ultra-high temperature ceramic matrix composite

Ultra-high temperature ceramic matrix composites (UHTCMC) are a class of refractory ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) with melting points significantly higher than that of typical CMCs.{{cite journal |last1=Marumo |first1=Tomoki |last2=Koide |first2=Noriatsu |last3=Arai |first3=Yutaro |last4=Nishimura |first4=Toshiyuki |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Makoto |last6=Inoue |first6=Ryo |title=Characterization of carbon fiber-reinforced ultra-high temperature ceramic matrix composites fabricated via Zr-Ti alloy melt infiltration |journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society |date=October 2022 |volume=42 |issue=13 |pages=5208–5219 |doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2022.06.040 |s2cid=249838869 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0955221922004915 |access-date=12 December 2023 |ref=1|url-access=subscription }} Among other applications, they are the subject of extensive research in the aerospace engineering field for their ability to withstand extreme heat for extended periods of time, a crucial property in applications such as thermal protection systems (TPS){{Cite journal |last1=Mungiguerra |first1=S. |last2=Silvestroni |first2=L. |last3=Savino |first3=R. |last4=Zoli |first4=L. |last5=Esser |first5=B. |last6=Lagos |first6=M. |last7=Sciti |first7=D. |date=2022-02-01 |title=Qualification and reusability of long and short fibre-reinforced ultra-refractory composites for aerospace thermal protection systems |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010938X2100723X |journal=Corrosion Science |volume=195 |pages=109955 |doi=10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109955 |bibcode=2022Corro.19509955M |issn=0010-938X|url-access=subscription }} for high heat fluxes (> 10 MW/m2) and rocket nozzles. Carbon fiber-reinforced carbon (C/C) maintains its structural integrity up to 2000 °C;{{cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Tianbao |last2=Zhang |first2=Rubing |last3=Pei |first3=Yongmao |last4=He |first4=Rujie |last5=Fang |first5=Daining |last6=Yang |first6=Yazheng |title=Flexural properties of carbon-carbon composites at temperatures up to 2600 °C |journal=Materials Research Express |date=12 June 2019 |volume=6 |issue=8 |doi=10.1088/2053-1591/ab23c9 |bibcode=2019MRE.....6h5629C |s2cid=181325974 |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2053-1591/ab23c9 |access-date=12 December 2023 |ref=2|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Sciti |first1=D. |last2=Vinci |first2=A. |last3=Zoli |first3=L. |last4=Galizia |first4=P. |last5=Mor |first5=M. |last6=Fahrenholtz |first6=W. |last7=Mungiguerra |first7=S. |last8=Savino |first8=R. |last9=Caporale |first9=A. M. |last10=Airoldi |first10=A. |date=2024-12-19 |title=Elevated temperature performance: Arc-Jet testing of carbon fiber reinforced ZrB₂ bars up to 2200 °C for strength retention assessment |url=https://www.sciopen.com/article/10.26599/JAC.2024.9221022 |journal=Journal of Advanced Ceramics |language=en |doi=10.26599/JAC.2024.9221022 |issn=2226-4108|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Galizia |first1=Pietro |last2=Vinci |first2=Antonio |last3=Zoli |first3=Luca |last4=Monteverde |first4=Frederic |last5=Binner |first5=Jon |last6=Venkatachalam |first6=Vinothini |last7=Lagos |first7=Miguel.A. |last8=Reimer |first8=Thomas |last9=Jain |first9=Neraj |last10=Sciti |first10=Diletta |date=October 2021 |title=Retained strength of UHTCMCs after oxidation at 2278 K |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2021.106523 |journal=Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing |volume=149 |pages=106523 |doi=10.1016/j.compositesa.2021.106523 |issn=1359-835X}} however, C/C is mainly used as an ablative material, designed to purposefully erode under extreme temperatures in order to dissipate energy. Carbon fiber reinforced silicon carbide matrix composites (C/SiC) and Silicon carbide fiber reinforced silicon carbide matrix composites (SiC/SiC) are considered reusable materials because silicon carbide is a hard material with a low erosion and it forms a silica glass layer during oxidation which prevents further oxidation of inner material. However, above a certain temperature (which depends on the environmental conditions, such as the partial pressure of oxygen), the active oxidation of the silicon carbide matrix begins, resulting in the formation of gaseous silicon monoxide (SiO(g)).{{Cite journal |last1=Vinci |first1=Antonio |last2=Reimer |first2=Thomas |last3=Zoli |first3=Luca |last4=Sciti |first4=Diletta |date=May 2021 |title=Influence of pressure on the oxidation resistance of carbon fiber reinforced ZrB2/SiC composites at 2000 and 2200 °C |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109377 |journal=Corrosion Science |volume=184 |pages=109377 |doi=10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109377 |issn=0010-938X|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Vinci |first1=Antonio |last2=Zoli |first2=Luca |last3=Galizia |first3=Pietro |last4=Sciti |first4=Diletta |date=December 2020 |title=Influence of Y2O3 addition on the mechanical and oxidation behaviour of carbon fibre reinforced ZrB2/SiC composites |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2020.06.043 |journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society |volume=40 |issue=15 |pages=5067–5075 |doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2020.06.043 |issn=0955-2219|url-access=subscription }} This leads to a loss of protection against further oxidation, causing the material to undergo uncontrolled and rapid erosion. For this reason C/SiC and SiC/SiC are used in the range of temperature between 1200 °C - 1400 °C. The oxidation resistance and the thermo-mechanical properties of these materials can be improved by incorporating a fraction of about 20-30% of UHTC phases, e.g., ZrB₂, into the matrix.{{Cite journal |last1=Servadei |first1=Francesca |last2=Zoli |first2=Luca |last3=Vinci |first3=Antonio |last4=Galizia |first4=Pietro |last5=Sciti |first5=Diletta |date=2021-08-15 |title=Significant improvement of the self-protection capability of ultra-high temperature ceramic matrix composites |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010938X21003413 |journal=Corrosion Science |volume=189 |pages=109575 |doi=10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109575 |bibcode=2021Corro.18909575S |issn=0010-938X|url-access=subscription }}

On the one hand CMCs are lightweight materials with high strength-to-weight ratio even at high temperature, high thermal shock resistance and toughness but suffer of erosion during service. On the other side bulk ceramics made of ultra-high temperature ceramics (e.g. ZrB₂, HfB₂, or their composites) are hard materials which show low erosion even above 2000 °C but are heavy and suffer of catastrophic fracture and low thermal shock resistance compared to CMCs. Failure is easily under mechanical or thermo-mechanical loads because of cracks initiated by small defects or scratches. current research is focused on combining several reinforcing elements (e.g short carbon fibers,{{Cite journal |last1=Mor |first1=Matteo |last2=Vinci |first2=Antonio |last3=Failla |first3=Simone |last4=Galizia |first4=Pietro |last5=Zoli |first5=Luca |last6=Sciti |first6=Diletta |date=2023-01-05 |title=A novel approach for manufacturing of layered, ultra-refractory composites using pliable, short fibre-reinforced ceramic sheets |url=https://www.sciopen.com/article/10.26599/JAC.2023.9220674 |journal=Journal of Advanced Ceramics |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=155–168 |doi=10.26599/JAC.2023.9220674 |issn=2226-4108|doi-access=free }} PAN or pitch based continuous carbon fibers,{{Cite journal |last1=Sciti |first1=D. |last2=Zoli |first2=L. |last3=Vinci |first3=A. |last4=Silvestroni |first4=L. |last5=Mungiguerra |first5=S. |last6=Galizia |first6=P. |date=May 2021 |title=Effect of PAN-based and pitch-based carbon fibres on microstructure and properties of continuous Cf/ZrB2-SiC UHTCMCs |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2020.05.032 |journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=3045–3050 |doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2020.05.032 |issn=0955-2219}} ceramic fibers,{{Cite journal |last1=Zoli |first1=L. |last2=Medri |first2=V. |last3=Melandri |first3=C. |last4=Sciti |first4=D. |date=2015-12-01 |title=Continuous SiC fibers-ZrB2 composites |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0955221915300911 |journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society |volume=35 |issue=16 |pages=4371–4376 |doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2015.08.008 |issn=0955-2219}} graphite sheets,{{Cite journal |last1=Zoli |first1=Luca |last2=Servadei |first2=Francesca |last3=Failla |first3=Simone |last4=Mor |first4=Matteo |last5=Vinci |first5=Antonio |last6=Galizia |first6=Pietro |last7=Sciti |first7=Diletta |date=2024-02-01 |title=ZrB2–SiC ceramics toughened with oriented paper-derived graphite for a sustainable approach |url=https://www.sciopen.com/article/10.26599/JAC.2024.9220842 |journal=Journal of Advanced Ceramics |language=en |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=207–219 |doi=10.26599/JAC.2024.9220842 |issn=2226-4108|doi-access=free }} etc) with UHTC phases to reduce the brittleness of these materials.

The European Commission funded a research project, C³HARME,{{cite web|title=c³harme|url=http://www.c3harme.eu|website=www.c3harme.eu}}{{Cite journal|last1=Sciti|first1=Diletta|last2=Silvestroni|first2=Laura|last3=Monteverde|first3=Frédéric|last4=Vinci|first4=Antonio|last5=Zoli|first5=Luca|date=2018-10-17|title=Introduction to H2020 project C3HARME – next generation ceramic composites for combustion harsh environment and space|journal=Advances in Applied Ceramics|volume=117|issue=sup1|pages=s70–s75|doi=10.1080/17436753.2018.1509822|bibcode=2018AdApC.117S..70S |issn=1743-6753|doi-access=free}} under the NMP-19-2015 call of Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development in 2016-2020 for the design, manufacturing and testing of a new class of ultra-refractory ceramic matrix composites reinforced with carbon fibers suitable for applications in severe aerospace environments as possible near-zero ablation thermal protection system (TPS) materials (e.g. heat shield){{Cite journal |last1=Mungiguerra |first1=Stefano |last2=Di Martino |first2=Giuseppe D. |last3=Cecere |first3=Anselmo |last4=Savino |first4=Raffaele |last5=Zoli |first5=Luca |last6=Silvestroni |first6=Laura |last7=Sciti |first7=Diletta |date=August 2020 |title=Ultra-high-temperature testing of sintered ZrB2-based ceramic composites in atmospheric re-entry environment |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.119910 |journal=International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer |volume=156 |pages=119910 |doi=10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.119910 |bibcode=2020IJHMT.15619910M |issn=0017-9310}}{{Cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=B. |last2=Venkatachalam |first2=V. |last3=Zoli |first3=L. |last4=Vinci |first4=A. |last5=Failla |first5=S. |last6=Sciti |first6=D. |last7=Binner |first7=J. |date=December 2021 |title=Ablation behaviour of carbon fibre ultra-high temperature composites at oblique angles of attack |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110199 |journal=Materials & Design |volume=212 |pages=110199 |doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110199 |issn=0264-1275|doi-access=free }} and for propulsion (e.g. rocket nozzle).{{Cite journal|last1=Sciti|first1=D.|last2=Zoli|first2=L.|last3=Silvestroni|first3=L.|last4=Cecere|first4=A.|last5=Martino|first5=G.D. Di|last6=Savino|first6=R.|title=Design, fabrication and high velocity oxy-fuel torch tests of a C f -ZrB 2 - fiber nozzle to evaluate its potential in rocket motors|journal=Materials & Design|volume=109|pages=709–717|doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2016.07.090|year=2016}}{{Cite journal |last1=Mungiguerra |first1=Stefano |last2=Di Martino |first2=Giuseppe D. |last3=Savino |first3=Raffaele |last4=Zoli |first4=Luca |last5=Silvestroni |first5=Laura |last6=Sciti |first6=Diletta |date=December 2020 |title=Characterization of novel ceramic composites for rocket nozzles in high-temperature harsh environments |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120492 |journal=International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer |volume=163 |pages=120492 |doi=10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120492 |bibcode=2020IJHMT.16320492M |issn=0017-9310|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Sciti |first1=Diletta |last2=Vinci |first2=Antonio |last3=Zoli |first3=Luca |last4=Galizia |first4=Pietro |last5=Failla |first5=Simone |last6=Mungiguerra |first6=Stefano |last7=Martino |first7=Giuseppe D. Di |last8=Cecere |first8=Anselmo |last9=Savino |first9=Raffaele |date=2023-07-05 |title=Propulsion tests on ultra-high-temperature ceramic matrix composites for reusable rocket nozzles |url=https://www.sciopen.com/article/10.26599/JAC.2023.9220759 |journal=Journal of Advanced Ceramics |language=en |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=1345–1360 |doi=10.26599/JAC.2023.9220759 |issn=2226-4108|doi-access=free }}{{Cite book|last1=Mungiguerra|first1=Stefano|last2=Di Martino|first2=Giuseppe D.|last3=Savino|first3=Raffaele|last4=Zoli|first4=Luca|last5=Sciti|first5=Diletta|last6=Lagos|first6=Miguel A.|chapter=Ultra-High-Temperature Ceramic Matrix Composites in Hybrid Rocket Propulsion Environment |date=2018-07-08|title=2018 International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference|location=Reston, Virginia|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|doi=10.2514/6.2018-4694|isbn=9781624105715|chapter-url=https://zenodo.org/record/2551031}} The demand for reusable advanced materials with temperature capability over 2000 °C has been growing.{{Cite journal|last1=Sziroczak|first1=D.|last2=Smith|first2=H.|title=A review of design issues specific to hypersonic flight vehicles|journal=Progress in Aerospace Sciences|volume=84|pages=1–28|doi=10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.04.001|year=2016|bibcode=2016PrAeS..84....1S|hdl=1826/10119|hdl-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Vinci|first1=Antonio|last2=Zoli|first2=Luca|last3=Sciti|first3=Diletta|last4=Watts|first4=Jeremy|last5=Hilmas|first5=Greg E.|last6=Fahrenholtz|first6=William G.|date=April 2019|title=Mechanical behaviour of carbon fibre reinforced TaC/SiC and ZrC/SiC composites up to 2100°C|journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society|volume=39|issue=4|pages=780–787|doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2018.11.017|s2cid=139993345 |issn=0955-2219}}{{Cite journal|last1=Mungiguerra|first1=S.|last2=Di Martino|first2=G.D.|last3=Cecere|first3=A.|last4=Savino|first4=R.|last5=Silvestroni|first5=L.|last6=Vinci|first6=A.|last7=Zoli|first7=L.|last8=Sciti|first8=D.|date=April 2019|title=Arc-jet wind tunnel characterization of ultra-high-temperature ceramic matrix composites|journal=Corrosion Science|volume=149|pages=18–28|doi=10.1016/j.corsci.2018.12.039|bibcode=2019Corro.149...18M |s2cid=139421458 |issn=0010-938X|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3465346}}{{Cite journal |last1=Vinci |first1=Antonio |last2=Zoli |first2=Luca |last3=Sciti |first3=Diletta |last4=Watts |first4=Jeremy |last5=Hilmas |first5=Greg E. |last6=Fahrenholtz |first6=William G. |date=October 2019 |title=Influence of fibre content on the strength of carbon fibre reinforced HfC/SiC composites up to 2100 °C |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2019.04.049 |journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society |volume=39 |issue=13 |pages=3594–3603 |doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2019.04.049 |issn=0955-2219|url-access=subscription }} Recently carbon fiber reinforced zirconium boride-based composites obtained by powder slurry impregnation (SI) and sintering has been investigated.{{Cite journal|last1=Zoli|first1=L.|last2=Sciti|first2=D.|title=Efficacy of a ZrB₂ –SiC matrix in protecting C fibres from oxidation in novel UHTCMC materials|journal=Materials & Design|volume=113|pages=207–213|doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2016.09.104|year=2017|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1292518}}{{Cite journal|last1=Zoli|first1=L.|last2=Vinci|first2=A.|last3=Silvestroni|first3=L.|last4=Sciti|first4=D.|last5=Reece|first5=M.|last6=Grasso|first6=S.|title=Rapid spark plasma sintering to produce dense UHTCs reinforced with undamaged carbon fibres|journal=Materials & Design|volume=130|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2017.05.029|year=2017|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1292487}}{{Cite journal|last1=Galizia|first1=Pietro|last2=Failla|first2=Simone|last3=Zoli|first3=Luca|last4=Sciti|first4=Diletta|title=Tough salami-inspired Cf/ZrB₂ UHTCMCs produced by electrophoretic deposition|journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society|volume=38|issue=2|pages=403–409|doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2017.09.047|year=2018|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1292469}}{{Cite journal|last1=Vinci|first1=Antonio|last2=Zoli|first2=Luca|last3=Sciti|first3=Diletta|last4=Melandri|first4=Cesare|last5=Guicciardi|first5=Stefano|title=Understanding the mechanical properties of novel UHTCMCs through random forest and regression tree analysis|journal=Materials & Design|volume=145|pages=97–107|doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2018.02.061|year=2018|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1292479}}{{Cite journal |last1=Zoli |first1=L. |last2=Medri |first2=V. |last3=Melandri |first3=C. |last4=Sciti |first4=D. |year=2015 |title=Continuous SiC fibers-ZrB₂ composites |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0955221915300911 |journal=Journal of the European Ceramic Society |volume=35 |issue=16 |pages=4371–4376 |doi=10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2015.08.008}}{{Cite journal|last1=Sciti|first1=D.|last2=Murri|first2=A. 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