volt

One volt is defined as the electric potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points.[https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/si-brochure-9-App1-EN.pdf BIPM SI Brochure: Appendix 1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227145519/https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/si-brochure-9-App1-EN.pdf |date=27 February 2022 }}, p. 144. It can be expressed in terms of SI base units (m, kg, s, and A) as

: $$

\text{V} = \frac{\text{power}}{\text{electric current}} = \frac{\text{W}}{\text{A}} = \frac{\text{kg}{\cdot}\text{m}^2{\cdot}\text{s}^{-3}}{\text{A}} = \text{kg}{\cdot}\text{m}^2{\cdot}\text{s}^{-3}{\cdot}{\text{A}^{-1}}.

Equivalently, it is the potential difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can be expressed in terms of SI base units (m, kg, s, and A) as

: $$

\text{V} = \frac{\text{potential energy}}{\text{charge}} = \frac{\text{J}}{\text{C}} = \frac{\text{kg}{\cdot}\text{m}^2{\cdot}\text{s}^{-2}}{\text{A}{\cdot}\text{s}} = \text{kg}{\cdot}\text{m}^2{\cdot}\text{s}^{-3}{\cdot}{\text{A}^{-1}}.

It can also be expressed as amperes times ohms (current times resistance, Ohm's law), webers per second (magnetic flux per time), watts per ampere (power per current), or joules per coulomb (energy per charge), which is also equivalent to electronvolts per elementary charge:

: $$

\text{V} = \text{A}{\cdot}\Omega = \frac{\text{Wb}}{\text{s}} = \frac{\text{W}}{\text{A}} = \frac{\text{J}}{\text{C}} = \frac{\text{eV}}{e}.

{{SI unit lowercase|Alessandro Volta|volt|V}}

{{Main|Josephson voltage standard}}

Historically the "conventional" volt, V₉₀, defined in 1987 by the 18th General Conference on Weights and Measures{{cite web|url=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/33145736/CGPM18.pdf/f461df63-75c1-c14d-e6b7-69867b79382f|title=Resolutions of the CGPM: 18th meeting (12–15 October 1987)|access-date=27 February 2022|archive-date=27 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227150143/https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/33145736/CGPM18.pdf/f461df63-75c1-c14d-e6b7-69867b79382f|url-status=live}} and in use from 1990 to 2019, was implemented using the Josephson effect for exact frequency-to-voltage conversion, combined with the caesium frequency standard. Though the Josephson effect is still used to realize a volt, the constant used has changed slightly.

For the Josephson constant, K_J = 2e/h (where e is the elementary charge and h is the Planck constant), a "conventional" value K_J-90 = {{val|0.4835979|u=GHz/μV}} was used for the purpose of defining the volt. As a consequence of the 2019 revision of the SI, as of 2019 the Josephson constant has an exact value of {{math|K_J}} = {{val|483597.84841698|end=...|u=GHz/V}}, which replaced the conventional value K_J-90.

This standard is typically realized using a series-connected array of several thousand or tens of thousands of junctions, excited by microwave signals between 10 and 80 GHz (depending on the array design).{{Citation |title=1 Volt DC Programmable Josephson Voltage Standard |first1=Charles J. |last1=Burroughs |first2=Samuel P. |last2=Bent |first3=Todd E. |last3=Harvey |first4=Clark A. |last4=Hamilton |journal=IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity |date=1 June 1999 |volume=9 |number=3 |pages=4145–4149 |issn=1051-8223 |publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) |doi=10.1109/77.783938 |bibcode=1999ITAS....9.4145B |s2cid=12970127 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1232191}} Empirically, several experiments have shown that the method is independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc., and no correction terms are required in a practical implementation.{{Citation |title=Current status of the quantum metrology triangle |first=Mark W. |last=Keller |url=http://qdev.boulder.nist.gov/817.03/pubs/downloads/set/Metrologia%2045,%20102.pdf |journal=Metrologia |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=102–109 |date=18 January 2008 |issn=0026-1394 |doi=10.1088/0026-1394/45/1/014 |quote=Theoretically, there are no current predictions for any correction terms. Empirically, several experiments have shown that K_J and R_K are independent of device design, material, measurement setup, etc. This demonstration of universality is consistent with the exactness of the relations, but does not prove it outright. |bibcode=2008Metro..45..102K |s2cid=122008182 |access-date=11 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527094953/http://qdev.boulder.nist.gov/817.03/pubs/downloads/set/Metrologia%2045,%20102.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2010 |url-status=dead}}

In the water-flow analogy, sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them with water-filled pipes, voltage (difference in electric potential) is likened to difference in water pressure, while current is proportional to the amount of water flowing. A resistor would be a reduced diameter somewhere in the piping or something akin to a radiator offering resistance to flow.

The relationship between voltage and current is defined (in ohmic devices like resistors) by Ohm's law. Ohm's Law is analogous to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, as both are linear models relating flux and potential in their respective systems.

File:Electronic multi meter.jpg can be used to measure the voltage between two positions.]]

File:BateriaR14.jpg

The voltage produced by each electrochemical cell in a battery is determined by the chemistry of that cell (see {{Section link|Galvanic cell|Cell voltage}}). Cells can be combined in series for multiples of that voltage, or additional circuitry added to adjust the voltage to a different level. Mechanical generators can usually be constructed to any voltage in a range of feasibility.

Nominal voltages of familiar sources:

• Nerve cell resting potential: ~ 75 mVBullock, Orkand, and Grinnell, pp. 150–151; Junge, pp. 89–90; Schmidt-Nielsen, p. 484.
• Single-cell, rechargeable NiMH{{cite book |last1=Horowitz |first1=Paul |last2=Winfield |first2=Hill |title=The Art of Electronics |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |location=Cambridge [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-521-809269 |page=689 |edition=3.}} or NiCd battery: 1.2 V
• Single-cell, non-rechargeable (e.g., AAA, AA, C and D cells): alkaline battery: 1.5 V;{{cite web |url=http://www.ti.com/lit/an/slva194/slva194.pdf |title=Single-cell Battery Discharge Characteristics Using the TPS61070 Boost Converter |author1=SK Loo |author2=Keith Keller |publisher=Texas Instruments |date=Aug 2004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015141242/https://www.ti.com/lit/an/slva194/slva194.pdf |archive-date= 15 October 2023}} zinc–carbon battery: 1.56 V if fresh and unused
• Logic voltage levels: 1.2 V, 1.5 V, 1.8 V, 2.5 V, 3.3 V, 5.0 V
• LiFePO₄ rechargeable battery: 3.3 V
• Cobalt-based lithium polymer rechargeable battery: 3.75 V (see Comparison of commercial battery types)
• Transistor–transistor logic/CMOS (TTL) power supply: 5 V
• USB: 5 V DC
• PP3 battery: 9 V
• Automotive battery systems use cells with 2.1 volts per cell; a "12 V" battery has six cells connected in series, which produces 12.6 V; a "24 V" battery has 12 cells connected in series, producing 25.2 V. Some antique vehicles use "6 V" 3-cell batteries, or 6.3 volts.
• Household mains electricity AC (see Mains electricity by country for a list of countries with mains power plugs, voltages and frequencies)
• 100 V in Japan
• 120 V in North America
• 230 V in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia
• Rapid transit third rail: 600–750 V (see List of railway electrification systems)
• High-speed train overhead power lines: 25 kV at 50 Hz, but see the List of railway electrification systems and 25 kV at 60 Hz for exceptions.
• High-voltage electric power transmission lines: 110 kV and up (1.15 MV is the record; the highest active voltage is 1.10 MV{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-02/world-s-biggest-ultra-high-voltage-line-powers-up-across-china |title=World's Biggest Ultra-High Voltage Line Powers Up Across China |website=Bloomberg |url-access=subscription |access-date=7 January 2020 |date=1 January 2019}})
• Lightning: a maximum of around 150 MV.{{cite web |url=https://www.riskva.com/fff/lightning_062613.html |author=Paul H. Risk |title=Lightning – High-Voltage Nature |website=RiskVA |date=26 June 2013 |access-date=23 April 2021 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220123/https://www.riskva.com/fff/lightning_062613.html |url-status=live }}

Image:Alessandro Volta.jpeg

File:PSM V85 D521 Group photograph of herman helmholtz and academic friends.png, his wife (seated) and academic friends Hugo Kronecker (left), Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (right), Henry Villard (center) during the International Electrical Congress]]

In 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by Luigi Galvani, Alessandro Volta developed the so-called voltaic pile, a forerunner of the battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and silver. In 1861, Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright coined the name "volt" for the unit of resistance.As names for units of various electrical quantities, Bright and Clark suggested "ohma" for voltage, "farad" for charge, "galvat" for current, and "volt" for resistance. See:

• Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright (1861) [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/93052#page/483/mode/1up "On the formation of standards of electrical quantity and resistance"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108105352/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/93052#page/483/mode/1up |date=8 November 2012 }}, Report of the Thirty-first Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Manchester, England: September 1861), section: Mathematics and Physics, pp. 37–38.
• Latimer Clark and Sir Charles Bright (9 November 1861) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433090837166;view=1up;seq=15 "Measurement of electrical quantities and resistance"], The Electrician, 1 (1): 3–4. By 1873, the British Association for the Advancement of Science had defined the volt, ohm, and farad.Sir W. Thomson, et al. (1873) [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/29853513#page/324/mode/1up "First report of the Committee for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423152619/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/29853513#page/324/mode/1up |date=23 April 2017 }}, Report of the 43rd Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Bradford, September 1873), pp. 222–225. From p. 223: "The 'ohm', as represented by the original standard coil, is approximately 10⁹ C.G.S. units of resistance; the 'volt' is approximately 10⁸ C.G.S. units of electromotive force; and the 'farad' is approximately 1/10⁹ of the C.G.S. unit of capacity." In 1881, the International Electrical Congress, now the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), approved the volt as the unit for electromotive force.(Anon.) (24 September 1881) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433090837489;view=1up;seq=309 "The Electrical Congress"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306002556/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433090837489;view=1up;seq=309 |date=6 March 2019 }}, The Electrician, 7: 297. They made the volt equal to 10⁸ cgs units of voltage, the cgs system at the time being the customary system of units in science. They chose such a ratio because the cgs unit of voltage is inconveniently small and one volt in this definition is approximately the emf of a Daniell cell, the standard source of voltage in the telegraph systems of the day.{{cite book |title=Standard Cells: Their Construction, Maintenance, and Characteristics |publisher=US National Bureau of Standards |last=Hamer |first=Walter J. |date=15 January 1965 |series=National Bureau of Standards Monograph #84 |url=https://www.nist.gov/calibrations/upload/mn84.pdf |access-date=13 July 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303203423/http://www.nist.gov/calibrations/upload/mn84.pdf |url-status=live }} At that time, the volt was defined as the potential difference [i.e., what is nowadays called the "voltage (difference)"] across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power.

The "international volt" was defined in 1893 as {{fraction|1.434}} of the emf of a Clark cell. This definition was abandoned in 1908 in favor of a definition based on the international ohm and international ampere until the entire set of "reproducible units" was abandoned in 1948.{{cite journal |date=December 1947 |title=Revised Values for Electrical Units |journal= Bell Laboratories Record |volume=XXV |issue=12 |pages=441 |url=http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Bell-Laboratories-Record/40s/Bell-Laboratories-Record-1947-12.pdf}}

A 2019 revision of the SI, including defining the value of the elementary charge, took effect on 20 May 2019.{{Citation |title=Draft Resolution A "On the revision of the International System of units (SI)" to be submitted to the CGPM at its 26th meeting (2018) |url=https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/CGPM/Draft-Resolution-A-EN.pdf |access-date=2 November 2018 |archive-date=29 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429025229/https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/CGPM/Draft-Resolution-A-EN.pdf |url-status=dead}}

{{Portal|Energy}}

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• Orders of magnitude (voltage)
• Rail traction voltage
• SI electromagnetism units
• SI prefix for unit prefixes
• Standardised railway voltages
• Voltmeter

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|2}}

{{Wiktionary}}

• [http://histoires-de-sciences.over-blog.fr/2013/11/electrical-units-history.html History of the electrical units.]

{{SI units}}

Category:SI derived units

Category:Units of electrical potential

Category:Alessandro Volta