:Ashura

{{About|the Islamic holy day|the traditional dessert|Ashure|other uses}}

{{Infobox holiday

| holiday_name = Ashura
{{Script/Arabic|عَاشُورَاء}}

| image = Mourning of Holy Ashura 15.jpg

| caption = Ta'zieh in Bangladesh

| nickname = Youm-e Ashur

| duration = One day

| frequency = Annual (Islamic calendar)

| observedby =

| date = 10 Muharram

| date2023 = 29 July

| date2024 = 17 July

| date2025 = 6 July{{cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/spiritual/ashura-2024-dates-in-india-saudi-arabia-uae-us-uk-iran-and-other-countries-article-111662410|title=Ashura 2024: Dates in India, Saudi Arabia, UAE, US, UK, Iran, and other countries|website=timesnownews.com|date=11 July 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240719040443/https://www.timesnownews.com/spiritual/ashura-2024-dates-in-india-saudi-arabia-uae-us-uk-iran-and-other-countries-article-111662410|archive-date=19 July 2024}}

| observances = In Shia Islam:{{break}}Mourning rituals{{break}}Giving of food to the poor{{break}}

In Sunni Islam:{{break}}Fasting

| type = Islamic

| significance = In Shia Islam:{{break}}Mourning the death of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third Shia imam{{break}}In Sunni Islam:{{break}}Commemorating God's parting of the Red Sea and his salvation of Moses and the Israelites from their slavery under the pharaoh

| alt = Mourning in imam square

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| longtype = {{nowrap|Islamic (Shia and Sunni)}}

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Ashura ({{Langx|ar|عَاشُورَاء}}, {{Transliteration|ar|ʿĀshūrāʾ}}, {{IPA|ar|ʕaːʃuːˈraːʔ| }}) is a day of commemoration in Islam. It occurs annually on the tenth of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. For Sunni Muslims, Ashura marks the parting of the Red Sea by Moses and the salvation of the Israelites. Also on this day, it is believed that Nuh disembarked from the Ark, God forgave Adam, and Joseph was released from prison, among various other auspicious events having occurred on Ashura according to Sunni tradition. Ashura is celebrated in Sunni Islam through supererogatory fasting and other acceptable expressions of joy. In some Sunni communities, the annual Ashura festivities include carnivals, bonfires, and special dishes, even though some Sunni scholars have criticized such practices.

By contrast, for Shia Muslims, Ashura is a day of mourning as they annually commemorate the death of Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the third Shia imam. Husayn refused on moral grounds to pledge his allegiance to the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya ({{Reign|680|683}}) and was subsequently killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, by the Umayyad army in the Battle of Karbala on Ashura 61 AH (680 CE). Among the Shia, mourning for Husayn is viewed as an act of protest against oppression, a struggle for God, and a means of securing the intercession of Husayn in the afterlife. Ashura is observed through mourning gatherings, processions, and dramatic reenactments. In such ceremonies, Shia mourners strike their chests to share in the pain of Husayn. Extreme self-flagellation, often involving self-inflicted bloodshed, remains controversial among the Shia, condemned by many Shia clerics, and outlawed in some Shia communities. Ashura has sometimes been an occasion for sectarian violence, particularly against the Shia minority.

Etymology

{{Transliteration|ar|Ashura}} is an Aramaic word meaning 'tenth'.{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} It may have also been derived from the Syriac words {{Transliteration|ar|asiroya}} or {{Transliteration|ar|asora}}.{{Sfn|Fakhr-Rohani|2014|p=228}} It shares the same root as the Hebrew word 'āsōr.{{Sfn|Wensinck|Marçais|2012}} In Arabic, Ashura refers to the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar, a month in which fighting has been forbidden since before the advent of Islam.{{Sfn|Fakhr-Rohani|2014|p=228}}{{Sfn|Plessner|2012}}

Likely origins

Fasting on Ashura was likely a Jewish practice adopted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad after his arrival in the city of Medina in 622 CE,{{Sfn|Wensinck|Marçais|2012}} perhaps signifying Muhammad's sense of a shared prophetic mission with Moses.{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=204}} Although it remained optional, fasting on Ashura ceased to be a religious obligation after about a year when the relations with the Medinan Jews deteriorated.{{Sfn|Wensinck|Marçais|2012}}{{sfn|Dakake|2007|p=112}} This transition is often associated with verses 2:183–5 of the Quran, the central religious text in Islam, which explicitly designate Ramadan as the month of fasting.{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} It also seems improbable that Ashura initially coincided with the tenth of Muharram.{{Sfn|Wensinck|Marçais|2012}}{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=204}} Instead, Ashura was probably observed at first on the tenth of the first Jewish month of Tishrei, known as Yom Kippur ({{Lit|day of atonement}}).{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=204}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2005|p=549}} The association of Ashura with the tenth of Muharram thus happened later, some time after the Jewish and Muslim calendars diverged.{{Sfn|Wensinck|Marçais|2012}}{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=204}} In turn, the calendars began to diverge when Muhammad forbade Jewish-type calendar adjustments in connection with verse 9:37 of the Quran.{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=204}}{{Sfn|Newman|2023}}{{Sfn|Plessner|2012}}

In Sunni Islam

A similar origin story for Ashura appears in some Sunni traditions.{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} Alternatively, there are traditions in canonical Sunni collections that describe fasting on Ashura as a pre-Islamic practice among the Quraysh tribe, in which Muhammad also partook while he was in Mecca.{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} Some early Sunni traditions, many classified as unreliable,{{Sfn|Katz|2007|p=149}} possibly invented by the Umayyads ({{Reign|661|750}}),{{Sfn|Crow|2016}} link Ashura to various auspicious events: On this day, Moses parted the Red Sea,{{Sfn|Newman|2023}}{{Sfn|Katz|2007|p=149}} Noah disembarked from the Ark,{{Sfn|Katz|2007|p=149}} God forgave Adam, Joseph was released from prison, Jesus, Abraham, and Adam were born, Muhammad was conceived,{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} and Jonah was freed from the fish that had swallowed him.{{Sfn|Gordon Melton|2010|p=210}} Fasting on the ninth of Muharram, known as Tasu'a, was a later addition, probably to distinguish Muslims from Jews.{{Sfn|Wensinck|Marçais|2012}}{{Sfn|Reid|2011}}

= Customs =

In Sunni Islam, ninth and tenth of Muharram are days for voluntary fasting, strongly encouraged by Sunni jurists.{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} While not endorsed by all Sunni scholars,{{Sfn|Reid|2011}}{{Sfn|Katz|2007|pp=115{{ndash}}116}} Ashura is further viewed as a day of thanksgiving ({{Transliteration|ar|shukr}}) to God, a joyous occasion, celebrated through pious acts and acceptable expressions of delight.{{Sfn|Katz|2007|pp=64, 110}} Ashura is thus an important festival for many Sunnis, in contrast to the Shia, who mourn on this day the slaughter of Muhammad's grandson, Husayn ibn Ali, and his small retinue in the Battle of Karbala in 680.{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} Such Sunni festivities either developed in response to Shia customs on Ashura or with the influence of pre-Islamic traditions.{{Sfn|Katz|2007|p=113}}{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} In line with the former view, under the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ({{Reign|685|705}}), Ashura was celebrated as a festive public holiday to counter the commemoration of Husayn.{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=82}} The Abbasid caliph al-Qadir ({{Reign|991|1031}}) did so too in Baghdad, Iraq.{{Sfn|Rahimi|2012|p=210}} Another instance is the reenactment by a Sunni mob of the Battle of the Camel (656) against Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shia imam, in the Buyid-era Baghdad on Ashura 973.{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=84}}{{Sfn|Chelkowski|1985|p=20}}

Whatever the case is for their origins, such festivities were firmly established by the time of the Sunni jurist Ibn Taymiyya ({{Died in|1328}}), to whom a questioner wrote, observing that people are joyful on Ashura; they bathe, adorn themselves, shake hands with each other, and cook grains.{{Sfn|Katz|2007|p=113}} In the Maghreb, for instance, Ashura is celebrated today through fasting, almsgiving, honoring the dead, special dishes, jumping over bonfires, and carnivals.{{Sfn|Wensinck|Marçais|2012}} Nevertheless, particularly in South Asia, some Sunnis participated in the Shia rituals on Ashura,{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} at least until modern times.{{Sfn|Reid|2011}} Sufis also commonly commemorated the death of Husayn, more so in the earlier times, despite its variance with the views of the Sunni elite.{{Sfn|Aghaie|2013}} For Sufis, rather than a tragedy, Ashura celebrates the eternal life of Husayn and his companions, who annihilated themselves in the Divine with their martyrdom.{{Sfn|Hyder|2006|p=10}}

= Ibn Taymiyya =

In response to an inquiry about their legal basis, Ibn Taymiyya rejects both mourning and celebrating on Ashura because, he contends, neither was practiced by Muhammad. Ibn Taymiyya does, however, encourage fasting on Ashura to emulate Muhammad. The Islamicist M. Katz questions the judgment of Ibn Taymiyya for not taking into account the Sunni reports that Muhammad fasted to celebrate Ashura, suggesting that Ibn Taymiyya has stripped fasting of its higher meaning.{{Sfn|Katz|2007|pp=116{{ndash}}117}}

In Shia Islam

= Battle of Karbala =

In Shia Islam, Ashura commemorates the death of Husayn ibn Ali, Muhammad's grandson and the third Shia imam.{{Sfn|Aghaie|2013}} Husayn was killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, on 10 Muharram 61 AH (10 October 680) in the Battle of Karbala against the army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid ibn Mu'awiya ({{Reign|680|683}}), having been surrounded for some days and deprived of the drinking water of the nearby Euphrates river. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the capital Damascus in Syria. The battle followed failed negotiations and Husayn's refusal to pledge his allegiance to Yazid, who is often portrayed by Muslim historians as impious and immoral.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=28}}{{Sfn|Pinault|2000|p=70}}{{Sfn|Aghaie|2007|p=117}} The fight took place in the desert land of Karbala, en route to the nearby Kufa, whose residents had invited Husayn to lead them against Yazid.{{Sfn|Madelung|2004}}

= Significance =

File:Tehran Ashura Demonstration, 11 December 1978 (12).jpg in Iran, 1978]]

Ashura is a day of mourning and grief for Shia Muslims.{{Sfn|Aghaie|2013}}{{Sfn|Beverley|2011|p=48}} It was observed as such by their imams,{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=81}}{{Sfn|Nakash|1993|p=163}}{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=133}} who also frequently encouraged the Shia community to follow suit.{{Sfn|Rahimi|2012|p=205}} For instance, a tradition attributed to the Shia imam Ali al-Rida ({{Died in|818}}) describes Ashura as a day of grieving and somber resignation from material affairs.{{Sfn|Ayoub|1978|p=|pp=150{{ndash}}151}} Shia tradition also dismisses as fabricated those Sunni hadiths that mark Ashura as a joyful occasion.{{Sfn|Ayoub|1978|p=150}} Indeed, traditions attributed to the Shia imams forbid fasting on this day,{{Sfn|Ayoub|1978|p=|pp=149, 151}} and promise eternal punishment for those who celebrate Ashura as a day of blessing.{{Sfn|Ayoub|1978|p=|pp=149, 151}}{{Sfn|Nakash|1993|p=166}}

In Shia Islam, Karbala symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and evil,{{Sfn|Aghaie|2004|p=9}}{{Sfn|Aghaie|2007|pp=|p=112}} the pinnacle of self-sacrifice,{{Sfn|Chelkowski|1985|p=19}} and the ultimate sabotage of Muhammad's prophetic mission.{{Sfn|Crow|2016}} Historically, the event served to crystallize the Shia community into a distinct sect and remains an integral part of their religious identity to date.{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=77}}{{Sfn|Hyder|2006|p=9}} On the one hand, mourners share in the pain of Husayn and hope to benefit from his intercession on the Day of Judgement.{{Sfn|Blank|2001|p=84}}{{Sfn|Munson|1988|p=24}} On the other, they view mourning for Husayn as an act of protest against oppression, a struggle for God ({{Transliteration|ar|jihad}}), and as such an act of worship.{{Sfn|Ayoub|1978|p=|pp=142{{ndash}}143}}{{Sfn|Nakash|1993|p=165}}

= Rituals =

File:Mourning_of_Muharram_in_cities_and_villages_of_Iran-342_16_(136).jpgIn addition to pilgrimage to the shrine of Husayn, located in Karbala, Iraq,{{Sfn|Szanto|2018|p=14}} Shia Muslims annually commemorate the events of Karbala throughout the months of Muharram and Safar.{{Sfn|Hyder|2006|p=9}} Most rituals take place during the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on Ashura with processions in major Shia cities.{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=133}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=240}} The main component of ritual ceremonies ({{Transliteration|ar|majalis}}, {{Singular}} {{Transliteration|ar|majlis}}) is the narration of the stories of Karbala ({{Transliteration|fa|rawza-khwani}}, {{Transliteration|ar|qiraya}}),{{Sfn|D'Souza|1998}}{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=133}}{{Sfn|Beverley|2011|p=48}} and the recitation of elegies and dirges ({{Transliteration|fa|nawha}}, {{Transliteration|ar|niyaha}}, {{Transliteration|fa|marsia-khwani}}),{{Sfn|Calmard|1987}}{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=79}} all intended to raise the sympathy of audience and move them to tears.{{Sfn|Pinault|2000|p=77}}{{Sfn|Chelkowski|2012b}} A {{Transliteration|ar|majlis}} often takes place in a dedicated building or structure, known variously as {{Transliteration|ar|Husayniya}}, {{Transliteration|fa|takiya}}, {{Transliteration|fa|imambarah}}, or {{Transliteration|fa|azakhana}}.{{Sfn|Calmard|1987}}{{Sfn|Campo|2009|p=320}} Another component of mourning gatherings is the self-flagellation of participants to the rhythm of Karbala elegies.{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=79}} Rooted in ancient Arab practices,{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=81}}{{Sfn|Nakash|1993|p=169}} mild forms of self-flagellation, that is, striking one's face and chest in grief ({{Transliteration|ar|latm}}, {{Transliteration|fa|sina-zani}}, {{Transliteration|fa|matam}}),{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=79}}{{Sfn|Calmard|1987}}{{Sfn|Pinault|1992|p=99}} are common today in Shia communities.{{Sfn|Flaskerud|2015}} But there are also extreme forms of self-flagellation ({{Transliteration|ar|tatbir}}, {{Transliteration|fa|tiq-zani}}, {{Transliteration|fa|qama-zani}}), in which the participants strike themselves, usually on the forehead or back, with knives, swords, or chains to which razor blades are attached.{{Sfn|Flaskerud|2015}} Banned in Iran and the Shia communities of Lebanon since the mid-90s,{{Sfn|Szanto|2013|p=75}} instrumental self-flagellation has been condemned by many Shia clerics,{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} and it remains an often controversial practice among the Shia.{{Sfn|Calmard|1987}}

File:Tuwairij run 5.jpg

Another mourning ritual is the dramatic reenactment of Karbala narratives ({{Transliteration|ar|ta'ziya}}, {{Transliteration|fa|shabih-khwani}}), practiced today in Iran, in the western Gulf shore, and in Lebanon.{{Sfn|Chelkowski|2012a}} On Ashura, always the "martyrdom of Husayn" is reenacted in such performances.{{Sfn|Chelkowski|2012a}} In Karbala, an annual performance on Ashura reenacts the burning of Husayn's tents after the battle by the Umayyads and the captivity of the women and children.{{Sfn|Szanto|2018|p=12}} During Muharram, especially on Ashura,{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=79}} processions of mourners ({{Transliteration|fa|dasta}}, {{Transliteration|ar|mawkib}}) march the streets,{{Sfn|Chelkowski|1985|p=27}} chanting dirges and elegies,{{Sfn|Ayoub|1978|p=154}} sometimes accompanied by self-flagellation.{{Sfn|Hussain|2005|p=79}}{{Sfn|Szanto|2018|p=12}} For instance, in the {{Transliteration|ar|tawarij}} march in Karbala, male and then female mourners walk barefoot to the shrine of Husayn in the afternoon of Ashura.{{Sfn|Szanto|2018|p=12}} Depending on the region, processions carry symbolic objects, such as {{Transliteration|ar|alam}} ({{Lit|flag}}),{{Sfn|Calmard|Allan|1985}} {{Transliteration|ar|nakhl}} ({{Lit|date palm}}),{{Sfn|Chelkowski|1985|p=24}} {{Transliteration|ar|ta'ziya}},{{Sfn|Chelkowski|1985|p=24}} and tadjah.{{Sfn|Korom|Chelkowski|1994|pp=154{{ndash}}155}} {{Transliteration|ar|Alam}} represents the ensign of Husayn in Karbala,{{Sfn|Chelkowski|1985|p=24}} while the last three objects symbolize his bier or tomb.{{Sfn|Chelkowski|1985|p=24}}{{Sfn|Korom|Chelkowski|1994|pp=152, 154{{ndash}}155}}

Terrorist attacks during Ashura

{{See also|List of terrorist attacks against Shia mourners during Muharram|Anti-Shi'ism}}

Ashura has sometimes been an occasion for Sunni violence against Shia Muslims, who are often a minority in Muslim communities.{{Sfn|Gordon Melton|2010}} In India, for instance, the Sunni activist Ahmad Barelvi ({{Died in|1831}}) preached against Ashura rituals and, probably with some exaggeration, boasted of destroying thousands of imambargahs, which are buildings dedicated to ritual mourning.{{Sfn|Metcalf|2014|p=58}} Some terrorist attacks against Ashura services are listed below.

1940: Bomb thrown at an Ashura procession, Delhi, India, 21 February.{{Sfn|Hollister|1979|p=178}}
1994: Bomb explosion in the Imam Reza shrine, Mashhad, Iran, 20 June, 20 people killed.{{cite web |url = http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/papers5/paper484.html |title=Sipah-E-Sahaba Pakistan, Lashkar-e-Jhangvi, Bin Laden & Ramzi Yousef |date=7 January 2002 |first=B. |last=Raman |url-status=usurped |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090429091133/http://southasiaanalysis.org/papers5/paper484.html |archive-date=29 April 2009 }}
2004: Bomb explosions, Karbala and Najaf, Iraq, 2 March, over 180 Shia worshipers killed and 5000 injured.{{cite web |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/02/international/middleeast/blasts-at-shiite-ceremonies-in-iraq-kill-more-than.html?_r=0 |title=Blasts at Shia Ceremonies in Iraq Kill More Than 140 |work= The New York Times |date=2 March 2004 |access-date=18 March 2017}}{{Sfn|Hassner|2016|p=145}}
2008: Two separate attacks on Ashura processions, Iraq, 19 January, 9 people killed.{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7197473.stm |title=Iraqi Shia pilgrims mark holy day |website=bbc.co.uk |access-date=10 October 2015 |date=19 January 2008}}
2009: Bomb explosion in an Ashura procession, Karachi, Pakistan, 28 December, 43 people killed and 60 injured.{{Cite news |date=2009-12-30 |title=Pakistan Taliban says carried out Karachi bombing |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-violence-idUSTRE5BM15820091230 |access-date=2023-08-22}}
2011: Multiple bomb explosions in Ashura processions, Central Iraq, 6 December, 30 people killed.{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16035254 |title= Deadly bomb attacks on Shia pilgrims in Iraq |publisher=bbc.co.uk |date=5 December 2011 |access-date=30 June 2012}}
2011: Two separate bomb explosions among Ashura mourners, Kabul, Afghanistan, 6 December, 80 people killed and 160 injured.{{Citation |title=Afghanistan's President Says Death Toll From Shrine Blast Has Risen to at Least 80 |date=11 December 2011 |url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/afghanistans-president-says-death-toll-from-shrine-blast-has-risen-to-at-least-80/ |access-date=11 Dec 2011 |publisher=Fox News}}{{cite news|last=Harooni |first=Mirwais |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kabul-blast-idUSTRE7B50C320111206 |title=Blasts across Afghanistan target Shia, 59 dead |work =Reuters |date= 6 December 2011 |access-date=30 June 2012 }}
2015: Bomb explosions in a mosque, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 24 October, one worshipper killed and 80 injured.{{cite web |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34625375 |title=Dhaka blasts: One dead in attack on Shia Ashura ritual |date=24 October 2015 |access-date=24 February 2016 |work=BBC News}}

In the Gregorian calendar

Ashura, tenth of Muharram in the Islamic calendar, corresponds to a different day every year in the Gregorian calendar.{{cite web |last=Gent |first=R.H. van |title=The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia |url=https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/ummalqura.htm |website=webspace.science.uu.nl}}

class="wikitable"
Islamic calendar \|1447 \|1448 \|1449
Gregorian calendar \|5 July 2025{{Cite web \|title=Hijri to Gregorian Date Converter - Islamic Date Converter \|url=https://www.islamicfinder.org/islamic-date-converter/ \|access-date= 10 August 2024\|website=IslamicFinder \|language=en}} \|25 June 2026 \|15 June 2027

class="wikitable"

Islamic calendar

|1447

|1448

|1449

Gregorian calendar

|5 July 2025{{Cite web |title=Hijri to Gregorian Date Converter - Islamic Date Converter |url=https://www.islamicfinder.org/islamic-date-converter/ |access-date= 10 August 2024|website=IslamicFinder |language=en}}

|25 June 2026

|15 June 2027

Gallery

File:Tuwairij run 1.jpg|{{Transliteration|ar|Tawarij}} march on Ashura, Karbala

File:Tuwairij run 2.jpg

File:Tuwairij run.jpg

File:Ashura in Syria- 2017 01 (2).jpg|Ashura procession in Syria

File:Ashura in Qatif 3.jpg|Shia mourners on Ashura in Saudi Arabia

File:Muharram (Al'am) procession Barabanki India (Jan 2009).jpg|Ashura procession in India carrying {{Transliteration|ar|alam}}s, signifying the ensign of Husayn in Karbala

File:Ashura procession in Tehran, Iran.jpg|{{Transliteration|ar|Alam}} of an Ashura procession in Iran

File:Muharram (Ta'ziya) procession Barabanki India (Jan 2009).jpg|In India, {{Transliteration|ar|ta'ziya}} symbolizes Husayn's bier

File:Mourning of Muharram in cities and villages of Iran-342 16 (66).jpg|In Iran, {{Transliteration|fa|nakhl}} symbolizes Husayn's bier

File:A tadjah at Hosay.jpg|Tadjah represents Husayn's tomb, Hosay ritual in Trinidad, 1950s

File:Tabuik festival.jpg|Submerging tabuiks on Ashura in a mock funeral of Husayn, Indonesia

File:Ashura 2016 mourning in Imam Hossein Square, Tehran 05.jpg|Ashura reenactment of the burning of Husayn's tents, Iran

Footnotes

References

{{cite book |title=The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi'i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran |author-first=K.S. |author-last=Aghaie |url=https://archive.org/details/martyrsofkarbala0000agha/mode/2up |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295984554}}
{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/mode/2up |url-access=registration |title=Voices of Islam |volume=2 |editor-first=V.J. |editor-last=Cornell |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-0275987343 |year=2007 |chapter=The Passion of 'Ashura in Shiite Islam |author-first=K.S. |author-last=Aghaie |pages=111{{ndash}}124 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/page/110/mode/2up}}
{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Aghaie |author-first=K.S. |title='Āshūrā' (Shī'ism) |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Third |editor1-first=K. |editor1-last=Fleet |editor2-first=G. |editor2-last=Krämer |editor3-first=D. |editor3-last=Matringe |editor4-first=J. |editor4-last=Nawas |editor5-first=D.J. |editor5-last=Stewart |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855 |year=2013 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855 |isbn=9789004252684 |url-access=subscription}}
{{cite book |author-last=Ayoub |author-first=M.M. |title=Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism |publisher=De Gruyter |year=1978 |isbn=9789027979438 |author-link=Mahmoud M. Ayoub}}
{{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Ayoub|author-first=M.M.|title='Āshūrā'|pages=549{{ndash}}550|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0001unse_g5w5/page/550/mode/2up|url-access=registration|edition=Second|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion|volume=1|editor-first=L.|editor-last=Jones|publisher=MacMillan Reference USA|year=2005|isbn=0028657349}}
{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Berg |author1-first=C.C. |title=Ṣawm |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0068 |year=2012 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0068 |isbn=9789004161214 |url-access=subscription}}
{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations|editor-first=J.|editor-last=Gordon Melton|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598842050|year=2011|title=Ashura|author-first=J.A. |author-last = Beverley|pages=47{{ndash}}49|url=https://archive.org/details/ReligiousCelebrations/mode/2up?q=ashura|url-access=registration}}
{{cite book|title=Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras|author-first=J.|author-last= Blank|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2001|isbn= 9780226056760}}
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