 2021, the Parliament of Australia issued a report that rejected TNR as an effective means of controlling feral cat populations; however, Australian animal welfare groups generally support it.{{cite news |last1=Ham |first1=Anthony |title=Australia's Cats Kill Two Billion Animals Annually. Here's How the Government Is Responding to the Crisis |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/australias-cats-kill-two-billion-animals-annually-180977235/ |access-date=29 December 2024 |work=Smithsonian Magazine |date=March 17, 2021}}

Across Canada, municipalities have replaced old animal control bylaws with "responsible pet ownership" rules intended to direct the obligations of pet behavior to their owners. A common feature of the accelerating trend is a requirement that owners get a license for their cats and ensure they do not roam.{{Cite web|url=https://www.macleans.ca/society/why-reining-in-canadian-cat-populations-wont-be-easy/|title=The problem with cats - Macleans.ca|website=www.macleans.ca|date=February 27, 2017 |access-date=2019-04-02|archive-date=2019-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402053119/https://www.macleans.ca/society/why-reining-in-canadian-cat-populations-wont-be-easy/|url-status=live}}

In January 2012, a bylaw officer in Merritt, British Columbia, removed cat food and asked the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to consider criminal charges against those feeding the stray cats.[http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/merritt-b-c-overrun-by-stray-cats-1.1226798 "Merritt, B.C., overrun by stray cats: Bylaw officers ask RCMP to consider mischief charges against animal feeders"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808112628/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/merritt-b-c-overrun-by-stray-cats-1.1226798 |date=2014-08-08 }}, CBC News, January 11, 2012.[http://www.merrittherald.com/citys-approach-to-feral-cats-not-effective/ "City's approach to feral cats not effective"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808053408/http://www.merrittherald.com/citys-approach-to-feral-cats-not-effective/ |date=2014-08-08 }}, Joni Hughes, letter to Merritt Herald, January 12, 2012. No charges were laid, but the rescue group's business license was revoked and it was forced to move from its storefront location.[http://www.merrittherald.com/merritt-storefront-clear-of-stray-cats/ "Merritt storefront clear of stray cats"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808053405/http://www.merrittherald.com/merritt-storefront-clear-of-stray-cats/ |date=2014-08-08 }}, Phillip Woolgar, Merritt Herald, August 7, 2012.

The City of Toronto, Ontario, includes TNR in its animal services and has a bylaw specifically addressing TNR and managed colonies.[http://www1.toronto.ca/wps/portal/contentonly?vgnextoid=a5bb39220b2c1410VgnVCM10000071d60f89RCRD "The Trap, Neuter, Return Program for Feral Cats"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808053437/http://www1.toronto.ca/wps/portal/contentonly?vgnextoid=a5bb39220b2c1410VgnVCM10000071d60f89RCRD |date=2014-08-08 }}, City of Toronto, accessed August 3, 2014; and [http://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/municode/1184_349.pdf "Toronto Municipal Code, Chapter 349, Animals"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715183800/http://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/municode/1184_349.pdf |date=2014-07-15 }}, City of Toronto, June 13, 2013. The Toronto Animal Services offers spay and neuter for colonies that are registered and have an assigned trained caretaker.{{Cite web|url=https://www.toronto.ca/community-people/animals-pets/spay-neuter-services/trap-neuter-return-program-for-feral-cats/|title=Trap, Neuter, Return Program (TNR) for Feral Cats|date=2017-10-27|website=City of Toronto|language=en-CA|access-date=2019-04-02|archive-date=2019-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402053120/https://www.toronto.ca/community-people/animals-pets/spay-neuter-services/trap-neuter-return-program-for-feral-cats/|url-status=live}}

TNR was practiced in Denmark in the mid-1970s, as reported at the 1980 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW) symposium in London. Denmark's Society for the Protection of Cats practiced both tattooing and tipping the ear of the neutered cats to identify them.{{Cite book|title=TNR: Past, Present and Future: A History of the Trap-Neuter-Return Movement|last=Berkeley|first=Ellen Perry|publisher=Alley Cat Allies|year=2004|isbn=0970519427|pages=2–3}}

In 1978, the city of Paris issued a Declaration of Rights of the Free-living Cat.[https://archive.today/20141031053412/http://82.66.132.140/chats/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=20:declaration-des-droits-du-chat&catid=21:juridique&Itemid=32 "Declaration of Rights of the Free-living Cat (translation)"], École du Chat, accessed Oct. 30, 2014. In that year, Cambazard founded École du Chat and TNR'd its first cat, continuing to help thousands of cats in the following years.[http://www.ecoleduchat.net/ "History of École du chat (translation)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013014748/http://www.ecoleduchat.net/ |date=2014-10-13 }}, École du Chat, accessed Oct. 30, 2014.

{{as of|2020|2}}, TNR is legal in Iceland.{{cite news|url=https://www.dv.is/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/21.20.20-minni.pdf|title=Styrktu málstaðinn með Gæludýr.is|newspaper=DV|lang=is|page=30|date=21 February 2020|access-date=16 April 2025}}

Like Turkey, Israel struggles with a continually increasing population of stray cats. Cats exist in every location with people, from the southernmost city of Eilat to communities in the Golan Heights. Moreover, it is illegal in Israel to remove cats from the streets as a result of pressure from Let the Animals Live. Due to large amounts of food left by people feeding them, colonies of cats are continuing to increase, with estimates putting the population within the city of Jerusalem at 2,000 cats per square kilometer.{{Cite web |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/jerusalem-faces-dilemma-in-dealing-with-hordes-of-stray-cats/ |title=Jerusalem Dilemma in Dealing with Hordes of Stray Cats |website=The Times of Israel |access-date=2019-12-05 |archive-date=2019-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120050606/https://www.timesofisrael.com/jerusalem-faces-dilemma-in-dealing-with-hordes-of-stray-cats/ |url-status=live }} Efforts to trap, neuter, return the cats within Israel are not working,{{opinion|date=January 2021}} as the population is too large to feasibly catch enough cats to make a difference. Moreover, there is no national agreement on what to do regarding the cat population. As a result their population is increasing with no future plan of action. In January 2019, from a push by people who feed the cats, Jerusalem planned to instill "feeding stations" throughout the city. The goal was to facilitate specific areas for feeding to help the populations of stray cats and to improve their welfare. This plan was criticized by ecologists and conservationists, stating that it does nothing to help the welfare of the cats, with Amir Balaban of the Society for the Protection of Nature stating that "If someone cares about animals, they should take them home."{{Cite news |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-jerusalem-approves-feeding-program-for-stray-cats-experts-warn-of-consequences-1.6876426 |title=Jerusalem Approves Feeding Program for Stray Cats |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=2019-12-05 |archive-date=2019-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205132419/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-jerusalem-approves-feeding-program-for-stray-cats-experts-warn-of-consequences-1.6876426 |url-status=live }}{{update inline|date=May 2024}}

Killing feral cats has been illegal in the Lazio Region, which includes Rome, since 1988. A study in 2006 found almost 8,000 were neutered and reintroduced to their original colony from 1991 to 2000. It concluded that spay/neuter campaigns brought about a general decrease in cat numbers among registered colonies and censused cats, but the percentage of cat immigration (due to abandonment and spontaneous arrival) was around 21 percent. It suggested that TNR efforts without an effective education of people to control the reproduction of house cats (as a prevention for abandonment) are a waste of money, time and energy.{{Cite journal|last1=Natoli|first1=Eugenia|last2=Maragliano|first2=Laura|last3=Cariola|first3=Giuseppe|last4=Faini|first4=Anna|last5=Bonanni|first5=Roberto|last6=Cafazzo|first6=Simona|last7=Fantini|first7=Claudio|date=2006-12-18|title=Management of feral domestic cats in the urban environment of Rome (Italy)|journal=Preventive Veterinary Medicine|volume=77|issue=3–4|pages=180–185|doi=10.1016/j.prevetmed.2006.06.005|issn=0167-5877|pmid=17034887}}

Since August 1991, feral cats have been protected throughout Italy when a no-kill policy was introduced for both cats and dogs. Feral cats have the right to live free and cannot be permanently removed from their colony; cat caretakers can be formally registered; and TNR methods are outlined in the national law on the management of pets.{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223135898|title=Stray dog and cat laws and enforcement in Czech Republic and in Italy|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2019-04-02|archive-date=2020-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901211906/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223135898_Stray_dog_and_cat_laws_and_enforcement_in_Czech_Republic_and_in_Italy|url-status=live}}

In the Netherlands, maintaining ecological impact is still a work in progress. Another variation of the TNR method, Trap-Neuter-Relocate-Care, is being put in place on the island of Schiermonnikoog in attempts to control the cat population. Using camera traps, researchers estimated around 50 adult feral cats and identified "cat-hotspots." Live traps have removed 53 cats, but at least 20 remain. Challenges include high reproduction rates and roaming pet cats from nearby villages.{{Cite web |title=Feral cat farewells: The effectiveness of removing feral cats from the island of Schiermonnikoog using TNRC |url=https://research.rug.nl/en/activities/feral-cat-farewells-the-effectiveness-of-removing-feral-cats-from |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=the University of Groningen research portal |language=en}}

The Department of Conservation (DOC) is legislatively mandated to control feral cats on public conservation land. It has eradicated feral cats from several offshore islands. Control techniques include poisoning, trapping and shooting. Lethal controls follow efficient and humane best-practice techniques and adhere to the Animal Welfare Act 1999.{{Cite web|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/animal-pests/feral-cats/|title=Feral cats|website=www.doc.govt.nz|language=en-nz|access-date=2019-03-21|archive-date=2019-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321064844/https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/animal-pests/feral-cats/|url-status=live}}

The Department of Conservation does not support TNR: "We don't support the 'trap, desex, release' approach to managing stray cats. This is because cats are predatory animals that continue to pose a threat to wildlife."{{cite web |last1=Department of Conservation |title=Feral cats |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/animal-pests-and-threats/feral-cats/ |website=Department of Conservation |access-date=8 September 2024}}

The earliest documented practice of trap–neuter–return was in the 1950s, led by animal activist Ruth Plant in the UK. In the mid-1960s, former model Celia Hammond gained publicity for her TNR work "at a time when euthanasia of feral cats was considered the only option". Hammond "fought many battles with local authorities, hospitals, environmental health departments" but stated that she succeeded over the years in showing that control "could be achieved by neutering and not killing".{{cn|date=February 2025}}

The first scientific conference on "the ecology and control of feral cats" was held in London in 1980 and its proceedings published by the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW). Subsequent UFAW publications in 1982, 1990, and 1995 were the primary scientific references for feral-cat control for many years.{{Cite book|url=https://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1003&context=sota_2005|title=Feral Cats: An Overview|last1=Slater|first1=Margaret R.|last2=Shain|first2=Stephanie|publisher=Humane Society Press|year=2005|location=Washington DC|pages=43–53|access-date=2020-09-01|archive-date=2020-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901211907/https://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&httpsredir=1&article=1003&context=sota_2005|url-status=live}}

There is no federal law in the US that explicitly sets policy on feral cats, and state and local laws vary in their approaches. The Endangered Species Act and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act may be relevant to the legality of TNR.{{cite web |last1=Schweitzer |first1=Sarah H. |last2=Gillin |first2=Colin M. |title=Toolkit to Address Free-ranging Domestic Cats (Felis catus) on Agency Lands Managed for Native Wildlife and Ecosystem Health |url=https://www.fishwildlife.org/application/files/5716/1436/9203/Cat-Toolkit-v6-Web.pdf |website=FishWildlife.Org |publisher=Association of Fish & WIldlife Agencies |access-date=15 April 2022}} In a federal case, American Bird Conservancy v. Harvey (2014), conservationists sued Rose Harvey, the Commissioner of New York State Parks, under the Endangered Species Act for failing to prohibit activities supporting feral cats in a state park where the Piping Plover, a threatened species, was known to nest. Under a settlement and judicial order, the State of New York agreed to remove all of the cats to a shelter, and to trap and permanently remove any cats found in the park in the future.{{cite web |title=American Bird Conservancy, David A. Krauss, and Susan Scioli, Plaintiffs, v. Rose Harvey, Commissioner, New York Office of Parks, Recreation, And Historic Preservation, Defendant|url=https://www.animallaw.info/case/american-bird-conservancy-v-harvey |website=Animal Legal & Historical Center |publisher=Michigan State University |access-date=15 April 2022}}{{cite web |last1=Simons |first1=Randy |last2=Keefe |first2=Dan |title=New York State Parks, American Bird Conservancy Announce Feral Cats Relocated from Jones Beach State Park |url=https://parks.ny.gov/newsroom/press-releases/release.aspx?r=1479 |website=parks.ny.gov Press Releases |publisher=New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation |access-date=15 April 2022}}

There are legal theories that TNR programs may have liability under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, a strict liability statute{{cite web |title=United States v. Moon Lake Electric Association Incorporated |url=https://www.animallaw.info/case/us-v-moon-lake-electric-assn-inc |website=Animal Legal & Historical Center |publisher=Michigan State University College of Law |access-date=13 May 2022}} that states that "it shall be unlawful at any time, by any means or in any manner, to pursue, hunt, take, capture, kill, attempt to take, capture, or kill{{nbsp}}[...] any migratory bird, any part, nest, or egg of any such bird,"{{cite journal |last1=Trouwborst |first1=Arie |last2=McCormack |first2=Phillipa |title=Domestic cats and their impacts on biodiversity: A blind spot in the application of nature conservation law |journal=People and Nature |date=February 2020 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=235–250 |doi=10.1002/pan3.10073 |s2cid=214180358 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020PeoNa...2..235T }} including unintentional taking, except if otherwise regulated or permitted by the government, and provides for criminal penalties of up to $15,000 in fines and up to six months of incarceration for each bird unlawfully taken.{{cite web |last1=Sanchez |first1=Ariahna |title=Detailed Discussion of Feral Cat and Wild Bird Controversy |url=https://www.animallaw.info/article/detailed-discussion-feral-cat-and-wild-bird-controversy |website=Animal Legal & Historical Center |publisher=Michigan State University College of Law |access-date=13 May 2022}} (An example of a successful prosecution under the MBTA was United States v. Moon Lake Electric Association Incorporated; in that case a power company was found guilty and sentenced to fines and probation because birds were being electrocuted on power poles that it owned.){{cite web |title=Electric Utility Sentenced for Killing Eagles and Hawks (Press Release) |url=https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/1999/August/353enr.htm |website=Justice.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=13 May 2022}} Because TNR colonies are supported by people, it is possible that predation of birds by TNR cats might be ruled an illegal intentional take by the courts.

On January 29, 2019, the Hawaii Invasive Species Council adopted a resolution supporting the keeping of pet cats indoors and the use of peer-reviewed science in pursuing humane mitigation of the impacts of feral cats on wildlife and people.{{Cite web|url=https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/news/resolution-19-2-keeping-cats-indoors-using-peer-reviewed-science/|title=Resolution 19-2: Keeping Cats Indoors & Using Peer-Reviewed Science|date=2019-02-01|website=Hawaii Invasive Species Council|language=en|access-date=2019-03-21|archive-date=2019-03-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321033702/https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/news/resolution-19-2-keeping-cats-indoors-using-peer-reviewed-science/|url-status=live}}

TNR of cats is illegal in Alaska, owing to a law against the release of cats into the wild, even if they were originally captured there.{{Cite web|last=Sinnott|first=Rick|date=2017-11-06|title=Alaska has far too many impractical cats|url=https://www.adn.com/opinions/2017/11/05/alaska-has-far-too-many-impractical-cats/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626144844/https://www.adn.com/opinions/2017/11/05/alaska-has-far-too-many-impractical-cats/|archive-date=2020-06-26|access-date=2020-06-23|website=Anchorage Daily News|language=en-US}} This has left trap-and-kill the only legal method of controlling the feral cat population there;{{Cite book|url=http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/regulations/regprocess/gameboard/pdfs/2017-2018/proposals/live_game_61-64.pdf|title=Permits for Possessing Live Game|publisher=Alaska Department of Fish and Game|pages=72–76|access-date=2020-06-23|archive-date=2018-04-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415132824/http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/regulations/regprocess/gameboard/pdfs/2017-2018/proposals/live_game_61-64.pdf|url-status=live}} however, the law against TNR is not well enforced and there are proposals to exempt sterilized cats from the rules.

Governments have been sued to try to block their TNR efforts. In December 2010, an injunction was granted to prevent a planned TNR program of the City of Los Angeles until an environmental review was completed under the California Environmental Quality Act.[http://www.leagle.com/decision/In%20CACO%2020101206013 Urban Wildlands Group v. The City of Los Angeles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810040907/http://www.leagle.com/decision/In%20CACO%2020101206013 |date=2014-08-10 }}, Court of Appeals of California, No. B222696. The judge did not rule on any environmental issues, or prohibit other organizations from doing TNR in the city.[http://www.alleycat.org/page.aspx?pid=742 "Get the Facts about the Los Angeles Trap–Neuter–Return Ruling"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812100909/http://www.alleycat.org/page.aspx?pid=742 |date=2014-08-12 }}, AlleyCat.org, Alley Cat Allies, accessed August 2, 2014.

In December 2024, a California court ruled that San Diego Humane Society's alleged release of friendly stray cats to the outdoors was unlawful animal abandonment. San Diego Humane Society was expected to appeal.{{cite news |url=https://www.kpbs.org/news/environment/2025/01/03/judge-rules-humane-society-should-not-send-domesticated-cats-back-outside |title=Judge rules Humane Society should not send domesticated cats back outside |date=January 4, 2025 }}{{cite news |url=https://timesofsandiego.com/life/2024/12/22/san-diego-judge-rules-humane-societys-community-cats-program-unlawful/ |title=San Diego Judge Rules Humane Society's Community Cats Program Unlawful |date=December 23, 2024 }} Also in Southern California, Orange County Animal Care ended its TNR program in 2020 following a threat of legal action under California Penal Code Section 597, which prohibits abandonment of animals.[https://www.ocgrandjury.org/sites/jury/files/2023-06/Gimme_Shelter_and_a_Pound_of_Advice.pdf]

• Overpopulation in domestic animals
• Spaying and neutering
• Wildlife contraceptive

{{reflist|3|refs=

{{Cite journal

|first1=Kathy L. |last1=Hughes |first2=Margaret R. |last2=Slater |title=The Effects of Implementing a Feral Cat Spay/Neuter Program in a Florida County Animal Control Service |journal=Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science |date=2002 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=285–298 |pmid=16221079 |doi=10.1207/S15327604JAWS0504_03|citeseerx=10.1.1.566.9583 |s2cid=25906054 }}

{{Cite journal |url=http://www.urbanwildlands.org/Resources/2009LongcoreetalConBio.pdf |title=Critical Assessment of Claims Regarding Management of Feral Cats by Trap–Neuter–Return |first1=Travis |last1=Longcore |first2=Catherine |last2=Rich |first3=Lauren M. |last3=Sullivan |display-authors=etal |journal=Conservation Biology |date=2009 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=887–894 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01174.x |pmid=19245489 |s2cid=48293 |via=UrbanWildlands.org |access-date=2014-10-15 |archive-date=2013-09-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908103812/http://www.urbanwildlands.org/Resources/2009LongcoreetalConBio.pdf |url-status=live }}

{{Cite web |quote=Feral or very fearful community cats have historically been euthanized either immediately or at the end of a holding period at most shelters. |url=http://www.maddiesfund.org/feline-shelter-intake-reduction-program-faqs.htm |title=Feline Shelter Intake Reduction Program FAQs |first1=Kate |last1=Hurley |first2=Julie |last2=Levy |work=MaddiesFund.org |publisher=Maddie's Fund |date=January 2013 |access-date=2018-07-24 |archive-date=2018-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724213805/http://www.maddiesfund.org/feline-shelter-intake-reduction-program-faqs.htm |url-status=live }}

{{Cite journal |url=https://www.avma.org/News/Journals/Collections/Documents/javma_222_1_42.pdf |title=Evaluation of the effect of a long-term trap–neuter–return and adoption program on a free-roaming cat population |first1=Julie K. |last1=Levy |first2=David W. |last2=Gale |first3=Leslie A. |last3=Gale |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=222 |issue=1 |date=January 1, 2003 |pages=42–46 |doi=10.2460/javma.2003.222.42 |pmid=12523478 |access-date=September 24, 2014 |archive-date=July 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718205851/https://www.avma.org/News/Journals/Collections/Documents/javma_222_1_42.pdf |url-status=live }}

{{Cite journal |url=https://www.avma.org/News/Journals/Collections/Documents/javma_225_9_1354.pdf |title=Humane strategies for controlling feral cat populations |first1=Julie K. |last1=Levy |first2=Patti Cynda |last2=Crawford |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |volume=225 |issue=9 |pages=1354–60 |date=November 1, 2004 |doi=10.2460/javma.2004.225.1354 |pmid=15552308 |access-date=October 15, 2014 |archive-date=August 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819090438/https://www.avma.org/News/Journals/Collections/Documents/javma_225_9_1354.pdf |url-status=dead }}

}}

{{commons category}}

• [https://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/reports/Wildlife%20Damage%20Management%20Technical%20Series/free-ranging-and-feral-cats.pdf Free Ranging and Feral Cats. US Department of Agriculture Wildlife Damage Management Technical Series]
• {{cite book |last1=Marra |first1=Peter P. |last2=Santella |first2=Chris |title=Cat Wars: The Devastating Consequences of a Cuddly Killer |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691167411 |date=2016}}
• [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5704110/ An Examination of an Iconic Trap-Neuter-Return Program: The Newburyport, Massachusetts Case Study]
• [https://www.nwf.org/Magazines/National-Wildlife/2017/Oct-Nov/Animals/The-Cat-Conundrum The Cat Conundrum. Tens of millions of free-roaming felines take a huge toll on wildlife; what to do about them has spawned battles from coast to coast]
• [https://s3.amazonaws.com/ifaw-pantheon/sites/default/files/legacy/ICAM-Humane%20cat%20population.pdf ICAM - Humane Cat Population Management Guidelines] [https://www.icam-coalition.org/ International Companion Animal Management Coalition]. Includes a wide range of solutions, including TNR, to surgical and non-surgical sterilization, and lethal methods; outlines a five-stage program.
• [http://www.aspcapro.org/sites/default/files/TNR_workshop_handbook.3.pdf Guide to Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) and Colony Care from Alley Cat Allies, the ASPCA and the Mayor's Alliance for NYC's Animals]
• {{cite web |url= http://www.abcbirds.org/abcprograms/policy/cats/tnr.html |title=Information on Managed Cat Colonies and TNR |work=ABCBirds.org |publisher=American Bird Conservancy |access-date=July 23, 2018}} Criticism of TNR, and advocacy of "a movement to overcome local and national challenges caused by free-roaming cats".
• [https://www.humanesociety.org/sites/default/files/docs/outdoor-cats-science-policy-global-perspective.pdf The Outdoor Cat: Science and Policy from a Global Perspective, December 3-4, 2012, Marina del Rey, California]
• [https://trapandreturn.com/how-to-tnr-cats-beginners-guide/ A Beginners Guide to TNR (Trap-Neuter-Return)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Trap-neuter-return}}

Category:Animal welfare

Category:Feral cats