western snowy plover

The western snowy plover was originally described by American ornithologist John Cassin in 1858. Western snowy plover is a subspecies of the snowy plover (Anarhynchus nivosus), of the genus Anarhynchus (formerly Charadrius). The species name nivosus comes from the Latin word 'niveus' meaning 'snowy'.{{Citation |last=Rzepiela |first=Michał |title=Interaction among Borrowing, Inflection and Word Formation in Polish Medieval Latin |date=2020-09-01 |work=The Interaction of Borrowing and Word Formation |pages=259–278 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474448208.003.0013 |access-date=2024-10-13 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9781474448208.003.0013 |isbn=978-1-4744-4820-8}}

The snowy plover was formerly considered conspecific with the Kentish plover of the Old World, but the two are now considered separate species.{{Cite journal |last1=Küpper |first1=Clemens |last2=Augustin |first2=Jakob |last3=Kosztolányi |first3=András |last4=Burke |first4=Terry |last5=Figuerola |first5=Jordi |last6=Székely |first6=Tamás |date=October 2009 |title=Kentish versus Snowy Plover: Phenotypic and Genetic Analyses of Charadrius alexandrinus Reveal Divergence of Eurasian and American Subspecies |url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/126/4/839-852/5148486 |journal=The Auk |language=en |volume=126 |issue=4 |pages=839–852 |doi=10.1525/auk.2009.08174 |issn=0004-8038|hdl=10261/41193 |hdl-access=free }}

Western snowy plovers are experts at blending into their environment. Plovers are shades of tan, brown and black with white underbellies and collar as well as dark tan legs. They have characteristic dark patches on the sides of their neck, and on top of the chest. Adult males can be distinguished from females by their black crown, dark ear coverts and fore-neck patch. When females also present with the black crown, basic male and female plumage is indistinguishable. Juveniles have consistent mottling of light and dark tans to match the sand nests. The breeding season is the easiest time to tell males and females apart, males have a rust-coloured cap at the beginning of the season.{{Cite web |title=Snowy Plover Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Snowy_Plover/id |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=www.allaboutbirds.org |language=en}}

Western snowy plovers are migratory birds but are also year-round residents in the southern locations. Their breeding and nesting range includes the western coast of the United States; Washington and Northern Utah to southern California, wintering in Baja California, Mexico.

Nesting sites are found on sandy beaches of open ocean shores and barren shores of non-tidal salt flat lakes as well as alkaline lakes in the interior or western United States.{{Cite journal |last1=Henkel |first1=Laird A. |last2=Neuman |first2=Kriss K. |last3=Stein |first3=R. William |last4=Stenzel |first4=Lynne E. |date=2020-06-10 |title=Assessing Accuracy of Sampling Schemes to Estimate Western Snowy Plover Reproductive Success |url=https://meridian.allenpress.com/jfwm/article/11/1/210/436154/Assessing-Accuracy-of-Sampling-Schemes-to-Estimate |journal=Journal of Fish and Wildlife Management |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=210–216 |doi=10.3996/102019-JFWM-088 |issn=1944-687X|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020JWFM...11..210H }} Western snowy plovers need open plains to feed on invertebrates and see predators. Sand is important for nest building, nests are made in shallow depressions of sand called nest scrapes with sparse vegetation to better hide their eggs. {{Cite journal |last1=Lauten |first1=David |last2=Castelein |first2=Kathleen |last3=Lee |first3=Mary |last4=Corrente |first4=Jacey |last5=McCamant |first5=Marty |last6=Gaines |first6=Eleanor |date=2023-12-01 |title=The Distribution and Reproductive Success of the Western Snowy Plover Along the Central and Southern Oregon Coast - 2023 |url=https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/naturalresources_pub/62/ |journal=Institute for Natural Resources Publications}} Too much vegetation can be an issue; American beachgrass from the east coast and European beachgrass are invasive species that were originally transplanted to stabilize sand dunes.{{Cite journal |last1=Johnston |first1=Karina K. |last2=Dugan |first2=Jenifer E. |last3=Hubbard |first3=David M. |last4=Emery |first4=Kyle A. |last5=Grubbs |first5=Melodie W. |date=2023-06-19 |title=Using dune restoration on an urban beach as a coastal resilience approach |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=10 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2023.1187488 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023FrMaS..1087488J |issn=2296-7745}} Now, the invasive grasses have replaced much of the native vegetation and taken up dune habitat of the western snowy plover.{{Cite journal |last1=Askerooth |first1=Risa |last2=Mostow |first2=Rebecca S. |last3=Ruggiero |first3=Peter |last4=Barreto |first4=Felipe |last5=Hacker |first5=Sally D. |date=April 2024 |title=A novel hybrid beachgrass is invading U.S. Pacific Northwest dunes with potential ecosystem consequences |journal=Ecosphere |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |doi=10.1002/ecs2.4830 |bibcode=2024Ecosp..15E4830A |issn=2150-8925|doi-access=free }}

Western snowy plovers are known to run. They run to catch food or run and crouch when threatened. They fly when necessary for migration or threatened by attacks from predators like raptors, ravens or crows. Males are known to be aggressive and will charge at other males and birds. Plovers are territorial, when broods are too close, adults will fight other parents and peck chicks of other plovers that approach.

Western snowy plovers congregate in flocks of fewer than 300 and practice preening, scratching, stretching and bathing in shallow water. They can be seen standing on one leg when cold, and periodically sleeping when roosting.{{Cite journal |last1=Page |first1=Gary W. |last2=Stenzel |first2=Lynne E. |last3=Warriner |first3=J. S. |last4=Warriner |first4=J. C. |last5=Paton |first5=P. W. |date=2009-11-18 |title=Snowy Plover (Charadrius nivosus) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2173/bna.154 |journal=The Birds of North America Online |doi=10.2173/bna.154}}

Western snowy plovers use calls like "churr" to signal their chicks that danger is near, the chicks will flatten themselves against the sand to hide. Chicks will "peep" until they are ready to fly. Other typical calls are variations of "tu-wheet", females are usually quieter and sound hoarse. During breeding season, "purrt" or "churr" can be heard to defend their nest. Outside the breeding period, many "ti" calls are sounded if disturbed.

Western snowy plovers are active foragers and visual predators. Their diet includes invertebrates, insects and crustaceans. Typical prey items are juvenile mole crabs, brine fly larvae, beetles, flies, snails, clams, polychaete worms, and amphipods.{{Cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Thomas P. |last2=Vigallon |first2=Stacey |last3=Griswold |first3=Ross |last4=Plauzoles |first4=Lucien |last5=Egger |first5=Cheryl |last6=Sheakley |first6=Susan |last7=Nguyen |first7=Lana |last8=Schallmann |first8=Robert |date=2023-02-01 |title=Status of the Western Snowy Plover in Coastal Los Angeles and Orange Counties, California |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21199/wb54.1.4 |journal=Western Birds |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=44–64 |doi=10.21199/wb54.1.4 |issn=0045-3897}} Plovers use the "stop and run" method to spot prey and capture it. Another method is to open their mouths and run at swarms of kelp and wrack flies, snapping their beaks.{{Cite journal |last1=COLWELL |first1=MARK A. |last2=HURLEY |first2=SUSAN J. |last3=HALL |first3=JAMES N. |last4=DINSMORE |first4=STEPHEN J. |date=2007 |title=Age-Related Survival and Behavior of Snowy Plover Chicks |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1650/8236.1 |journal=The Condor |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=638 |doi=10.1650/8236.1 |issn=0010-5422}} During winter, plovers build up their fat reserves to prepare for migration north for the breeding season.

Western snowy plovers have two broods of 2-6 eggs measuring 2.8-3.4 cm by 2.1-2.4 cm, per year. Plovers will produce a third brood if the breeding season is longer due to late warm weather. Typical nesting season is March to September, peak nesting time is mid-April to August. Nests are made by the male as a part of the courtship ritual, the male will dig a shallow depression in the sand, then line the pit with stones and shell pieces to prevent the eggs from overheating. Eggs have a 26-33 day incubation period, females attend the brood during the day and males at night. Eggs are well camouflaged with a speckled, sandy colouration.{{Citation |last1=Page |first1=Gary W. |title=Snowy Plover (Anarhynchus nivosus) |work=Birds of the World |editor-last=Billerman |editor-first=Shawn M. |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/snoplo5/1.1/introduction |access-date=13 October 2024 |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |language=en |doi=10.2173/bow.snoplo5.01.1 |date=24 October 2023 |last2=Stenzel |first2=Lynne E. |last3=Warriner |first3=J. S. |last4=Warriner |first4=J. C. |last5=Paton |first5=P. W. |editor2-last=Keeney |editor2-first=Brooke K. |editor3-last=Rodewald |editor3-first=Paul G. |editor4-last=Schulenberg |editor4-first=Thomas S.}}

Once hatched, plover chicks are well-developed, precocial and cared for by the male parent, as the females will leave their first brood to breed with other males. Within days of hatching, the chicks can run, forage, swim and leave the nest as soon as their down feather coat dries.

During the early days of western plover chick's lives, when a predator is near, the attending parent will perform a distraction display the "broken-wing" display, acting injured to lure the threat away from their young. Alternatively, the parent will fly flapping vigorously or run erratically to divert the attention of the predator.

Effective April 5, 1993, the Pacific coast population of the western snowy plover is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.{{cite web|url=https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp/species/8035|title=Western snowy plover (Charadrius nivosus nivosus)|website=Environmental Conservation Online System|publisher=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service|access-date=22 July 2023}}{{Federal Register|58|12864}} From July 19, 2012, habitat along the California, Oregon, and Washington coasts is listed as critical for the survival of the Pacific distinct population segment.{{Federal Register|77|36728}}

Predation, urban development, introduction of beachgrass and nonnative species contribute to the degradation of western snowy plover nesting area and population. Common Ravens are known nest predators of the western snowy plover. Recent human activity provided ravens with more food, increasing their population density in the western United States, which threatens the plover population.{{Cite journal |last=Chojnacki |first=Janelle |date=2024-01-01 |title=Common raven resource selection, diet, and behavior around a threatened shorebird |url=https://digitalcommons.humboldt.edu/etd/770/ |journal=Cal Poly Humboldt Theses and Projects}} Other predators include harrier, gull, coyote, fox, feral cat and skunk.

• Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes
• Kentish Plover

{{Reflist}}

• [http://www.westernsnowyplover.org/ Western Snowy Plover - Tools and Resources for Recovery]
• [https://www.fws.gov/law/endangered-species-act Endangered Species Act]
• [https://www.fws.gov/ U.S Fish and Wildlife Service]

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western snowy plover

western snowy plover

Category:Birds of the United States

Category:Fauna of the San Francisco Bay Area

Category:Subspecies

Category:ESA threatened species

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