Login
Login

volcanic landslide

{{Short description|Mass movement that occurs at volcanoes}}

File:Mt Yazur crater.jpg in the north crater of Mount Yasur on Tanna Island, Vanuatu]]

A volcanic landslide or volcanogenic landslide is a type of mass wasting that takes place at volcanoes.

Occurrences

File:Hawaiian Islands landslides.jpg over the last several million years]]

All volcanic edifices are susceptible to landslides, particularly stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes where landslides are important processes.{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/volcanic-processes-landslides.htm|title=Volcanic Processes—Landslides|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=14 April 2023}} Volcanic landslides range in size from less than {{Convert|1|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} to more than {{Convert|100|km3|mi3|abbr=on}}.{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/landslides-are-common-tall-steep-and-weak-volcanic-cones|title=Landslides are common on tall, steep, and weak volcanic cones|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2023-03-27}} The largest volcanic landslides on Earth occur from submarine volcanoes and are several times larger than those that occur on land. Submarine landslides with volumes of {{Convert|100|-|150|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} have occurred in the Canary Islands within the last 43 million years, but the largest submarine landslides could have been up to {{Convert|900|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} in volume.{{cite web|url=https://noc.ac.uk/news/planets-largest-landslides-happen-submarine-volcanoes?gclid=Cj0KCQjw2v-gBhC1ARIsAOQdKY2kMfmIGANW_S7XDOQboIa3sUD7brChKidSMINtTaKBZSKIZn648qYaAuWiEALw_wcB|title=The planet's largest landslides happen on submarine volcanoes|publisher=National Oceanography Centre|date=2017-12-12|access-date=2023-04-02}} Massive submarine landslides have also taken place in the Hawaiian Islands over the last several million years, the largest of which constitute significant portions of the islands from which they originated.{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/news/volcano-watch-slip-sliding-away-disassembling-hawaiian-volcanoes|title=Volcano Watch — Slip-sliding away—Disassembling Hawaiian volcanoes|publisher=United States Geological Survey|date=2014-01-23|access-date=2023-04-02}}

Smaller landslides have also been identified at volcanoes on Mars and Venus.{{cite journal|last1=McGuire|first1=W. J.|title=Volcano instability: a review of contemporary themes|journal=Geological Society Special Publication|publisher=Geological Society of London|volume=110|pages=1–23|year=1996|doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.1996.110.01.01|s2cid=128674065 }}{{NASA}} {{cite web|last1=Cleggett-Halaim|first1=Paula|last2=Doyle|first2=Jim|url=https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/1992/92-076.txt|title=Large Landslides Found on Venus|publisher=NASA|year=1992|access-date=14 April 2023}} Martian landslides reach lengths of {{Convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} and more while the largest Venusian landslides extend only about {{Convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on}}. The most dramatic landslide deposits on Venus occur beneath the slopes of volcanoes. Since erosion rates on Venus are much lower than those on Earth due to the lack of water on the surface, landslides are an important mechanism in wearing down mountain regions on Venus. The rounded hills of the complexly deformed tessera, or tile-like, terrain on Venus have probably been modified by numerous landslides.

Types

File:Tata Sabaya debris avalanche DEM.jpg in Bolivia]]

File:Tata Sabaya evolution.jpg diagram showing (a) pre-collapse volcano, (b) after collapse, (c) new edifice built on top of collapsed old edifice]]

At volcanoes, the term landslide is commonly used for slope movements with shear and displacement in a relatively narrow zone.{{cite report|last1=Scott|first1=Kevin M.|last2=Macías|first2=José Luis|last3=Naranjo|first3=José Antonio|last4=Rodríguez|first4=Sergio|last5=McGeehin|first5=John P.|title=Catastrophic Debris Flows Transformed from Landslides in Volcanic Terrains: Mobility, Hazard Assessment, and Mitigation Strategies|publisher=United States Geological Survey|page=6|year=2001|isbn=0-607-98578-X}} They can be in the form of debris avalanches, debris flows, slumps and rockfalls.{{cite journal|last1=Rault|first1=C.|last2=Thiery|first2=Y.|last3=Chaput|first3=M.|last4=Reninger|first4=P. A.|last5=Dewez|first5=T. J. B.|last6=Michon|first6=L.|last7=Samyn|first7=K.|last8=Aunay|first8=B.|title=Landslide Processes Involved in Volcano Dismantling From Past to Present: The Remarkable Open-Air Laboratory of the Cirque de Salazie (Reunion Island)|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|publisher=American Geophysical Union|page=1|year=2022|volume=127 |issue=5 |doi=10.1029/2021JF006257|s2cid=248353147 |url=https://hal.univ-reunion.fr/hal-03674815v1/file/2022-JGR-Rault.pdf }} A debris avalanche is a sudden, very rapid flow of rock and soil in response to gravity. It is a common middle stage in the transformation of a cohesive debris flow from a landslide or rockslide. Debris avalanches may be restricted to grain flows or granular flows, in which flow mechanics are governed by particle interactions involving friction and collision. Debris flows, in contrast, owe much of their behaviour to excess pore-water pressure and a pore fluid that is viscous and contains fine sediment.

=Sector collapses=

{{main|Sector collapse}}

The largest landslides from volcanoes are called sector or edifice collapses. Prehistoric sector collapses are preserved in the geological record in the form of debris avalanche deposits and collapse scars.{{Cite journal |last1=Watt |first1=Sebastian F. L. |date=2019-10-15 |title=The evolution of volcanic systems following sector collapse |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027318301604 |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume=384 |pages=280–303 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.05.012 |s2cid=181821094 |issn=0377-0273}}{{Cite journal |last1=Kervyn |first1=M. |last2=Ernst |first2=G. G. J. |last3=Klaudius |first3=J. |last4=Keller |first4=J. |last5=Mbede |first5=E. |last6=Jacobs |first6=P. |date=2008-10-28 |title=Remote sensing study of sector collapses and debris avalanche deposits at Oldoinyo Lengai and Kerimasi volcanoes, Tanzania |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=29 |issue=22 |pages=6565–6595 |bibcode=2008IJRS...29.6565K |doi=10.1080/01431160802168137 |issn=0143-1161 |s2cid=128817424}}{{Cite journal |last1=Romero |first1=Jorge E. |last2=Polacci |first2=Margherita |last3=Watt |first3=Sebastian |last4=Kitamura |first4=Shigeru |last5=Tormey |first5=Daniel |last6=Sielfeld |first6=Gerd |last7=Arzilli |first7=Fabio |last8=La Spina |first8=Giuseppe |last9=Franco |first9=Luis |last10=Burton |first10=Mike |last11=Polanco |first11=Edmundo |date=2021 |title=Volcanic Lateral Collapse Processes in Mafic Arc Edifices: A Review of Their Driving Processes, Types and Consequences |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=9 |doi=10.3389/feart.2021.639825 |issn=2296-6463 |doi-access=free }} Debris avalanche deposits can be found up to {{Convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the site of collapse. Collapse scars are also an indicator of sector collapse and are often described as "amphitheatre" or "horseshoe" shaped. Such collapse scars, open at one end, have long been noted in many volcanic regions around the world. The largest volcanic island sector collapse in historic times took place in 1888 when Ritter Island collapsed off the northern coast of Papua New Guinea.{{Cite journal|last1=Karstens|first1=Jens|last2=Berndt|first2=Christian|last3=Urlaub|first3=Morelia|last4=Watt|first4=Sebastian F.L.|last5=Micallef|first5=Aaron|last6=Ray|first6=Melanie|last7=Klaucke|first7=Ingo|last8=Muff|first8=Sina|last9=Klaeschen|first9=Dirk|last10=Kühn|first10=Michel|last11=Roth|first11=Theresa|last12=Böttner|first12=Christoph|last13=Schramm|first13=Bettina|last14=Elger|first14=Judith|last15=Brune|first15=Sascha|date=2019|title=From gradual spreading to catastrophic collapse – Reconstruction of the 1888 Ritter Island volcanic sector collapse from high-resolution 3D seismic data|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|volume=517|pages=1–13|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2019.04.009|bibcode=2019E&PSL.517....1K|s2cid=150016618|issn=0012-821X|url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/46295/1/JK_Ritter-Collapse_accepted.pdf }}{{Cite web|title=When Volcanoes Fall Down—Catastrophic Collapse and Debris Avalanches|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2019/3023/fs20193023_v1.2.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306105204/https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2019/3023/fs20193023_v1.2.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-06 |access-date=2021-02-07|publisher=United States Geological Survey|year=2019|series=Fact Sheet 2019–3023}} Edifice reconstruction generally must occur before a second sector collapse.

;Prehistoric

  • Stromboli, Sciara del Fuoco collapse{{Cite journal |last1=Kokelaar |first1=Peter |last2=Romagnoli |first2=Claudia |date=1995-08-01 |title=Sector collapse, sedimentation and clast population evolution at an active island-arc volcano: Stromboli, Italy |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995BVol...57..240K |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=240–262 |doi=10.1007/BF00265424 |bibcode=1995BVol...57..240K |s2cid=128687255 |issn=0258-8900}}
  • Popocatépetl, Ventorrillo collapse{{cite journal | last1 = Gisbert | first1 = Guillem | last2 = Delgado-Granados | first2 = Hugo | last3 = Mangler | first3 = Martin | last4 = Prytulak| first4 = Julie | last5 = Espinasa-Pereña | first5 = Ramón | last6 = Petrone | first6 = Chiara Maria | year = 2022 | url = https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jgs/article-abstract/179/3/jgs2021-022/609818/Evolution-of-the-Popocatepetl-Volcanic-Complex | title = Evolution of the Popocatépetl Volcanic Complex: constraints on periodic edifice construction and destruction by sector collapse | journal = Journal of the Geological Society | volume = 179 | issue = 3 | doi = 10.1144/jgs2021-022 | s2cid = 244445941 }}
  • Mount Rainier, Osceola collapse{{cite journal|last1=Vallance|first1=James W.|last2=Scott|first2=Kevin M.|title=The Osceola Mudflow from Mount Rainier: Sedimentology and hazard implications of a huge clay-rich debris flow|journal=GSA Bulletin|year=1997|volume=109|issue=2|pages=143–163|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1997)109<0143:TOMFMR>2.3.CO;2 |url=https://www.morageology.com/pubs/59.pdf}}

;Historic

=Flank collapses=

File:2010 Mount Meager landslide.jpg deposit in British Columbia, Canada]]

Flank collapses are much smaller than sector collapses, but they may also yield far-reaching debris flows. Flank collapses differ from sector collapses in that they only involve the volcano flank while sector collapses are large enough to involve the volcano summit. The smaller size of a flank collapse indicates that there need be no repose time before another flank collapse occurs, and hence they can be treated as random events.

;Prehistoric

;Historic

  • Mount Meager, 2010{{cite journal |last1=Guthrie |first1=R. H. |last2=Friele |first2=P. |last3=Allstadt |first3=K. |author-link3=Kate Allstadt |last4=Roberts |first4=N. |last5=Evans |first5=S. G. |last6=Delaney |first6=K. B. |last7=Roche |first7=D. |last8=Clague |first8=J. J. |last9=Jakob |first9=M. |year=2012 |title=The 6 August 2010 Mount Meager rock slide-debris flow, Coast Mountains, British Columbia: characteristics, dynamics, and implications for hazard and risk assessment |journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences |publisher=Copernicus Publications |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=1277–1294 |bibcode=2012NHESS..12.1277G |doi=10.5194/nhess-12-1277-2012 |issn=1561-8633 |doi-access=free}}
  • Mount Elgon, 2010{{cite web|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/43130/large-landslide-in-uganda|title=Large Landslide in Uganda|date=13 March 2010 |publisher=NASA Earth Observatory|access-date=2023-04-08}}
  • Kīlauea, Hilina Slump

Causes

File:Chaos Crags and Chaos Jumbles in June 2020.jpg with the Chaos Jumbles in the foreground]]

Several conditions can trigger landslides at volcanoes:

Hazards

File:Mount Iriga sector collapse.jpg in the Philippines contains a large horseshoe-shaped crater formed by a sector collapse]]

Large landslides from volcanoes often bury valleys with tens to hundreds of metres of rock debris, forming a chaotic landscape marked by dozens of small hills and closed depressions. If the landslide deposit is thick enough, it may dam streams to form lakes. These lakes may eventually drain catastrophically to create floods and lahars downstream.

Landslides that remove a large portion of a volcanic cone may abruptly decrease pressure on shallow magmatic and hydrothermal systems, which can generate explosions ranging from a small steam explosion to large steam and magma-driven directed blasts. These result in tephra and ash fall hazards for surrounding areas.

Large horseshoe-shaped craters formed by landslides at volcanoes will likely direct subsequent lava flows, pyroclastic flows or lahars toward its breached opening if the primary eruptive vent is located within these deep craters.

The collapse of island or coastal volcanoes from giant landslides can generate tsunamis that could potentially devastate large areas of coastal land.{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-do-landslides-cause-tsunamis|title=How do landslides cause tsunamis?|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2023-03-27}}

Disasters

File:Sunda strait tsunami 2.jpg caused by the 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami]]

Historically, the most deadly volcanic landslide occurred in 1792 when sliding debris from Mount Mayuyama in Japan slammed into the Ariake Sea and generated a tsunami that reached the opposite shore; nearly 15,000 people were killed.

The sector collapse of Ritter Island in 1888 generated a tsunami with runups of up to {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} that caused damage more than {{convert|700|km|mi|abbr=on}} away and killed anywhere between 500 and 3,000 people on neighbouring islands.{{Cite web|first1=Lee|last1=Siebert|last2=Reid|first2=Mark E.|last3=Vallance|first3=James W.|last4=Pierson|first4=Thomas C.|year=2019|title=When Volcanoes Fall Down—Catastrophic Collapse and Debris Avalanches|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2019/3023/fs20193023_v1.2.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306105204/https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2019/3023/fs20193023_v1.2.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-06 |access-date=2021-02-07|website=U.S. Geological Survey|series=Fact Sheet 2019–3023}}{{Cite journal|last1=Paris|first1=Raphaël|last2=Switzer|first2=Adam D.|last3=Belousova|first3=Marina|last4=Belousov|first4=Alexander|last5=Ontowirjo|first5=Budianto|last6=Whelley|first6=Patrick L.|last7=Ulvrova|first7=Martina|date=2014|title=Volcanic tsunami: a review of source mechanisms, past events and hazards in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea)|url=http://repo.kscnet.ru/1328/1/tsun-2014.pdf|journal=Natural Hazards|volume=70|pages=447–440|doi=10.1007/s11069-013-0822-8|s2cid=73610567|via=}}{{Cite web|title=NCEI Global Historical Hazard Database|url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/volcano/event-more-info/4|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.ngdc.noaa.gov|language=en}}

A landslide originating from Devastation Glacier on the southern flank of the Mount Meager massif in British Columbia, Canada, buried and killed a group of four geologists at the confluence of Devastation Creek and Meager Creek in July 1975.{{cite web|url=http://cdd.publicsafety.gc.ca/dtpg-eng.aspx?cultureCode=en-Ca&boundingBox=&provinces=2&eventTypes=%27LS%27,%27VO%27&eventStartDate=&injured=&evacuated=&totalCost=&dead=&normalizedCostYear=1&eventId=847|title=Landslide: Devastator Glacier BC, Jul 22 1975|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|date=2009-12-01|accessdate=2023-04-14}}{{cite journal|last1=Simpson|first1=K.A.|last2=Stasiuk|first2=M.|last3=Shimamura|first3=K.|last4=Clague|first4=J.J.|last5=Friele|first5=P.|journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences|title=Evidence for catastrophic volcanic debris flows in Pemberton Valley, British Columbia|publisher=NRC Research Press|page=688|volume=43|year=2006|issue=6 |issn=0008-4077|doi=10.1139/e06-026}}

In 1979, a landslide from the Indonesian volcano Iliwerung produced {{Convert|9|m|ft|adj=mid|-high|abbr=on}} waves that killed more than 500 people.{{cite web|last1=Keeley|first1=J.|url=https://volcano.oregonstate.edu/volcanogenic-tsunamis|title=Volcanogenic Tsunamis|publisher=Oregon State University|date=2010|accessdate=2021-04-27}} In December 2018, another landslide-induced tsunami took place in Indonesia's Sunda Strait following a collapse of Anak Krakatoa.{{cite web |author=Permadi, Agie |title=Longsoran yang Sebabkan Tsunami Selat Sunda Seluas 64 Hektar |url=https://regional.kompas.com/read/2018/12/26/12210621/longsoran-yang-sebabkan-tsunami-selat-sunda-seluas-64-hektar |website=Kompas |language=id |date=26 December 2018 |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111232451/https://regional.kompas.com/read/2018/12/26/12210621/longsoran-yang-sebabkan-tsunami-selat-sunda-seluas-64-hektar |url-status=live }} The waves struck about {{convert|313|km|mi|abbr=on}} of coastline with various heights, killing at least 373 people and damaging many buildings.{{Cite web | url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2018/12/31/number-of-injured-in-indonesia-tsunami-surges-to-over-14000/ | title=Number of injured in Indonesia tsunami surges to over 14,000 — Asean Plus | the Star Online | access-date=13 April 2023 | archive-date=18 April 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418134100/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2018/12/31/number-of-injured-in-indonesia-tsunami-surges-to-over-14000/ | url-status=live}}{{cite news |last1=Marten|first1=Lisa |last2=Zhou |first2=Naaman |title=Indonedia tsunami caused by collapse of volcano |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/dec/24/sunda-strait-tsunami-volcano-indonesia |access-date=13 April 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=24 December 2018 }}

See also

References

{{USGS}}

{{reflist|30em}}