Afforestation

The term afforestation means establishing new forest on lands that were not forest before (e.g. abandoned agriculture). The same definition in other words states that afforestation is "conversion to forest of land that historically has not contained forests".IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Annex-I.pdf Annex I: Glossary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313100106/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Annex-I.pdf |date=13 March 2023 }} [van Diemen, R., J.B.R. Matthews, V. Möller, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, A. Reisinger, S. Semenov (eds)]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802125242/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ |date=2 August 2022 }} [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.020{{rp|1794}}

In comparison, reforestation means the "conversion to forest of land that has previously contained forests but that has been converted to some other use".{{rp|1812}}

There are three types of afforestation:{{Cite web |last=Lark |first=Rachel |date=2023-10-02 |title=The Importance of Afforestation |url=https://environment.co/the-importance-of-afforestation/ |access-date=2024-01-04 |website=Environment Co |language=en-US |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104123109/https://environment.co/the-importance-of-afforestation/ |url-status=live }}

1. Natural regeneration (where native trees are planted as seeds; this creates new ecosystems and increases carbon sequestration).
2. Agroforestry (this is essentially an agricultural activity carried out in order to grow harvestable crops such as fruits and nuts).
3. Tree plantations (carried out in order to produce wood and wood-pulp products; this can be seen as an alternative to cutting down naturally-occurring forests).

However, the term afforestation can also "imply the intentional conversion of native non-forest ecosystems to exotic tree cover and violate biodiversity safeguards".{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xianghua |last2=Busch |first2=Jonah |last3=Huang |first3=Yingli |last4=Fleskens |first4=Luuk |last5=Qin |first5=Huiyan |last6=Qiao |first6=Zhenhua |date=2023 |title=Cost of mitigating climate change through reforestation in China |journal=Frontiers in Forests and Global Change |volume=6 |bibcode=2023FrFGC...629216Z |doi=10.3389/ffgc.2023.1229216 |issn=2624-893X |doi-access=free}}

The process of afforestation begins with site selection. Several environmental factors of the site must be analyzed, including climate, soil, vegetation, and human activity.{{Citation|last1=Duan|first1=Jie|title=Basic Theory and Methods of Afforestation|date=2021-03-10|url=https://www.intechopen.com/books/silviculture/basic-theory-and-methods-of-afforestation|work=Silviculture|editor-last=Cristina Gonçalves|editor-first=Ana|publisher=IntechOpen|language=en|doi=10.5772/intechopen.96164|isbn=978-1-83968-448-7|access-date=2021-03-25|last2=Abduwali|first2=Dilnur|doi-access=free|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416165802/https://www.intechopen.com/books/silviculture/basic-theory-and-methods-of-afforestation|url-status=live}} These factors will determine the quality of the site, what species of trees should be planted, and what planting method should be used.

After the forest site has been assessed, the area must be prepared for planting. Preparation can involve a variety of mechanical or chemical methods, such as chopping, mounding, bedding, herbicides, and prescribed burning.{{Cite journal|last1=Knapp|first1=Benjamin O.|last2=Wang|first2=G. Geoff|last3=Walker|first3=Joan L.|last4=Cohen|first4=Susan|date=2006-05-01|title=Effects of site preparation treatments on early growth and survival of planted longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) seedlings in North Carolina|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112706000569|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|language=en|volume=226|issue=1|pages=122–128|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2006.01.029|bibcode=2006ForEM.226..122K |issn=0378-1127}} Once the site is prepared, planting can take place. One method for planting is direct seeding, which involves sowing seeds directly into the forest floor.{{Cite journal|last1=Grossnickle|first1=Steven C.|last2=Ivetić|first2=Vladan|date=2017-12-30|title=Direct Seeding in Reforestation – A Field Performance Review|url=https://journal.reforestationchallenges.org/index.php/REFOR/article/view/76|journal=Reforesta|language=en|issue=4|pages=94–142|doi=10.21750/REFOR.4.07.46|issn=2466-4367|doi-access=free|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305231703/https://journal.reforestationchallenges.org/index.php/REFOR/article/view/76|url-status=live}} Another is seedling planting, which is similar to direct seeding except that seedlings already have an established root system.{{Cite journal|last1=Dey|first1=Daniel C.|last2=Jacobs|first2=Douglass|last3=McNabb|first3=Ken|last4=Miller|first4=Gary|last5=Baldwin|first5=V.|last6=Foster|first6=G.|date=2008-02-01|title=Artificial Regeneration of Major Oak (Quercus) Species in the Eastern United States—A Review of the Literature|journal=Forest Science|volume=54|issue=1|pages=77–106|doi=10.1093/forestscience/54.1.77|issn=0015-749X|doi-access=free}} Afforestation by cutting is an option for tree species that can reproduce asexually, where a piece of a tree stem, branch, root, or leaves can be planted onto the forest floor and sprout successfully.{{Cite journal|last=Kauffman|first=J. Boone|date=1991|title=Survival by Sprouting Following Fire in Tropical Forests of the Eastern Amazon|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2388198|journal=Biotropica|volume=23|issue=3|pages=219–224|doi=10.2307/2388198|jstor=2388198|bibcode=1991Biotr..23..219K |issn=0006-3606}} Sometimes special tools, such as a tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster.{{Cite journal|last1=Sweeney|first1=Bernard W.|last2=Czapka|first2=Stephen J.|last3=Petrow|first3=L. Carol A.|date=2007-05-01|title=How Planting Method, Weed Abatement, and Herbivory Affect Afforestation Success|url=https://academic.oup.com/sjaf/article/31/2/85/4782466|journal=Southern Journal of Applied Forestry|language=en|volume=31|issue=2|pages=85–92|doi=10.1093/sjaf/31.2.85|issn=0148-4419|doi-access=free|access-date=10 February 2021|archive-date=23 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623191213/https://academic.oup.com/sjaf/article/31/2/85/4782466|url-status=live}}

An essential aspect of successful afforestation efforts lies in the careful selection of tree species that are well-suited to the local climate and soil conditions. By choosing appropriate species, afforested areas can better withstand the impacts of climate change.{{cite document |last1=Benedek |first1=Zsófia |date=2013 |title=Development and application of a new Forestation Index: global forestation patterns and drivers |publisher=IEHAS Discussion Papers |id={{ProQuest|1698449297}} |last2=Fertő |first2=Imre |hdl=10419/108304}}{{cite journal |last1=Windisch |first1=Michael G. |last2=Davin |first2=Edouard L. |last3=Seneviratne |first3=Sonia I. |date=October 2021 |title=Prioritizing forestation based on biogeochemical and local biogeophysical impacts |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=867–871 |bibcode=2021NatCC..11..867W |doi=10.1038/s41558-021-01161-z |s2cid=237947801 |id={{ProQuest|2578272675}}}}

There are several benefits from afforestation such as carbon sequestration, increasing rainfall, prevention of topsoil erosion (from water and wind), flood and landslide mitigation, barriers against high winds, shelter for wildlife, employment and alternative sources of wood products.

Afforestation projects create employment opportunities, particularly in rural areas, thus promoting sustainable livelihoods. They can create many jobs in various forest-related activities.{{cite journal |last1=Kurtz |first1=Michele |date=Fall 2020 |title=Growing trees, growing jobs |url=https://www.americanforests.org/article/growing-trees-growing-jobs/ |journal=American Forests |volume=126 |issue=3 |pages=18–23 |id={{ProQuest|2464421409}}}}

{{excerpt|Carbon_sequestration#Forestry}}

Afforestation provides other environmental benefits, including increasing the soil quality and its organic carbon levels, reducing the risk of erosion and desertification.{{Cite book |last1=Suganuma |first1=H. |last2=Egashira |first2=Y. |last3=Utsugi |first3=H. |last4=Kojima |first4=T. |chapter=Estimation of CO₂ reduction amount by arid land afforestation in Western Australia |date=July 2012 |title=2012 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6351997 |volume= |pages=7216–7219 |doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2012.6351997 |isbn=978-1-4673-1159-5 |s2cid=31123240 |via= |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=22 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922154425/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6351997/ |url-status=live }} The planting of trees in urban areas is also able to reduce air pollution via the trees' absorption and filtration of pollutants, including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone, in addition to {{CO2}}.{{Cite journal |last1=Freedman |first1=Bill |last2=Keith |first2=Todd |date=1996-04-11 |title=Planting trees for carbon credits: a discussion of context, issues, feasibility, and environmental benefits |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/a96-006 |journal=Environmental Reviews |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=100–111 |doi=10.1139/a96-006}}

Afforestation protects the biodiversity of plants and animals which allows the sustenance of ecosystems that provide clean air, soil fertilization, etc.Why is biodiversity important? (2018). Retrieved 28 April 2023, from https://www.conservation.org/blog/why-is-biodiversity-important {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160207/https://www.conservation.org/blog/why-is-biodiversity-important |date=9 September 2024 }} Forests support biodiversity conservation, providing habitats for about 80% of the world's biodiversity and contributing to ecosystem restoration and resilience. Water management can be improved afforestation, as trees regulate hydrological cycles, reduce soil erosion, and prevent water runoff. Their capacity to capture and store water helps in mitigating floods and droughts.

Forests act as natural air filters, absorbing pollutants and improving air quality. Urban forestation projects have been successful in reducing respiratory illnesses and enhancing overall air quality in cities.{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Mingfang |last2=Wei |first2=Xiaohua |date=5 March 2021 |title=Deforestation, forestation, and water supply |journal=Science |volume=371 |issue=6533 |pages=990–991 |bibcode=2021Sci...371..990Z |doi=10.1126/science.abe7821 |pmid=33674479 |s2cid=232124649}}{{cite journal |last1=AbdulBaqi |first1=Faten Khalid |date=June 2022 |title=The effect of afforestation and green roofs techniques on thermal reduction in Duhok city |journal=Trees, Forests and People |volume=8 |pages=100267 |doi=10.1016/j.tfp.2022.100267 |s2cid=248646593 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2022TFP.....800267A }} Trees provide shade and cooling effects. By shading and evaporation, forests can lower local temperatures, offering a more comfortable environment in urban areas and reducing the impact of extreme heat.

{{See also|Reforestation#Limitations}}

Tree-planting campaigns are criticised for sometimes targeting areas where forests would not naturally occur, such as grassland and savanna biomes.{{Cite web |last=Dasgupta |first=Shreya |date=2021-06-01 |title=Many Tree-Planting Campaigns Are Based on Flawed Science |url=https://science.thewire.in/environment/many-tree-planting-campaigns-are-based-on-flawed-science/ |access-date=2021-06-12 |website=The Wire Science |language=en-GB |archive-date=12 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612171058/https://science.thewire.in/environment/many-tree-planting-campaigns-are-based-on-flawed-science/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2021-05-28 |title=Can tree campaigns curb climate change without harming grasslands? |url=https://scienceline.org/2021/05/can-tree-campaigns-curb-climate-change-without-harming-grasslands/ |access-date=2021-06-12 |website=Scienceline |language=en-US |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613054241/https://scienceline.org/2021/05/can-tree-campaigns-curb-climate-change-without-harming-grasslands/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last1=Bond |first1=William J. |last2=Stevens |first2=Nicola |last3=Midgley |first3=Guy F. |last4=Lehmann |first4=Caroline E.R. |date=November 2019 |title=The Trouble with Trees: Afforestation Plans for Africa |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534719302526 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=963–965 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.003 |pmid=31515117 |bibcode=2019TEcoE..34..963B |s2cid=202568025 |hdl=20.500.11820/ad569ac5-dc12-4420-9517-d8f310ede95e |hdl-access=free |access-date=13 June 2021 |archive-date=15 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115102436/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534719302526 |url-status=live }} Carbon sequestration forecasts of afforestation programmes often insufficiently consider possible carbon reductions in soils as well as slowing tree growth over time.{{Citation |last1=Maschler |first1=Julia |title=Data from: Links across ecological scales: Plant biomass responses to elevated CO2 |date=2022 |url=http://datadryad.org/stash/dataset/doi:10.5061/dryad.hhmgqnkk4 |access-date=2022-10-03 |publisher=Dryad |language=en |doi=10.5061/dryad.hhmgqnkk4 |last2=Bialic-Murphy |first2=Lalasia |last3=Wan |first3=Joe |last4=Andresen |first4=Louise C. |last5=Zohner |first5=Constantin M. |last6=Reich |first6=Peter B. |last7=Lüscher |first7=Andreas |last8=Schneider |first8=Manuel K. |last9=Müller |first9=Christoph |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160050/https://datadryad.org/stash/dataset/doi:10.5061/dryad.hhmgqnkk4 |url-status=live }}

Afforestation can negatively affect biodiversity through increasing fragmentation and edge effects for the habitat remaining outside the planted area.{{Cite journal |last1=Brockerhoff |first1=Eckehard G. |last2=Jactel |first2=Hervé |last3=Parrotta |first3=John A. |last4=Quine |first4=Christopher P. |last5=Sayer |first5=Jeffrey |date=2008-05-01 |title=Plantation forests and biodiversity: oxymoron or opportunity? |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-008-9380-x?utm_source=wiley&getft_integrator=wiley |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |language=en |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=925–951 |doi=10.1007/s10531-008-9380-x |bibcode=2008BiCon..17..925B |issn=1572-9710}}{{Cite journal |last1=Vasconcelos |first1=Sasha |last2=Pina |first2=Sílvia |last3=Reino |first3=Luís |last4=Beja |first4=Pedro |last5=Moreira |first5=Francisco |last6=Sánchez-Oliver |first6=Juan S. |last7=Catry |first7=Inês |last8=Faria |first8=João |last9=Rotenberry |first9=John T. |last10=Santana |first10=Joana |date=2019-08-01 |title=Long-term consequences of agricultural policy decisions: How are forests planted under EEC regulation 2080/92 affecting biodiversity 20 years later? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320718319037 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=236 |pages=393–403 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2019.05.052 |bibcode=2019BCons.236..393V |issn=0006-3207}} New forest plantations can introduce generalist predators that would otherwise not be found in open habitat into the covered area, which could detrimentally increase predation rates on the native species of the area. A study by scientists at the British Trust for Ornithology into the decline of British populations of Eurasian curlew found that afforestation had impacted curlew populations through fragmentation of their naturally open grassland habitats and increases in generalist predators.{{Cite journal |last1=Franks |first1=Samantha E. |last2=Douglas |first2=David J. T. |last3=Gillings |first3=Simon |last4=Pearce-Higgins |first4=James W. |date=2017-07-03 |title=Environmental correlates of breeding abundance and population change of Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata in Britain |journal=Bird Study |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=393–409 |doi=10.1080/00063657.2017.1359233 |bibcode=2017BirdS..64..393F |issn=0006-3657 |s2cid=89966879|doi-access=free }}

Questions have also been raised in the scientific community regarding how global afforestation could affect the surface albedo of Earth. The canopy cover of mature trees could make the surface albedo darker, which causes more heat to be absorbed, potentially raising the temperature of the planet. This is particularly relevant in parts of the world with high levels of snow cover, due to the more significant difference in albedo between highly reflective white snow and more darker forest cover which absorbs more solar radiation.{{Cite journal |last1=Mykleby |first1=P. M. |last2=Snyder |first2=P. K. |last3=Twine |first3=T. E. |date=2017-03-16 |title=Quantifying the trade-off between carbon sequestration and albedo in midlatitude and high-latitude North American forests |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2016GL071459 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=2493–2501 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.2493M |doi=10.1002/2016GL071459 |issn=0094-8276 |s2cid=133588291 |access-date=1 May 2022 |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160052/https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL071459 |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last1=Rohatyn |first1=Shani |last2=Yakir |first2=Dan |last3=Rotenberg |first3=Eyal |last4=Carmel |first4=Yohay |date=2022-09-23 |title=Limited climate change mitigation potential through forestation of the vast dryland regions |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm9684 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=377 |issue=6613 |pages=1436–1439 |bibcode=2022Sci...377.1436R |doi=10.1126/science.abm9684 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=36137038 |s2cid=252465486 |access-date=24 September 2022 |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160129/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm9684 |url-status=live }}

One significant criticism of reforestation or afforestation efforts that rely on monocultures of - usually conifer - trees is that, while they may increase tree cover, they fail to provide the diverse and complex habitat needed by most woodland creatures. Monocultures, often planted for commercial purposes or ease of management, lack the biodiversity of natural forests. These single-species forests provide limited food sources, shelter, and nesting sites for a wide range of wildlife, and in purely coniferous forests low levels of light may reach the forest floor reducing habitat and variety of plant life. Many woodland creatures, such as birds, mammals, and insects, rely on a variety of tree species and plant life for survival, and the uniformity of monocultures does not support these varied ecological needs. As a result, such reforestation or afforestation efforts may unintentionally create environments that are unsuitable for the very species they aim to protect, thus undermining broader conservation goals.

In Adelaide, South Australia (a city of 1.3 million as of June 2016), Premier Mike Rann (2002 to 2011) launched an urban forest initiative in 2003 to plant 3 million native trees and shrubs by 2014 on 300 project sites across the metro area.{{Cite web |title=Projects: Adelaide Greening Strategy |url=https://www.greenadelaide.sa.gov.au/projects/adelaide-greening-strategy |website=www.greenadelaide.sa.gov.au |access-date=4 January 2024 |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160220/https://www.greenadelaide.sa.gov.au/projects/adelaide-greening-strategy |url-status=live }} Thousands of Adelaide citizens participated in community planting days on sites including parks, reserves, transport corridors, schools, water courses and coastline. Only native trees were planted to ensure genetic integrity. Rann said the project aimed to beautify and cool the city and make it more livable, improve air and water quality, and reduce Adelaide's greenhouse gas emissions by 600,000 tonnes of {{CO2}} a year.{{Cite web |title=Carbon Neutral Adelaide Status Report 2021 Final |url=https://cdn.environment.sa.gov.au/carbonneutraladelaide/general-images/Carbon-Neutral-Adelaide-status-report-2021_FINAL.pdf?v=1691558211 |website=cdn.environment.sa.gov.au |access-date=4 January 2024 |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160053/https://cdn.environment.sa.gov.au/carbonneutraladelaide/general-images/Carbon-Neutral-Adelaide-status-report-2021_FINAL.pdf?v=1691558211 |url-status=live }}

In 2003, the government of Canada created a four-year project called the Forest 2020 Plantation Development and Assessment Initiative, which involved planting 6000 ha of fast-growing forests on non-forested lands countrywide. These plantations were used to analyze how afforestation can help to increase carbon sequestration and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while also considering the economic and investment attractiveness of afforestation. The results of the initiative showed that although there is not enough available land in Canada to completely offset the country's GHG emissions, afforestation can be useful mitigation technique for meeting GHG emission goals, especially until permanent, more advanced carbon storage technology becomes available.{{cite journal |last1=Dominy |first1=S.W.J. |title=A retrospective and lessons learned from Natural Resources Canada's Forest 2020 afforestation initiative |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |language=en |date=June 2010|volume=86 |issue=3 |pages=339–347 |doi=10.5558/tfc86339-3 |doi-access=free }}

On 14 December 2020, Canada's Minister of Natural Resources Seamus O'Regan announced the federal government's investment of $3.16 billion to plant two billion trees over the next 10 years. This plan aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated 12 megatonnes by 2050.{{cite web |title=2 Billion Trees Program |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/campaign/2-billion-trees/2-billion-trees-program.html |website=Canada.ca |date=16 December 2021 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=24 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160057/https://www.canada.ca/en/campaign/2-billion-trees/2-billion-trees-program.html |url-status=live }}{{cite news |title=Canada calls for proposals to support 2 Billion Trees program |url=https://www.woodbusiness.ca/canada-calls-for-proposals-to-support-2-billion-trees-program/#:~:text=The%202%20Billion%20Trees%20program%20is%20a%20key%20component%20of,restore%20nature%20and%20protect%20biodiversity. |access-date=24 February 2022 |work=Woodbusiness.ca |agency=Canadian Forest Industries magazine |publisher=Annex Business Media |date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224143148/https://www.woodbusiness.ca/canada-calls-for-proposals-to-support-2-billion-trees-program/#:~:text=The%202%20Billion%20Trees%20program%20is%20a%20key%20component%20of,restore%20nature%20and%20protect%20biodiversity. |url-status=live }}

File:Jiayu County - Panjiawan - on the Yangtze embankment - P1540267.JPG levees in Hubei province[http://slt.hubei.gov.cn/dfj/info.aspx?ArtID=2797 省河道堤防建设管理局2016年工作要点] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401075100/http://slt.hubei.gov.cn/dfj/info.aspx?ArtID=2797 |date=2018-04-01 }} (The work goals of the provincial waterway flood protection levee administration for 2016), 2016-02-17]]

Doubling of forest coverage between 1980 and 2021

China had the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 4.77 million hectares (47,000 square kilometers) of afforestation in 2008.{{cite web |last1=Yang |first1=Ling |title=China to plant more trees in 2009 |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-01/09/content_10631987.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210112501/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-01/09/content_10631987.htm |archive-date=10 February 2009 |access-date=23 October 2014 |website=ChinaView |publisher=Xinhua News Agency}} According to the 2021 government work report, forest coverage will reach 24 percent based on the main targets and tasks for the 14th Five-Year Plan period.{{Cite web |title=Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) for National Economic and Social Development and Vision 2035 of the People's Republic of China_ News_ 福建省人民政府门户网站 |url=https://www.fujian.gov.cn/english/news/202108/t20210809_5665713.htm |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.fujian.gov.cn |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414125344/https://www.fujian.gov.cn/english/news/202108/t20210809_5665713.htm |url-status=live }}

Tree-planting laws and school-children

A law in China from 1981 requires that every school student over the age of 11 plants at least one tree per year.[https://www.atibt.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/China-Forest-Law-Amendment-2020-20191228.pdf China Forest Law Amendment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203141722/https://www.atibt.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/China-Forest-Law-Amendment-2020-20191228.pdf |date=3 February 2024 }} atibt.org

Other

From 2011 to 2016, the city Dongying in Shandong province forested over 13,800 hectares of saline soil through the Shandong Ecological Afforestation Project, which was launched with support from the World Bank.{{Cite web |title=China: Afforestation Project in Shandong Improves Environment and Farmers' Incomes |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2017/07/26/china-afforestation-project-in-shandong-improves-environment-and-farmers-incomes |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=World Bank |language=en |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160055/https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2017/07/26/china-afforestation-project-in-shandong-improves-environment-and-farmers-incomes |url-status=live }} In 2017, the Saihanba Afforestation Community won the UN Champions of the Earth Award in the Inspiration and Action category for "transforming degraded land into a lush paradise".{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=U. N. |date=2019-08-22 |title=Saihanba Afforestation Community {{!}} Champions of the Earth |url=https://www.unep.org/championsofearth/laureates/2017/saihanba-afforestation-community |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.unep.org |language=en |archive-date=3 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203162710/https://www.unep.org/championsofearth/laureates/2017/saihanba-afforestation-community |url-status=live }}

The successful afforestation of the Loess Plateau involved collaborative efforts by international and domestic professionals alongside villagers. Through this initiative, millions of villagers across four of China's poorest provinces were able to improve farming practices and increase incomes and employment, alleviating poverty.{{Cite web |title=Restoring China's Loess Plateau |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2007/03/15/restoring-chinas-loess-plateau |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=World Bank |language=en |archive-date=10 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510093546/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2007/03/15/restoring-chinas-loess-plateau |url-status=live }} In addition, the careful selection of trees ensured a healthy, self-sustainable ecosystem between tree and soil which facilitated a net carbon sink.{{Cite book |last1=Li |first1=Yifei |title=China goes green: coercive environmentalism for a troubled planet = Zhong guo zou xiang lü se |last2=Shapiro |first2=Judith |date=2020 |publisher=Polity |isbn=978-1-5095-4312-0 |location=Cambridge, UK Medford, MA}} The Loess Plateau, although successful, was costly, reaching almost US$500 million.

This contrasts with more recent initiatives where the results have not been as favorable. In an attempt to make afforestation both low-cost and less time-consuming, China shifted towards monoculture of mostly red pine trees. However, this did not adequately take into consideration environmental structure and led to increased soil erosion, desertification, sand/dust storms and short-lived trees. This has reduced China's environmental sustainability index (ESI){{Citation |last=Schmiedeknecht |first=Maud H. |title=Environmental Sustainability Index |date=2013 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Corporate Social Responsibility |pages=1017–1024 |editor-last=Idowu |editor-first=Samuel O. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_116 |access-date=2024-02-03 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_116 |isbn=978-3-642-28036-8 |editor2-last=Capaldi |editor2-first=Nicholas |editor3-last=Zu |editor3-first=Liangrong |editor4-last=Gupta |editor4-first=Ananda Das}} to one of the lowest in the world.{{Cite journal |last1=Cao |first1=Shixiong |last2=Chen |first2=Li |last3=Shankman |first3=David |last4=Wang |first4=Chunmei |last5=Wang |first5=Xiongbin |last6=Zhang |first6=Hong |date=2011-02-01 |title=Excessive reliance on afforestation in China's arid and semi-arid regions: Lessons in ecological restoration |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825210001571 |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |language=en |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=240–245 |bibcode=2011ESRv..104..240C |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.11.002 |issn=0012-8252}}

Regarding the effects of afforestation on long-term carbon stocks and carbon sequestration these decrease when trees are less than 5 years old and increase quickly thereafter.{{Cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Jun |last2=Cui |first2=Linli |date=2010-11-30 |title=Soil carbon change and its affecting factors following afforestation in China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204610001799 |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |language=en |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=75–85 |doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.011 |bibcode=2010LUrbP..98...75S |issn=0169-2046}} This means trees from monoculture planting that do not survive never reach full potential for carbon sequestration to offset China's carbon output. Overall, there is a possibility for afforestation to balance carbon levels and aid carbon neutrality, but several challenges still remain which hinder an all encompassing effort.{{Cite journal |last=Xu |first=Deying |date=1995-01-01 |title=The potential for reducing atmospheric carbon by large-scale afforestation in China and related cost/benefit analysis |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0961-9534%2895%2900026-7 |journal=Biomass and Bioenergy |series=Forestry and Climate Change |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=337–344 |bibcode=1995BmBe....8..337X |doi=10.1016/0961-9534(95)00026-7 |issn=0961-9534}}

The Chinese government requires mining companies to restore the environment around exhausted mines by refilling excavated pits and planting crops or trees.{{Cite book |last=Zhan |first=Jing Vivian |title=China's Contained Resource Curse: How Minerals Shape State-Capital-Labor Relations |date=2022 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-04898-9 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom}}{{Rp|page=53}} Many mining companies use these recovered mines for ecotourism business.{{Rp|pages=54-55}}

Europe deforested more than half of its forested areas over the last 6000 years.{{Cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=N. |last2=Fyfe |first2=R. M. |last3=Woodbridge |first3=J. |last4=Gaillard |first4=M.-J. |last5=Davis |first5=B. a. S. |last6=Kaplan |first6=J. O. |last7=Marquer |first7=L. |last8=Mazier |first8=F. |last9=Nielsen |first9=A. B. |last10=Sugita |first10=S. |last11=Trondman |first11=A.-K. |last12=Leydet |first12=M. |date=2018-01-15 |title=Europe's lost forests: a pollen-based synthesis for the last 11,000 years |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=716 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-18646-7 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=5768782 |pmid=29335417|bibcode=2018NatSR...8..716R }} The European Union (EU) has paid farmers for afforestation since 1990, offering grants to turn farmland into forest and payments for the management of forest.{{Cite report |url=https://ieep.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/wp4_nd_afforestation_in_europe.pdf |title=Afforestation in Europe |last1=Zanchi |first1=Giuliana |last2=Thiel |first2=Daniel |date=2007-01-26 |publisher=European Forest Institute |location=Joensuu, Finland |id=SSPE-CT-2004-503604 |last3=Green |first3=Tim |last4=Lindner |first4=Marcus}} As part of the Green Deal,{{Cite web |date=2021-07-14 |title=The European Green Deal - European Commission |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=commission.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909160640/https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en |url-status=live }} the EU program "3 Billion Tree Planting Pledge by 2030"{{CELEX|52021SC0651|format=PDF|text=COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT The 3 Billion Tree Planting Pledge For 2030 Accompanying the document COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS New EU Forest Strategy for 2030}} provides direction on afforestation of previous farmland in addition to reforestation.  

According to Food and Agriculture Organization statistics, Spain had the third fastest afforestation rate in Europe in the 1990-2005 period, after Iceland and Ireland. In those years, a total of 44,360 square kilometers were afforested, and the total forest cover rose from 13.5 to 17.9 million hectares. In 1990, forests covered 26.6% of the Spanish territory. As of 2007, that figure had risen to 36.6%. Spain today has the fifth largest forest area in the European Union.{{Cite journal |last1=Vadell |first1=Enric |last2=de-Miguel |first2=Sergio |last3=Pemán |first3=Jesús |date=2016-09-01 |title=Large-scale reforestation and afforestation policy in Spain: A historical review of its underlying ecological, socioeconomic and political dynamics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837716302344 |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=55 |pages=37–48 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.03.017 |bibcode=2016LUPol..55...37V |s2cid=155200935 |issn=0264-8377}}

{{See also|Forestry in India}}

File:Marebilli forest.jpg

As of 2023 the total forest and tree cover in India was 22%.{{Cite web |title=Total forest and tree cover increased by 2261 square kilometre in India as per the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021 |url=https://pib.gov.in/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1906388 |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=pib.gov.in |archive-date=9 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909153535/https://pib.gov.in/ErrorPage.html?aspxerrorpath=/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx |url-status=live }} The forests of India are grouped into 5 major categories and 16 types based on biophysical criteria. 38% of the forest is categorized as subtropical dry deciduous and 30% as tropical moist deciduous and other smaller groups.

In 2016 the Indian government passed the CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority) law, allowing about 40 thousand crores rupees (almost $6 Billion) to go to Indian states for planting trees. The funds were to be used for treatment of catchment areas, assisted natural generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management, relocation of villages from protected areas, management of human-wildlife conflicts, training and awareness generation, supply of wood saving devices and allied activities. Increasing the tree cover would also help in creating additional carbon sinks to meet the nation's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030 - part of India's efforts to combat climate change.

In 2016 the Maharashtra government planted almost 20,000,000 saplings and pledged to plant another 30,000,000 the following year. In 2019, 220 million trees were planted in a single day in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.{{Cite news |date=2019-08-13 |title=Uttar Pradesh plants 220 million trees in one day |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/uttar-pradesh-plants-220-million-trees-in-one-day/article29070682.ece |access-date=2022-01-12 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112191920/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/uttar-pradesh-plants-220-million-trees-in-one-day/article29070682.ece |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2019-08-11 |title=Indians Plant 220 Million Trees In A Single Day |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/india-plant-trees-220-million_n_5d501f43e4b0fc06ace91e2a |access-date=2022-01-12 |website=HuffPost |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113093143/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/india-plant-trees-220-million_n_5d501f43e4b0fc06ace91e2a |url-status=live }}

File:The fourth year of a genetically modified forest in Iran by Aras GED part of commercial afforestation in Iran.jpg

{{main|Jewish National Fund#Afforestation}}

With wood production as a main objective, monocultures of Aleppo pine were vigorously planted between 1948 and the 1970s. Following a massive collapse of this species in the 1990s, due to attacks by the insect pine blast scale, the Aleppo pine was gradually replaced by Pinus brutia.{{Cite journal |last=Pritchard |first=H. W |date=2001-01-01 |title=Ne'eman G, Traubaud L, eds. 2000. Ecology, biogeography and management of Pinus halepensis and P. brutia forest ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin. 404 pp. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers. $120 (hardback). |url=https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-lookup/doi/10.1006/anbo.2000.1313 |url-status=live |journal=Annals of Botany |language=en |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=132–133 |bibcode=2001AnBot..87R.132P |doi=10.1006/anbo.2000.1313 |issn=0305-7364 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909153504/https://academic.oup.com/aob/article/87/1/132/2588413?login=false |archive-date=9 September 2024 |access-date=5 February 2024}} Since the 1990s there has been a trend towards more ecological approaches planting mixed forests combining pines with broadleaf Mediterranean species e.g. oak, pistachio, carob, olive, arbutus and buckthorn.{{Cite journal |last1=Perevolotsky |first1=Avi |last2=Sheffer |first2=Efrat |date=2009-12-01 |title=Forest management in Israel—The ecological alternative |url=http://www.sciencefromisrael.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.1560/IJPS.57.1-2.35 |journal=Israel Journal of Plant Sciences |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=35–48 |bibcode=2009IsJPS..57...35P |doi=10.1560/IJPS.57.1-2.35 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=0792-9978}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} About 250 million trees have been planted through the JNF across Israel since 1990. Tree coverage increased from 2% in 1948 to over 8% at present.{{Cite web |date=2017-11-28 |title=The Reforestation of Israel - Aardvark Israel |url=https://aardvarkisrael.com/the-reforestation-of-israel/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203174611/https://aardvarkisrael.com/the-reforestation-of-israel/ |archive-date=3 February 2024 |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=aardvarkisrael.com |language=en-US}}

{{excerpt|Afforestation in Japan|file=no}}

In January 2013, the UK government set a target of 12% woodland cover in England by 2060, up from the then 10%.{{Cite journal |last1=Westaway |first1=Sally |last2=Grange |first2=Ian |last3=Smith |first3=Jo |last4=Smith |first4=Laurence G. |date=2023-02-01 |title=Meeting tree planting targets on the UK's path to net-zero: A review of lessons learnt from 100 years of land use policies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837722005294 |journal=Land Use Policy |volume=125 |pages=106502 |bibcode=2023LUPol.12506502W |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106502 |issn=0264-8377}} In Wales the National Assembly for Wales has set a target of 19% woodland cover, up from 15%. Government-backed initiatives such as the Woodland Carbon Code are intended to support this objective by encouraging corporations and landowners to create new woodland to offset their carbon emissions.

Charitable groups such as Trees for Life (Scotland) contribute to afforestation and reforestation efforts in the UK.{{excerpt|Afforestation in Scotland}}

In the 1800s people moving westward in the US encountered the Great Plains – land with fertile soil, a growing population and a demand for timber but with few trees to supply it. So tree planting was encouraged along homesteads. Arbor Day was founded in 1872 by Julius Sterling Morton in Nebraska City.{{Cite web |title=History at arborday.org |url=https://www.arborday.org/celebrate/history.cfm |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=www.arborday.org |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425050048/https://www.arborday.org/celebrate/history.cfm |url-status=live }} By the 1930s the Dust Bowl environmental disaster signified a reason for adding significant new tree cover. Public works programs under the New Deal saw the planting of 18,000 miles of windbreaks stretching from North Dakota to Texas to fight soil erosion (see Great Plains Shelterbelt).{{Cite web |last=Snow |first=Megan Anne |date=January 2019 |title=The Shelterbelt "Scheme": Radical Ecological Forestry and the Production of Climate in the Fight for the Prairie States Forestry Project |url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/a1c69e9e-ee25-4c86-8bb8-08eb3e73cc30/content |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909153500/https://conservancy.umn.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/a1c69e9e-ee25-4c86-8bb8-08eb3e73cc30/content |archive-date=9 September 2024}}

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