Aedes aegypti

{{Speciesbox

| name = Yellow fever mosquito

| image = Aedes aegypti.jpg

| image_alt = Adult

| image_caption = Adult

| image2 = Aedes aegypti larva.jpg

| image2_alt = Larva

| image2_caption = Larva

| status =

| status_system =

| status_ref =

| genus = Aedes

| parent = Aedes (Stegomyia)

| species = aegypti

| authority = (Linnaeus in Hasselquist, 1762) {{cite book |author1=Neal L. Evenhuis |author2=Samuel M. Gon III |year=2007 |chapter=22. Family Culicidae |pages=191–218 |title=Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions |publisher=Bishop Museum |editor=Neal L. Evenhuis |chapter-url=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/pdf/22culicidae.pdf |access-date=February 4, 2012}}

| synonyms = * Culex aegypti Linnaeus in Hasselquist, 1762

Culex fasciatus Fabricius, 1805
Culex bancrofti Skuse, 1889

| synonyms_ref =

| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies

| subdivision = * Aedes aegypti aegypti

Aedes aegypti formosus

| subdivision_ref = {{cite journal | last1=Souza-Neto | first1=Jayme A. | last2=Powell | first2=Jeffrey R. | last3=Bonizzoni | first3=Mariangela | title=Aedes aegypti vector competence studies: A review | journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution | publisher=Elsevier | volume=67 | year=2019 | issn=1567-1348 | doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2018.11.009 | pages=191–209| pmid=30465912 | pmc=8135908 | bibcode=2019InfGE..67..191S }}{{cite journal | last1=Weetman | first1=David | last2=Kamgang | first2=Basile | last3=Badolo | first3=Athanase | last4=Moyes | first4=Catherine L. | last5=Shearer | first5=Freya M. | last6=Coulibaly | first6=Mamadou | last7=Pinto | first7=João | last8=Lambrechts | first8=Louis | last9=McCall | first9=Philip J. | title=Aedes Mosquitoes and Aedes-Borne Arboviruses in Africa: Current and Future Threats | journal= International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health| publisher=MDPI | volume=15 | issue=2 | date=2018-01-28 | page=220 | issn=1660-4601 | doi=10.3390/ijerph15020220 | pmid=29382107 | pmc=5858289 | doi-access=free }}

| range_map = Global Aedes aegypti distribution (e08347).png

| range_map_caption = Global Aedes aegypti predicted distribution in 2015,
(blue=absent, red=present)

}}

Aedes aegypti ({{IPAc-en||ˈ|iː|d|iː|z}} {{IPAc-en|us|eɪ|d|z}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|eɪ|d|iː|z}} from Greek {{lang|grc|αηδής}} 'hateful' and {{IPAc-en|eɪ|'|dʒ|ɪ|p|t|i}} from Latin, meaning 'of Egypt'), sometimes called the Egyptian mosquito, dengue mosquito or yellow fever mosquito, is a mosquito that spreads diseases like dengue fever, yellow fever, malaria, and chikungunya. The mosquito can be recognized by black and white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax. This mosquito originated in Africa, but is now a common invasive species that has spread to tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions throughout the world.

Biology

File:Aedes aegypti E-A-Goeldi 1905.jpg

Aedes aegypti is a {{convert|4|to|7|mm|in|frac=128|adj=mid|-long}}, dark mosquito which can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax. Females are larger than males. Microscopically females possess small palps tipped with silver or white scales, and their antennae have sparse short hairs, whereas those of males are feathery. Aedes aegypti can be confused with Aedes albopictus without a magnifying glass: the latter have a white stripe on the top of the mid thorax.{{Cite web |last=Catherine Zettel and Phillip Kaufman |date=March 2019 |title=Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus) |url=https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/aquatic/aedes_aegypti.htm |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=entnemdept.ufl.edu}}

Males live off fruit{{Cite web |last=Roland Mortimer |date=nd |title=Micscape Microscopy and Microscope Magazine |url=http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/art98/aedrol.html |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=www.microscopy-uk.org.uk}} and only the female bites for blood, which she needs to mature her eggs. To find a host, she is attracted to chemical compounds emitted by mammals, including ammonia,{{cite journal |last1=Geier |first1=Martin |last2=Bosch |first2=Oliver J. |last3=Boeckh |first3=Jürgen |title=Ammonia as an Attractive Component of Host Odour for the Yellow Fever Mosquito, Aedes aegypti |journal=Chemical Senses |date=1 December 1999 |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=647–653 |doi=10.1093/chemse/24.6.647 |pmid=10587497 |url=https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/24/6/647/320330 |issn=0379-864X|doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }} carbon dioxide,{{cite journal |last1=Ghaninia |first1=Majid |last2=Majeed |first2=Shahid |last3=Dekker |first3=Teun |last4=Hill |first4=Sharon R. |last5=Ignell |first5=Rickard |title=Hold your breath – Differential behavioral and sensory acuity of mosquitoes to acetone and carbon dioxide |journal=PLOS ONE |date=30 December 2019 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=e0226815 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0226815 |pmid=31887129 |pmc=6936819 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1426815G |language=en |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }} lactic acid, and octenol.{{cite journal |last1=Bohbot |first1=Jonathan D. |last2=Durand |first2=Nicolas F. |last3=Vinyard |first3=Bryan T. |last4=Dickens |first4=Joseph C. |title=Functional Development of the Octenol Response in Aedes aegypti |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |date=2013 |volume=4 |page=39 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2013.00039|pmid=23471139 |pmc=3590643 |doi-access=free }} Scientists at The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service studied the specific chemical structure of octenol to better understand why this chemical attracts the mosquito to its host and found the mosquito has a preference for "right-handed" (dextrorotatory) octenol molecules.{{cite web |url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100309.htm |title=ARS Study Provides a Better Understanding of How Mosquitoes Find a Host |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |author =Dennis O'Brien |date=March 9, 2010 |access-date=2010-08-27| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101008124335/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100309.htm| archive-date= 8 October 2010 | url-status= live}} The preference for biting humans is dependent on expression of the odorant receptor AaegOr4.{{cite journal|last1=McBride|first1=Carolyn S.|last2=Baier|first2=Felix|last3=Omondi|first3=Aman B.|last4=Spitzer|first4=Sarabeth A.| last5=Lutomiah|first5=Joel| last6=Sang| first6=Rosemary| last7=Ignell|first7=Rickard| last8=Vosshall|first8=Leslie B.|title=Evolution of mosquito preference for humans linked to an odorant receptor|journal=Nature|date=12 November 2014|volume=515|issue=7526|pages=222–227|doi=10.1038/nature13964|bibcode = 2014Natur.515..222M|pmid=25391959|pmc=4286346}} The white eggs are laid separately into water and not together, unlike most other mosquitoes, and soon turn black. The larvae feed on bacteria, growing over a period of weeks until they reach the pupa stage.

The lifespan of an adult Ae. aegypti is two to four weeks depending on conditions,{{cite web |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in792 |title=Yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti |publisher=University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences |author1=Catherine Zettel |author2=Phillip Kaufman |access-date=2010-08-27}} but the eggs can be viable for over a year in a dry state, which allows the mosquito to re-emerge after a cold winter or dry spell.{{cite web |url=http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/art98/aedrol.html |title=Aedes aegypti and dengue fever |publisher=Onview.net Ltd, Microscopy-UK |author =Roland Mortimer |access-date=2010-08-27}}

=Hosts=

Mammalian hosts include domesticated horses, and feral and wild horses and equids more generally.{{cite journal | last1=Carpenter | first1=Simon | last2=Mellor | first2=Philip S. | last3=Fall | first3=Assane G. | last4=Garros | first4=Claire | last5=Venter | first5=Gert J. | title=African Horse Sickness Virus: History, Transmission, and Current Status | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=62 | issue=1 | date=2017-01-31 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-035010 | pages=343–358| pmid=28141961 | doi-access=free }} As of 2009 birds were found to be the best food supply for Ae. aegypti among all taxa.{{cite journal | last1=Takken | first1=Willem | last2=Verhulst | first2=Niels O. | title=Host Preferences of Blood-Feeding Mosquitoes | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=58 | issue=1 | date=2013-01-07 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153618 | pages=433–453| pmid=23020619 }}

Distribution

File:Aedes2016US.png

Aedes aegypti originated in Africa and was spread to the New World through the slave trade,{{cite journal |author1=Laurence Mousson |author2=Catherine Dauga |author3=Thomas Garrigues |author4=Francis Schaffner |author5=Marie Vazeille |author6=Anna-Bella Failloux |title=Phylogeography of Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (L.) and Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae) based on mitochondrial DNA variations |journal=Genetics Research |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |date=August 2005 |pmid=16181519 |doi=10.1017/S0016672305007627 |doi-access=free }} but is now found in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions{{cite journal |last1=Eisen |first1=L. |last2=Moore |first2=C. G. |year=2013 |title=Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti in the Continental United States: A Vector at the Cool Margin of Its Geographic Range |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=467–478 |doi=10.1603/ME12245 |pmid=23802440 |s2cid=16922806 |doi-access= }} throughout the world.{{cite journal |author =M. Womack |year=1993 |title=The yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti |journal=Wing Beats |volume=5 |issue=4 |page=4}}

Ae. aegypti{{'s}} distribution has increased in the past two to three decades worldwide, and it is considered to be among the most widespread mosquito species.{{cite web|title=Aedes aegypti|date=9 June 2017 |publisher=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control|url=http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/vectors/mosquitoes/Pages/aedes-aegypti.aspx}} In 2015, together with a group of colleagues, Khadijetou Lekweiry reported that the species was seen for the first time in Mauritania.{{Cite journal |last=Mint Lekweiry |first=Khadijetou |last2=Ould Ahmedou Salem |first2=Mohamed Salem |last3=Ould Brahim |first3=Khyarhoum |last4=Ould Lemrabott |first4=Mohamed Aly |last5=Brengues |first5=Cécile |last6=Faye |first6=Ousmane |last7=Simard |first7=Frédéric |last8=Ould Mohamed Salem Boukhary |first8=Ali |date=2015-07-01 |title=Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in Mauritania: First Report on the Presence of the Arbovirus Mosquito Vector in Nouakchott |url=https://academic.oup.com/jme/article-abstract/52/4/730/2459683?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Journal of Medical Entomology |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=730–733 |doi=10.1093/jme/tjv051 |issn=0022-2585|url-access=subscription }}

In 2016, Zika virus-capable mosquito populations have been found adapting for persistence in warm temperate climates. Such a population has been identified to exist in parts of Washington, DC, and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least the last four winters in the region. One of the study researchers noted, "...some mosquito species are finding ways to survive in normally restrictive environments by taking advantage of underground refugia".{{cite web| url=http://news.nd.edu/news/64004-mosquitos-capable-of-carrying-zika-virus-found-in-washington-dc/| title=Mosquitoes capable of carrying Zika virus found in Washington, D.C.| year=2016|publisher=University of Notre Dame}}

As the world's climate becomes warmer, the range of Aedes aegypti and a hardier species originating in Asia, the tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus, which can expand its range to relatively cooler climates, will inexorably spread north and south. Sadie Ryan of the University of Florida was the lead author in a 2019 study that estimated the vulnerability of naïve populations in geographic regions that currently do not harbor vectors i.e., for Zika in the Old World. Ryan's co-author, Georgetown University's Colin Carlson remarked,"Plain and simple, climate change is going to kill a lot of people."[https://www.commondreams.org/news/2019/03/29/climate-crisis-could-expose-half-billion-more-people-tropical-mosquito-borne Climate Crisis Could Expose Half a Billion More People to Tropical Mosquito-Borne Diseases by 2050], Common Dreams, Jessica Corbett, March 29, 2019. Retrieved March 31, 2019. As of 2020, the Northern Territory Government Australia and the Darwin City Council have recommended tropical cities initiate rectification programs to rid their cities of potential mosquito breeding stormwater sumps.{{cite journal |last1=Warchot |first1=Allan |last2=Whelan |first2=Peter |last3=Brown |first3=John |last4=Vincent |first4=Tony |last5=Carter |first5=Jane |last6=Kurucz |first6=Nina |title=The Removal of Subterranean Stormwater Drain Sumps as Mosquito Breeding Sites in Darwin, Australia |journal=Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease |date=2020 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=9 |doi=10.3390/tropicalmed5010009|pmid=31936813 |pmc=7157592 |doi-access=free }} A 2019 study found that accelerating urbanization and human movement would also contribute to the spread of Aedes mosquitoes.{{cite journal |last1=Kraemer |first1=Moritz U. G. |last2=Reiner |first2=Robert C. |last3=Brady |first3=Oliver J. |last4=Messina |first4=Jane P. |last5=Gilbert |first5=Marius |last6=Pigott |first6=David M. |last7=Yi |first7=Dingdong |last8=Johnson |first8=Kimberly |last9=Earl |first9=Lucas |last10=Marczak |first10=Laurie B. |last11=Shirude |first11=Shreya |last12=Davis Weaver |first12=Nicole |last13=Bisanzio |first13=Donal |last14=Perkins |first14=T. Alex |last15=Lai |first15=Shengjie |last16=Lu |first16=Xin |last17=Jones |first17=Peter |last18=Coelho |first18=Giovanini E. |last19=Carvalho |first19=Roberta G. |last20=Van Bortel |first20=Wim |last21=Marsboom |first21=Cedric |last22=Hendrickx |first22=Guy |last23=Schaffner |first23=Francis |last24=Moore |first24=Chester G. |last25=Nax |first25=Heinrich H. |last26=Bengtsson |first26=Linus |last27=Wetter |first27=Erik |last28=Tatem |first28=Andrew J. |last29=Brownstein |first29=John S. |last30=Smith |first30=David L. |last31=Lambrechts |first31=Louis |last32=Cauchemez |first32=Simon |last33=Linard |first33=Catherine |last34=Faria |first34=Nuno R. |last35=Pybus |first35=Oliver G. |last36=Scott |first36=Thomas W. |last37=Liu |first37=Qiyong |last38=Yu |first38=Hongjie |last39=Wint |first39=G. R. William |last40=Hay |first40=Simon I. |last41=Golding |first41=Nick |title=Past and future spread of the arbovirus vectors Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus |journal=Nature Microbiology |date=4 March 2019 |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=854–863 |doi=10.1038/s41564-019-0376-y |pmid=30833735 |pmc=6522366 }}

In continental Europe, Aedes aegypti is not established but it has been found in localities close to Europe such as the Asian part of Turkey. However, a single adult female specimen was found in Marseille (Southern France) in 2018. On the basis of a genetic study and an analysis of the movements of commercial ships, the origin of the specimen could be traced as coming from Cameroon, in Central Africa.{{cite journal | last1=Jeannin | first1=Charles | last2=Perrin | first2=Yvon | last3=Cornelie | first3=Sylvie | last4=Gloria-Soria | first4=Andrea | last5=Gauchet | first5=Jean-Daniel | last6=Robert | first6=Vincent | title=An alien in Marseille: investigations on a single Aedes aegypti mosquito likely introduced by a merchant ship from tropical Africa to Europe | journal=Parasite | volume=29 | year=2022 | doi=10.1051/parasite/2022043 | page=42| pmid=36111976 | pmc=9479680 | s2cid=252309456 }} {{open access}}

Genomics

In 2007, the genome of Aedes aegypti was published, after it had been sequenced and analyzed by a consortium including scientists at The Institute for Genomic Research (now part of the J. Craig Venter Institute), the European Bioinformatics Institute, the Broad Institute, and the University of Notre Dame. The effort in sequencing its DNA was intended to provide new avenues for research into insecticides and possible genetic modification to prevent the spread of virus. This was the second mosquito species to have its genome sequenced in full (the first was Anopheles gambiae). The published data included the 1.38 billion base pairs containing the insect's estimated 15,419 protein-encoding genes. The sequence indicates the species diverged from Drosophila melanogaster (the common fruit fly) about {{Ma|250}}, and Anopheles gambiae and this species diverged about {{Ma|150}}.{{Cite news |url=http://www.tigr.org/news/pr_05_17_07.shtml |title=Scientists at J. Craig Venter Institute publish draft genome sequence from Aedes aegypti, mosquito responsible for yellow fever, dengue fever |author=Heather Kowalski |date=May 17, 2007 |publisher=J. Craig Venter Institute |access-date=2007-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715105201/http://www.tigr.org/news/pr_05_17_07.shtml |archive-date=2007-07-15 |url-status=dead }}{{Cite journal |author1=Vishvanath Nene |author2=Jennifer R. Wortman |author3=Daniel Lawson |author4=Brian Haas |author5=Chinnappa Kodira |title=Genome sequence of Aedes aegypti, a major arbovirus vector |journal=Science |volume=316 |issue=5832 |pages=1718–1723 |date=June 2007 |pmid=17510324 |pmc=2868357 |doi=10.1126/science.1138878 |bibcode=2007Sci...316.1718N|display-authors=etal}} Matthews et al., 2018 finds A. aegypti to carry a large and diverse number of transposable elements. Their analysis suggests this is common to all mosquitoes.{{cite journal | last1=Cosby | first1=Rachel L. | last2=Chang | first2=Ni-Chen | last3=Feschotte | first3=Cédric | title=Host–transposon interactions: conflict, cooperation, and cooption | journal=Genes & Development | publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press & The Genetics Society | volume=33 | issue=17–18 | date=2019-09-01 | issn=0890-9369 | doi=10.1101/gad.327312.119 | pages=1098–1116| pmid=31481535 | pmc=6719617 }}

Vector of disease

Aedes aegypti is a vector for transmitting numerous pathogens. According to the Walter Reed Biosystematics Units as of 2022,{{Cite web |last=Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit (WRBU) |date=2021 |title=Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) |url=https://www.wrbu.si.edu/vectorspecies/mosquitoes/aegypti |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=www.wrbu.si.edu |language=en |archive-date=2022-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311192234/https://wrbu.si.edu/vectorspecies/mosquitoes/aegypti |url-status=dead }} it is associated with the following 54 viruses and two species of Plasmodium:

Aino virus (AINOV), African horse sickness virus (AHSV), Bozo virus (BOZOV), Bussuquara virus (BSQV), Bunyamwera virus (BUNV), Catu virus (CATUV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Chandipura vesiculovirus (CHPV), Cypovirus (unnamed), Cache Valley virus (CVV), Dengue virus (DENV), Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV), Guaroa virus (GROV), Hart Park virus (HPV), Ilheus virus (ILHV), Irituia virus (IRIV), Israel Turkey Meningoencephalitis virus (ITV), Japanaut virus (JAPV), Joinjakaka (JOIV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JBEV), Ketapang virus (KETV), Kunjin virus (KUNV), La Crosse virus (LACV), Mayaro virus (MAYV), Marburg virus (MBGV), Marco virus (MCOV), Melao virus (MELV), Marituba virus (MTBV), Mount Elgon bat virus (MEBV), Mucambo virus (MUCV), Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), Navarro virus (NAVV), Nepuyo virus (NEPV), Nola virus (NOLV), Ntaya virus (NTAV), Oriboca virus (ORIV), Orungo virus (ORUV), Restan virus (RESV), Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), Semliki Forest virus (SFV), Sindbis virus (SINV), Tahyna virus (TAHV), Tsuruse virus (TSUV), Tyuleniy virus (TYUV), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), Vesicular stomatitis virus (Indiana serotype), Warrego virus (WARV), West Nile virus (WNV), Wesselsbron virus (WSLV), Yaounde virus (YAOV), Yellow fever virus (YFV), Zegla virus (ZEGV), Zika virus, as well as Plasmodium gallinaceum and Plasmodium lophurae.

This mosquito also mechanically transmits some veterinary diseases. In 1952 Fenner et al., found it transmitting the myxoma virus between rabbits{{cite journal | last1=Babiuk | first1=S. | last2=Bowden | first2=T. R. | last3=Boyle | first3=D. B. | last4=Wallace | first4=D. B. | last5=Kitching | first5=R. P. | title=Capripoxviruses: An Emerging Worldwide Threat to Sheep, Goats and Cattle | journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases | publisher=Wiley | volume=55 | issue=7 | year=2008 | issn=1865-1674 | pmid=18774991 | doi=10.1111/j.1865-1682.2008.01043.x | pages=263–272 | s2cid=20602452 | hdl=2263/9495| hdl-access=free }} and in 2001 Chihota et al., the lumpy skin disease virus between cattle.{{cite journal | last1=Tuppurainen | first1=Eeva | last2=Oura | first2=Chris | title=Lumpy skin disease: an African cattle disease getting closer to the EU | journal=Veterinary Record | publisher=British Veterinary Association (Wiley) | volume=175 | issue=12 | year=2014 | issn=0042-4900 | doi=10.1136/vr.g5808 | pages=300–301| pmid=25256729 | s2cid=10245575 }}

The yellow fever mosquito can contribute to the spread of reticular cell sarcoma among Syrian hamsters.{{cite journal| last1=Banfield| first1= William G.| date = 28 May 1965| title=Mosquito Transmission of a Reticulum Cell Sarcoma of Hamsters| journal=Science| volume=148| pages=1239–1240| pmid=14280009 | doi=10.1126/science.148.3674.1239| last2=Woke| first2=P. A.| last3=MacKay| first3=C. M.| last4=Cooper| first4=H. L.| s2cid= 12611674| issue=3674|bibcode = 1965Sci...148.1239B }}

Bite prevention methods

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traveler's page on preventing dengue fever suggests using mosquito repellents that contain DEET (N, N-diethylmetatoluamide, 20% to 30%). It also suggests:

Although Aedes aegypti mosquitoes most commonly feed at dusk and dawn, indoors, in shady areas, or when the weather is cloudy, "they can bite and spread infection all year long and at any time of day."{{cite web |url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/content/outbreak-notice/dengue-tropical-sub-tropical.aspx |title=Travelers' Health Outbreak Notice |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |date=June 2, 2010 |access-date=2010-08-27| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100826005756/http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/content/outbreak-notice/dengue-tropical-sub-tropical.aspx| archive-date= 26 August 2010 | url-status= live}}{{cite web |url= http://denguemu.wordpress.com/vector-transmission/ |title= Dengue Virus: Vector And Transmission |date= 2009-08-07|access-date=19 October 2012}}
Once a week, scrub off eggs sticking to wet containers, seal or discard them. The mosquitoes prefer to breed in areas of stagnant water, such as flower vases, uncovered barrels, buckets, and discarded tires, but the most dangerous areas are wet shower floors and toilet tanks, as they allow the mosquitos to breed in the residence. Research has shown that certain chemicals emanating from bacteria in water containers stimulate the female mosquitoes to lay their eggs. They are particularly motivated to lay eggs in water containers that have the correct amounts of specific fatty acids associated with bacteria involved in the degradation of leaves and other organic matter in water. The chemicals associated with the microbial stew are far more stimulating to discerning female mosquitoes than plain or filtered water in which the bacteria once lived.{{cite web |url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/542339/ |title=Lay Your Eggs Here |publisher=Newswise, Inc |date=July 3, 2008 |access-date=2010-08-27}}
Wear long-sleeved clothing and long pants when outdoors during the day and evening.
Use mosquito netting over the bed if the bedroom is not air conditioned or screened, and for additional protection, treat the mosquito netting with the insecticide permethrin.

Insect repellents containing DEET (particularly concentrated products) or p-menthane-3,8-diol (from lemon eucalyptus) were effective in repelling Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, while others were less effective or ineffective in a scientific study.{{cite journal |author1=Rodriguez Stacy D. |author2=Drake Lisa L. |author3=Price David P. |author4=Hammond John I. |author5=Hansen Immo A. | year = 2015 | title = The Efficacy of Some Commercially Available Insect Repellents for Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) and Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) | journal = Journal of Insect Science | volume = 15| pages = 140| doi = 10.1093/jisesa/iev125 |pmid=26443777 |pmc=4667684 }} The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention article on "Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other Arthropods" notes that "Studies suggest that concentrations of DEET above approximately 50% do not offer a marked increase in protection time against mosquitoes; DEET efficacy tends to plateau at a concentration of approximately 50%".{{Cite web|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2016/the-pre-travel-consultation/protection-against-mosquitoes-ticks-other-arthropods|title=Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other Arthropods - Chapter 2 - 2016 Yellow Book {{!}} Travelers' Health {{!}} CDC|website=wwwnc.cdc.gov|access-date=2016-12-08}} Other insect repellents recommended by the CDC include Picaridin (KBR 3023/icaridin), IR3535, and 2-undecanone.{{Cite web|title=Prevent Tick and Mosquito Bites {{!}} Division of Vector-Borne Diseases {{!}} NCEZID {{!}} CDC|url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/dvbd/about/prevent-bites.html|date=2019-10-07|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2020-04-30}}

Population control efforts

=Insecticides=

Pyrethroids are commonly used.{{cite journal | last=Scott | first=Jeffrey G. | title=Life and Death at the Voltage-Sensitive Sodium Channel: Evolution in Response to Insecticide Use | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=64 | issue=1 | date=2019-01-07 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011118-112420 | pages=243–257| pmid=30629893 | s2cid=58667542 }} This widespread use of pyrethroids and DDT has caused Knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations. Almost no research has been done on the fitness implications. Studies by Kumar et al., 2009 on deltamethrin in India, Plernsub et al., 2013 on permethrin in Thailand, by Jaramillo-O et al., 2014 on λ-cyhalothrin in Colombia, by Alvarez-Gonzalez et al., 2017 on deltamethrin in Venezuela, are all substantially confounded. As of 2019, understanding of selective pressure under withdrawal of insecticide is hence limited.

=Genetic modification=

Ae. aegypti has been genetically modified to suppress its own species in an approach similar to the sterile insect technique, thereby reducing the risk of disease. The mosquitoes, known as {{visible anchor|OX513A}}, were developed by Oxitec, a spinout of Oxford University. Field trials in the Cayman Islands,{{cite news

|author =Kate Kelland

|title=Lawmakers call for British trials of genetically modified insects

|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-insects-gmo-idUSKBN0U000820151217

|newspaper=Reuters

|date=16 December 2015

|access-date= 2015-12-16}} in Juazeiro,{{Cite journal

|journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

|pages=e0003864

|date=July 2015

|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003864 |volume=9 |issue=7 |pmid=26135160 |pmc=4489809 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=Brady | first1=Oliver J. | last2=Hay | first2=Simon I. | title=The | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=65 | issue=1 | date=2020-01-07 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-024918 | pages=191–208| pmid=31594415 | s2cid=203983175 | doi-access=free }} Brazil, by Carvalho et al., 2015, and in Panama by Neira et al., 2014 have shown that the OX513A mosquitoes reduced the target mosquito populations by more than 90%. This mosquito suppression effect is achieved by a self-limiting gene that prevents the offspring from surviving. Male modified mosquitoes, which do not bite or spread disease, are released to mate with the pest females. Their offspring inherit the self-limiting gene and die before reaching adulthood—before they can reproduce or spread disease. The OX513A mosquitoes and their offspring also carry a fluorescent marker for simple monitoring. To produce more OX513A mosquitoes for control projects, the self-limiting gene is switched off (using the Tet-Off system) in the mosquito production facility using an antidote (the antibiotic tetracycline), allowing the mosquitoes to reproduce naturally. In the environment, the antidote is unavailable to rescue mosquito reproduction, so the pest population is suppressed.{{Cite journal

|journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

|pages=e0003999

|date=August 2015

|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003999 |pmid=26270533 |pmc=4535858 |volume=9|issue=8 |doi-access=free }}

The mosquito control effect is nontoxic and species-specific, as the OX513A mosquitoes are Ae. aegypti and only breed with Ae. aegypti. The result of the self-limiting approach is that the released insects and their offspring die and do not persist in the environment.{{Cite journal

|journal=Pest Management Science

|date=September 2015

|doi=10.1002/ps.4151 |pmid=26374668 |pmc=5057309 |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=618–628}}{{Cite journal

|journal=PLOS One

|date=March 2013

|volume=8

|issue=3

|pages=e58805

|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058805|pmid=23527029 |pmc=3604150 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...858805N|doi-access=free }}

In Brazil, the modified mosquitoes were approved by the National Biosecurity Technical Commission for releases throughout the country. Insects were released into the wild populations of Brazil, Malaysia, and the Cayman Islands in 2012.{{Cite web|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/zika-outbreak-caused-release-genetically-7281671|title=Zika outbreak 'caused by release of genetically modified mosquitoes in Brazil'|first=Elle|last=Griffiths|date=January 31, 2016|website=mirror}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jul/15/gm-mosquitoes-dengue-fever-feature|title=Can GM mosquitoes rid the world of a major killer?|date=July 14, 2012|website=the Guardian}} In July 2015, the city of Piracicaba, São Paulo, started releasing the OX513A mosquitoes.{{cite news

|author =Justine Alford via IFLScience

|title=Brazil To Unleash Genetically Modified Mosquitoes

|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/07/25/brazil-genetically-modified-mosquitoes_n_5618014.html

|newspaper=Huffington Post

|date=25 July 2014

|access-date= 2014-07-25}}{{cite news

|author =no by-line

|title=Modified mosquitoes enter the war against dengue in São Paulo

|url=http://g1.globo.com/jornal-nacional/noticia/2015/04/mosquitos-modificados-entram-na-guerra-contra-dengue-em-sp.html

|newspaper=G1

|date=30 April 2015

|access-date= 2015-04-30}} In 2015, the UK House of Lords called on the government to support more work on genetically modified insects in the interest of global health.{{cite web

|url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/lords-select/science-and-technology-committee/news-parliament-2015/gm-insects-report-published/

|title=Release potential of GM insects to fight disease and pests

|author =

|date= 17 December 2015

|website= Parliament UK

|publisher= House of Lords Science and Technology Select Committee

|access-date=2015-12-17}} In 2016, the United States Food and Drug Administration granted preliminary approval for the use of modified mosquitoes to prevent the spread of the Zika virus.{{cite web|title=Preliminary Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) In Support of an Investigational Field Trial of OX513A Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes|url=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/GeneticEngineering/GeneticallyEngineeredAnimals/UCM487379.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311214958/http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/GeneticEngineering/GeneticallyEngineeredAnimals/UCM487379.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 11, 2016|publisher=US FDA|access-date=14 March 2016|date=March 2016}}

Another proposed method consists in using radiation to sterilize male larvae so that when they mate, they produce no progeny.{{cite news |last=Tirone |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-02-12/un-readies-nuclear-weapons-to-destroy-the-zika-virus |title=UN Readies Nuclear Solution to Destroy the Zika Virus |work=Bloomberg |date=12 February 2016 |access-date=2016-02-13 }} Male mosquitoes do not bite or spread disease.

Using CRISPR/Cas9 based genome editing to engineer the genome of Aedes aegypti genes like ECFP (enhanced cyan fluorescent protein), Nix (male-determining factor gene), Aaeg-wtrw (Ae. aegypti water witch locus), Kmo (kynurenine 3-monoxygenase), loqs (loquacious), r2d2 (r2d2 protein), ku70 (ku heterodimer protein gene) and lig4 (ligase4) were targeted to modify the genome of Aedes aegypti. The new mutant will become incapable of pathogen transmission or result in population control.{{cite journal|author1= Reegan AD |author2=Ceasar SA |author3=Paulraj MG |author4=Ignacimuthu S |author5=Al-Dhabi NA |title=Current status of genome editing in vector mosquitoes: A review |journal=BioScience Trends |date=January 2017 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=424–432 |doi=10.5582/bst.2016.01180 |pmid=27990003|doi-access=free }}

=Infection with ''Wolbachia''=

In 2016 research into the use of a bacterium called Wolbachia as a method of biocontrol was published showing that invasion of Ae. aegypti by the endosymbiotic bacteria allows mosquitos to be resistant to certain arboviruses such as dengue fever and Zika virus strains currently circulating.{{cite journal|last1=Dutra|first1=HL|last2=Rocha|first2=MN|last3=Dias|first3=FB|last4=Mansur|first4=SB|last5=Caragata|first5=EP|last6=Moreira|first6=LA|date=June 8, 2016|title=Wolbachia Blocks Currently Circulating Zika Virus Isolates in Brazilian Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes|journal=Cell Host & Microbe|volume=19|issue=6|pages=771–774|doi=10.1016/j.chom.2016.04.021|pmc=4906366|pmid=27156023|via=PMC}}{{cite journal |last1=Hancock |first1=Penelope A. |last2=White |first2=Vanessa L. |last3=Callahan |first3=Ashley G. |last4=Godfray |first4=Charles H. J. |last5=Hoffmann |first5=Ary A. |last6=Ritchie |first6=Scott A. |last7=Clough |first7=Yann |title=Density-dependent population dynamics in Aedes aegypti slow the spread of wMel Wolbachia |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=June 2016 |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=785–793 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12620 |bibcode=2016JApEc..53..785H |doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/103425 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Utarini |first1=Adi |last2=Indriani |first2=Citra |last3=Ahmad |first3=Riris A. |last4=Tantowijoyo |first4=Warsito |last5=Arguni |first5=Eggi |last6=Ansari |first6=M. Ridwan |last7=Supriyati |first7=Endah |last8=Wardana |first8=D. Satria |last9=Meitika |first9=Yeti |last10=Ernesia |first10=Inggrid |last11=Nurhayati |first11=Indah |last12=Prabowo |first12=Equatori |last13=Andari |first13=Bekti |last14=Green |first14=Benjamin R. |last15=Hodgson |first15=Lauren |last16=Cutcher |first16=Zoe |last17=Rancès |first17=Edwige |last18=Ryan |first18=Peter A. |last19=O'Neill |first19=Scott L. |last20=Dufault |first20=Suzanne M. |last21=Tanamas |first21=Stephanie K. |last22=Jewell |first22=Nicholas P. |last23=Anders |first23=Katherine L. |last24=Simmons |first24=Cameron P. |title=Efficacy of Wolbachia-Infected Mosquito Deployments for the Control of Dengue |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=10 June 2021 |volume=384 |issue=23 |pages=2177–2186 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2030243 |pmid=34107180 |pmc=8103655 }} In 2017 Alphabet, Inc. started the Debug Project to infect males of this species with Wolbachia bacteria, interrupting the reproductive cycle of these animals.{{cite web|title=Let's Stop Bad Bugs With Good Bugs|url=https://debug.com/|website=De Bug Project|publisher=Verily Life Sciences LLC|access-date=16 July 2017}}

=Fungus infection=

Fungal species Erynia conica (from the family Entomophthoraceae) infects (and kills) two types of mosquitos: Aedes aegypti and Culex restuans. Studies on the fungus have been carried out on its potiential use as a biological control of the mosquitos.{{cite journal |last1=Cuebas-Incle |first1=E. L. |title=Infection of adult mosquitoes by the entomopathogenic fungus Erynia conica (Entomophthorales: Entomophthoraceae) |journal=J Am Mosq Control Assoc |date=December 1992 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=367–71|pmid=1474381 }}

Taxonomy

The species was first named (as Culex aegypti) in 1757 by Fredric Hasselquist in his treatise {{lang|la|Iter Palaestinum}}.Hasselquist, Fredrik, Carl von Linné (1757): [https://books.google.com/books?id=k2gBAAAAQAAJ Iter Palæstinum, Eller, Resa til Heliga Landet, Förrättad Infrån år 1749 til 1752] Hasselquist was provided with the names and descriptions by his mentor, Carl Linnaeus. This work was later translated into German and published in 1762 as {{Lang|de|Reise nach Palästina}}.{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UggPAAAAQAAJ|title=Reise nach Palästina in den Jahren von 1749 bis 1752|first=Friedrich|last=Hasselquist|date=August 4, 1762|publisher=Koppe|via=Google Books}}

File:Aedes aegypti CDC-Gathany.jpg

To stabilise the nomenclature, a petition to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was made by P. F. Mattingly, Alan Stone, and Kenneth L. Knight in 1962.{{cite journal|author1=P. F. Mattingly |author2=Alan Stone |author3=Kenneth L. Knight |year=1962 |title=Culex aegypti Linnaeus, 1762 (Insecta, Diptera); proposed validation and interpretation under the plenary powers of the species so named. Z.N.(S.) 1216 |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=208–219 |url=http://www.mosquitocatalog.org/files/pdfs/087700-0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301053431/http://www.mosquitocatalog.org/files/pdfs/087700-0.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-01 }} It also transpired that, although the name Aedes aegypti was universally used for the yellow fever mosquito, Linnaeus had actually described a species now known as Aedes (Ochlerotatus) caspius. In 1964, the commission ruled in favour of the proposal, validating Linnaeus' name, and transferring it to the species for which it was in general use.{{cite journal |author =International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |year=1964 |title=Culex aegypti Linnaeus, 1762 (Insecta, Diptera): validated and interpreted under the plenary powers |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=246–248 |url=http://biostor.org/reference/4598|author-link=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature }}

The yellow fever mosquito belongs to the tribe Aedini of the dipteran family Culicidae and to the genus Aedes and subgenus Stegomyia. According to one recent analysis, the subgenus Stegomyia of the genus Aedes should be raised to the level of genus.{{cite journal|author1=John F. Reinert |author2=Ralph E. Harbach |author3=Ian J. Kitching |title=Phylogeny and classification of Aedini (Diptera: Culicidae), based on morphological characters of all life stages |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=289–368 |year=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2004.00144.x |doi-access=free }} The proposed name change has been ignored by most scientists;{{cite journal |author =Andrew Polaszek |title=Two words colliding: resistance to changes in the scientific names of animals – Aedes vs Stegomyia |journal=Trends in Parasitology |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=8–9 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16300998 |doi=10.1016/j.pt.2005.11.003 }} at least one scientific journal, the Journal of Medical Entomology, has officially encouraged authors dealing with aedile mosquitoes to continue to use the traditional names, unless they have particular reasons for not doing so.{{cite web |url=http://www.entsoc.org/Pubs/Periodicals/JME/mosquito_name_policy |title=Journal of Medical Entomology Policy on Names of Aedine Mosquito Genera and Subgenera |publisher=Entomological Society of America |access-date=August 31, 2011 |archive-date=August 9, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809132828/http://www.entsoc.org/Pubs/Periodicals/JME/mosquito_name_policy |url-status=dead }} The generic name comes from the Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ἀηδής}}, {{Transliteration|grc|aēdēs}}, meaning "unpleasant"{{cite journal|date=October 2016 |title=Etymologia: Aedes aegypti |journal=Emerg Infect Dis |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages= 1807|doi=10.3201/eid2210.ET2210 |pmc=5038420 }} or "odious".

=Subspecies=

Two subspecies are commonly recognized:

{{visible anchor|subsp. aegypti|text=Aedes aegypti subsp. aegypti}}
{{visible anchor|subsp. formosus|text=Aedes aegypti subsp. formosus}}

This classification is complicated by the results of Gloria-Soria et al., 2016. Although confirming the existence of these two major subspecies, Gloria-Sora et al. finds greater worldwide diversity than previously recognized and a large number of distinct populations separated by various geographic factors. Aedes aegypti formosus is found in natural habitats such as forests, while Aedes aegypti aegypti has adapted to urban domestic habitats. {{Cite web |date=2017-06-09 |title=Aedes aegypti - Factsheet for experts |url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/disease-vectors/facts/mosquito-factsheets/aedes-aegypti |access-date=2024-10-18 |website=www.ecdc.europa.eu |language=en}}

References

External links

[https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/aquatic/aedes_aegypti.htm Aedes aegypti] on the entomology Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures Web site University of Florida.
[https://www.cdc.gov/dengue United States CDC page on dengue fever containing information on prevalence of Aedes aegypti worldwide and past efforts to eradicate it]
[http://eprints.usm.my/9824/1/THE_ECOLOGY_AND_BIOLOGY_OF_Aedes_aegypti_%28L.%29.pdf The ecology and biology of Aedes aegypti (L.) and Aedes albopictusand the resistance of Aedes albopictus against organophosphates in Penang, Malaysia] M.S. thesis.
[https://ecotippingpoints.org/our-stories/indepth/honduras-community-eradication-aedes-aegypti-dengue-zika.html Aedes aegypti Community Eradication using copepods. The Monte Verde Story (Honduras)]