upper Mustang

{{Infobox country

| conventional_long_name = {{nowrap|Kingdom of Lo / Mustang}} {{nowrap|གློ་ཡུལ། གློ་སྨན་ཐང་། (Tibetan)}}

| common_name = Upper Mustang

| status = Independent sovereign state (1380–1964)
Dependency of Nepal (1964–2008)

| life_span = 1380–2008

| government_type = Monarchy

| event_start = Established

| year_start = 1380

| date_start =

| event_end = Abolished by the Federal government

| year_end = 2008

| date_end = 7 October

| p1 =

| s1 = Mustang District

| image_flag = Flag of Mustang.svg

| image_map = Upper & lower Mustang.png

| map_caption = Upper & lower Mustang with local level bodies

| official_languages = {{flatlist|{{unbulleted list |Tibetan and Nepali}}}}

| area_km2 = 2,020{{cite journal |last=Raffaele |first=Paul |title=Into the Forbidden Kingdom of Mustang |journal=Reader's Digest |date=April 1998 |volume=71 |series=421}}

| area_sq_mi = 700

| population_estimate = 7,000

| population_density_km2 = 3.47

| population_density_sq_mi = 10

| capital = Lo Manthang

| religion = {{unbulleted list|Hinduism|Tibetan Buddhism|Kiratism|Animism|Nepalese Shamanism}}

| title_leader = Raja/Gyelpo (King)

| leader1 = Ame Pal

| year_leader1 = 1380–1400s {{small|(first)}}

| leader2 = Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista

| year_leader2 = 1964–2008 {{small|(last)}}

| demonym =

| area_rank =

| GDP_PPP =

| GDP_PPP_year =

| HDI =

| HDI_year =

| today = {{flag|Nepal}}

}}

File:LoManthang 1.JPG

Upper Mustang, formerly known as Kingdom of Lo, is the upper part (northern areas) of the Mustang District in the Gandaki Province of Nepal. The Upper Mustang was a restricted kingdom until 1992 which makes it one of the most preserved regions in the world, with a majority of the population still speaking traditional Tibetic languages.

The Upper Mustang comprises the northern two-thirds of the Mustang District of Gandaki Province, Nepal. It consists of three rural municipalities namely Lo Manthang, Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda, and Varagung Muktichhetra.

The southern third (lower Mustang) of the district is called Thak and is the homeland of the Thakali community, who speak the Thakali language and whose culture combines Tibetan and Nepalese elements.

Tibetan culture of the region has been preserved by the relative isolation of the region from the outside world. Life in Mustang revolves around tourism, animal husbandry, and trade.

Mustang's status as a kingdom ended in 2008 when its suzerain Kingdom of Nepal became a republic. The influence of the outside world, especially China, is growing and contributing to rapid change in the lives of Mustang's people.[https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeracorrespondent/2011/10/201110912360944324.html Mustang: A Kingdom on the Edge]Al Jazeera Correspondent {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612100150/https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeracorrespondent/2011/10/201110912360944324.html |date=2020-06-12 }} Development work has increased in recent years.

History

File:Jigme Palbar Bista.jpg.]]

Mustang was once an independent kingdom, although closely tied by language and culture to Tibet. From the 15th to the 17th century, its strategic location granted Mustang control over the trade between the Himalayas and India. At the end of the 18th century, the kingdom was annexed by Nepal and became a dependency of the Kingdom of Nepal in 1795.{{cite web | url=https://flagspot.net/flags/np-must.html | title=Principality of Mustang, Nepal }}

The Kingdom of Lo Manthang supported Tibet and the Qing Empire during the Sino-Nepalese War.

Though still recognized by many Mustang residents, the monarchy ceased to exist on October 7, 2008, by order of the Government of Nepal.[https://web.archive.org/web/20090304064713/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-10/08/content_10167598.htm China View news] The last official and later unofficial king (raja or gyelpo) was Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista (1930–2016),{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38357081| website=bbc.co.uk| title=Nepal remembers Bista, last king of Upper Mustang|access-date=December 18, 2016}} who traced his lineage directly back to Ame Pal, the warrior who founded this Buddhist kingdom in 1380.[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020421/spectrum/travel.htm Wild, windy and harsh, yet stunningly beautiful]; The Sunday Tribune; April 21, 2002 Ame Pal oversaw the founding and building of much of the Lo and Mustang capital of Lo Manthang, a walled city that has changed little in appearance since that time period.{{cite book |last=Peissel |first=Michel |author-link=Michel Peissel |title=Mustang - A Lost Tibetan Kingdom |orig-year=1967 |edition=2nd |year=1992 |publisher=Pilgrims Book House|pages=227–31}}

In 2007, a shepherd in Mustang discovered a collection of 55 cave paintings depicting the life of the Buddha.[https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2072736,00.html Shepherd leads experts to ancient Buddha cave paintings]; Guardian Unlimited; May 4, 2007.

Climate

Upper Mustang has a trans-Himalayan climate which is cool and semi-arid with precipitation in the range of {{cvt|250|-|400|mm|}}. It is in the rain shadow of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri ranges.

The Day and Night Temperature in Upper Mustang according to the months is shown below:

class="wikitable"

!Month

!Day Temperature

!Night Temperature

December, January, February

|0 to 5 °C

32 to 41 °F

|-25 to -20°C

-13 to -4 °F

March, April, May, June

|16 to 22 °C

61 to 72 °F

|-6 to -2°C

21 to 28 °F

July, August, September

|20 to 33 °C

68 to 73 °F

|-3 to 0 °C

27 to 32 °F

October, November

|12 to 20 °C

54 to 68 °F

|-8 to -4 °C

18 to 25 °F

Demographics

The population of the whole Mustang District in 2001 was 14,981, spread between three towns and approximately thirty smaller settlements. The inhabitants are either Thakalis, Gurung or, in traditional Mustang, primarily Tibetan.

Most of the population of Mustang lives near the Kali Gandaki River, {{cvt|2800|to|3900|m|}} above sea level. The tough conditions cause a large winter migration into lower regions of Nepal. The administrative center of Mustang District is at Jomsom ({{convert|8|km|spell=in|}} south of Kagbeni) which has had an airport since 1962 and has become the main tourist entry point since Mustang was opened to western tourism in 1992.

Geography

Tangbe, Upper Mustang.jpg|Tangbe village from above

View on Gyakar (edited).jpg|Gyakar village across the gorge

Kali Gandaki riverbed in Nepal's Upper Mustang.jpg|Kali Gandaki riverbed in Nepal's Upper Mustang. View from Thsele down to the Kali Gandaki river and the fields of Chusang village, with Nilgiri's steep north face.

The main hydrographic feature of Mustang is the Gandaki River. The river runs southward towards Nepal Terai, bisecting Mustang. Routes paralleling the river once served as a major trade route between Tibet and India, especially for salt. Part of the river valley in the southern Mustang District forms the Kali Gandaki Gorge, by some measures the deepest gorge in the world.

Traditional Mustang (the Lo Kingdom) is {{cvt|53|km|||}} north–south at its longest, {{cvt|60|km|||}} east–west at its widest and ranges from a low point of {{cvt|2750|m|||}} above sea level on the Kali Gandaki River just north of Kagbeni to {{cvt|6700|m|||}} at Khamjung Himal, a peak in southeast Mustang.

Transport

Upper Mustang is on an ancient trade route between Nepal and Tibet exploiting the lowest {{convert|4660|m|ft|-2|adj=on}} pass Kora La through the Himalaya west of Sikkim. Kora La currently serves as one of the active border crossings between China and Nepal.{{cite news |title=Beijing to reopen fourth border point with Nepal |url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2023/11/12/beijing-to-reopen-fourth-border-point-with-nepal |access-date=7 February 2024 |publisher=Kathmandu Post |date=12 November 2023}}

Mechanized access inside Nepal began with the opening of an airstrip at Jomsom at the approximate boundary between the southern Thak and northern Lo sections of the valley, which was in operation by the 1960s.

China eventually decided to revitalize trade and in 2001 completed a {{convert|20|km|mi|0|adj=on}} road from the international border to Lo Manthang.

{{cite news |author= |title=New highway divides isolated Buddhist kingdom of Mustang|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2007/05/19/2003361588/1 |newspaper=Taipei Times

|location=Taipei, Taiwan|agency=AFP |date=May 19, 2007 |access-date=Dec 14, 2013}} Across the TAR border is Zhongba County of Shigatse Prefecture. China National Highway 219 follows the valley of the Yarlung Tsangpo River some {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} north of the border.

Meanwhile, road-building from the south was inhibited by difficulties along the Kali Gandaki Gorge to the south, but proceeded incrementally. In 2010, a {{convert|9|km|mi|0|adj=on|spell=in}} gap remained but the road was completed before 2015 and is suitable for high clearance and four wheel drive vehicles.

Currently, the easiest and only widely used road corridor, from Kathmandu to Lhasa—named Arniko Highway in Nepal and China National Highway 318 in the TAR—traverses a {{convert|5125|m|ft|-1|adj=on}} pass. This is some {{convert|465|m|ft|-1}} higher than Kora La.

Tourism

File:Rigsum Gönpo and prayer flags at the entrance of Samar (15842094652).jpgs at the entrance of Samar]]

Foreign visitors have been allowed to the region since 1992, but tourism to Upper Mustang is regulated. Foreigners need to obtain a special permit to enter, costing $500 for ten days, followed by $50 per day.

{{Cite web |title=The Best Upper Mustang Treks: An Expert Guide - Horizon Guides |url=https://horizonguides.com/guides/nepal-trekking/treks-in-the-upper-mustang-region |access-date=2024-01-22 |website=horizonguides.com |language=en-US}}

{{Cite web |title=About Tiji Festival |url=https://www.mustangtrekkinginnepal.com/tiji-festival/ |access-date=2024-06-15 |website=www.mustangtrekkinginnepal.com |language=en-US}} Most tourists visit for the region's trekking trails, which largely follow the same trade route used in the 15th century, although road construction is beginning to impact the areas trekking routes. Over a thousand western trekkers now visit each year, with over 7,000 between (mid-July 2018 to mid-July 2019). August and October are the peak visiting months. On August 27, 2010, local youth leaders in Mustang threatened to bar tourists beginning October 1, 2010 due to the refusal of the Nepalese government to provide any of the $50 per day fee to the local economy. Visitation, however, continued uninterrupted beyond that date.[https://web.archive.org/web/20110119081642/http://www.voanews.com/tibetan-english/news/world/Mustang-to-Bar-Tourists-to-Protest--101657173.html Mustang to Bar Tourists]

Mustang is rich in Buddhist culture, similar to the area of the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. It is an alternate way to experience the Tibetan culture and landscape to the tours provided by the Chinese government. The Tiji festival in Lo-Manthang is another popular destination for tourists in the area seeking to experience the native culture.

The first westerner in Mustang was Toni Hagen, Swiss explorer and geologist, who visited the Kingdom in 1952 during one of his travels across the Himalayas. French Michel Peissel is considered the first westerner to stay in Lo Manthang, during the first authorised exploration of Mustang in 1964.Peissel, Michel [1967]. Mustang, a Lost Tibetan Kingdom, Books Faith, 2002

References

Bibliography

Michel Peissel (1967). Mustang – A lost Tibetan Kingdom. Dutton, New York.
Clara Marullo (1995). The Last Forbidden Kingdom, Mustang: Land of Tibetan Buddhism. Photographs by Vanessa Schuurbeque. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Ltd., Rutland, Vermont. {{ISBN|0-8048-3061-4}}.
Peter Matthiessen (1996). East of Lo Monthang – In the Land of Mustang. Photography by Thomas Laird. Shambhala Publications, Berkeley, Cal.

Documentaries

[https://web.archive.org/web/20130225174800/http://documentaryhive.com/lost-treasures-of-tibet/ Lost Treasures of Tibet], 2003–2–18.
The Last Lost Kingdom, a Feature Documentary by Larry Levene.