Alexius Meinong

Alexius Meinong's father was officer Anton von Meinong (1799–1870), who was granted the hereditary title of Ritter in 1851 and reached the rank of Major General in 1858 before retiring in 1859.

From 1868 to 1870, Meinong studied at the Akademisches Gymnasium, Vienna. In 1870, he entered the University of Vienna law school where he was drawn to Carl Menger's lectures on economics.{{Cite book|title=The School of Franz Brentano|last=Albertazzi|first=Liliana|last2=Libardi|first2=Massimo|last3=Poli|first3=Roberto|date=1995|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-7923-3766-9|location=Dordrecht|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dz2DBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT132 132]}} In summer 1874, he earned a doctorate in history by writing a thesis on Arnold of Brescia.Albertazzi, L., Jacquette, D., & Poli, R., eds., The School of Alexius Meinong (Abingdon-on-Thames, Routledge, 2017), p. 51. It was during the winter term (1874–1875) that he began to focus on history and philosophy. Meinong became a pupil of Franz Brentano, who was then a recent addition to the philosophical faculty. Meinong would later claim that his mentor did not directly influence his shift into philosophy, though he did acknowledge that during that time Brentano may have helped him improve his progress in philosophy. Meinong studied under Brentano with Edmund Husserl, who would also become a notable and influential philosopher.{{Cite book|title=Meinong and Husserl on Abstraction and Universals: From Hume Studies I to Logical Investigations II|last=Rollinger|first=R. D.|date=1993|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-5183-573-1|location=Atlanta, GA|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dG75BEoLUL0C&pg=PA1 1–7]}}{{rp|1–7}} Both their works exhibited parallel developments, particularly from 1891 to 1904. Both are recognized for their respective contribution to philosophical research.{{Cite book|title=The Context of the Phenomenological Movement|last=Spiegelberg|first=Herbert|author-link=Herbert Spiegelberg|date=1981|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-8262-6|location=Dordrecht|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XVVFBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT146 146]}}

In 1882, Meinong became a professor at the University of Graz and was later promoted as chair of its philosophy department. During his tenure, he founded the Graz Psychological Institute (Grazer Psychologische Institut; founded in 1894) and the Graz School of experimental psychology. Meinong supervised the doctorates of Christian von Ehrenfels (founder of Gestalt psychology) and Adalbert Meingast, as well as the habilitation of Alois Höfler and Anton Oelzelt-Newin.Haller, R., ed., Meinong and the Theory of Objects (Amsterdam/Atlanta: Editions Rodopi B.V., 1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc5CRpT_VCAC&pg=PA8 p. 8].{{Failed verification|reason=The reference does not mention habilitation.|date=August 2021}}

{{main|Russellian view}}

Meinong wrote two early essays on David Hume, the first dealing with his theory of abstraction, the second with his theory of relations, and was relatively strongly influenced by British empiricism. He is most noted, however, for his edited book Theory of Objects (full title: Investigations in Theory of Objects and Psychology, {{langx|de|Untersuchungen zur Gegenstandstheorie und Psychologie}}, 1904), which grew out of his work on intentionality and his belief in the possibility of intending nonexistent objects. Whatever can be the target of a mental act, Meinong calls an "object."{{cite SEP |url-id=meinong |title=Alexius Meinong |last=Marek |first=Johann}}

His theory of objects,Meinong, "Über Gegenstandstheorie", in Alexius Meinong, ed. (1904). [https://archive.org/details/untersuchungenzu00mein Untersuchungen zur Gegenstandstheorie und Psychologie], Leipzig: Barth, pp. 1–51. now known as "Meinongian object theory," is based around the purported empirical observation that it is possible to think about something, such as a golden mountain, even though that object does not exist. Since we can refer to such things, they must have some sort of being. Meinong thus distinguishes the "being" of a thing, in virtue of which it may be an object of thought, from a thing's "existence", which is the substantive ontological status ascribed to—for example—horses but not to unicorns. Meinong called such nonexistent objects "homeless";In Über die Stellung der Gegenstadntheorie im System der Wissenschaften. others have nicknamed their place of residence "Meinong's jungle" because of their great number and exotic nature.

Historically, Meinong has been treated, especially by Gilbert Ryle,Ryle, G., "Intentionality-Theory and the Nature of Thinking", in R. Haller, ed., Jenseits von Sein und Nichtsein (Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, 1972), pp. 8–9. Ryle here compliments Meinong in two ways, first, rather backhandedly, for showing us what not to do in theorizing about intentional content. But the second compliment echoes Russell's admiration for Meinong's acute observation in pinpointing problems, his habit of tenaciously inferring consequences, and his nose for fine distinctions.{{rp|8–9}} as an eccentric whose theory of objects was allegedly dealt a severe blow in Bertrand Russell's essay "On Denoting" (1905) (see Russellian view). However, Russell himself thought highly of the vast majority of Meinong's work and, until formulating his theory of descriptions, held similar views about nonexistent objects.See Russell's article, "Meinong's Theory of Complexes and Assumptions", reprinted in his collection, Essays in Analysis, ed. Douglas Lackey (New York: George Braziller, 1973) This anthology contains five pieces dealing with Meinong's work, three of them reviews in which Russell expresses a good deal of admiration, in spite of significant misgivings about Meinong's ontology. Further, recent Meinongians such as Terence Parsons and Roderick Chisholm have established the consistency of a Meinongian theory of objects, while others (e.g., Karel Lambert) have defended the uselessness of such a theory.Sierszulska, A., Meinong on Meaning and Truth: A Theory of Knowledge (Heusenstamm: Ontos Verlag, 2005), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bRCQVbOCqHMC&pg=PA159 pp. 159–160].

Meinong is also seen to be controversial in the field of philosophy of language for holding the view that "existence" is merely a property of an object, just as color or mass might be a property. Closer readers of his work, however, accept that Meinong held the view that objects are "indifferent to being"Meinong, A. "The Theory of Objects" in Realism and the Background of Phenomenology, ed. Roderick Chisholm (Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1960). p. 86. and that they stand "beyond being and non-being". On this view Meinong is expressly denying that existence is a property of an object. For Meinong, what an object is, its real essence, depends on the properties of the object.Findlay, J. N., Meinong's Theory of Objects. Oxford University Press, 1933, p. 49. These properties are genuinely possessed whether the object exists or not, and so existence cannot be a mere property of an object.Albertazzi, L., Jacquette, D., & Poli, R., eds., The School of Alexius Meinong (Abingdon-on-Thames, Routledge, 2017), p. 502.

Meinong holds that objects can be divided into three categories on the basis of their ontological status. Objects may have one of the following three modalities of being and non-being:Chisholm, R. M., "Homeless Objects", in Brentano and Meinong Studies (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1982), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMxh6HzA-7UC&pg=PA37 pp. 37–52].{{rp|37–52}}

• Existence (Existenz, verb: existieren), or actual reality (Wirklichkeit), which denotes the material and temporal being of an object
• Subsistence (Bestand, verb: bestehen), which denotes the being of an object in a non-temporal sense.
• Absistence or being-given (Gegebenheit, as in the German use es gibt, i.e. "there are", "it is given"), which denotes being an object but not having being.

Certain objects can exist (mountains, birds, etc.); others cannot in principle ever exist, such as the objects of mathematics (numbers, theorems, etc.): such objects simply subsist. Finally, a third class of objects cannot even subsist, such as impossible objects (e.g. square circle, wooden iron, etc.). Being-given is not a minimal mode of being, because it is not a mode of being at all. Rather, to be "given" is just to be an object. Being-given, termed "absistence" by J. N. Findlay, is better thought of as a mode of non-being than as a mode of being.Though Meinong speaks of it loosely as a "third order of being" in his "The Theory of Objects" in Realism and the Background of Phenomenology, ed. Roderick Chisholm (Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1960), p. 84. Absistence, unlike existence and subsistence, does not have a negation; everything absists. (Note that all objects absist, while some subset of these subsist, of which a yet-smaller subset exist.) The result that everything absists allows Meinong to deal with our ability to affirm the non-being (Nichtsein) of an object. Its absistence is evidenced by our act of intending it, which is logically prior to our denying that it has being.A version of the argument is given in "The Theory of Objects", Realism and the Background of Phenomenology, ed. Roderick Chisholm (Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1960), p. 85.

Meinong distinguishes four classes of "objects":Albertazzi, L., ed., The Dawn of Cognitive Science: Early European Contributors (Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd19BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT133 p. 133].{{rp|133}}

• Object (Objekt), which can be real (like horses) or ideal (like the concepts of difference, identity, etc.)
• Objective (Objectiv), e.g. the affirmation of the being (Sein) or non-being (Nichtsein), of a being-such (Sosein), or a being-with (Mitsein), of an object—parallel to existential, categorical and hypothetical judgements. Objectives are close to what contemporary philosophers call states of affairs (where these may be actual—may "obtain"—or not)
• Dignitative, e.g. the true, the good, the beautiful
• Desiderative, e.g. duties, ends, etc.Lapointe, S., ed., Philosophy of Mind in the Nineteenth Century: The History of the Philosophy of Mind, Vol. 5 (Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, 2019), [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjhjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT209 pp. 209–210].{{rp|209–210}}

To these four classes of objects correspond four classes of psychological acts:

• (Re)presentation (das Vorstellen), for objects
• Thought (das Denken), for the objectives
• Feeling (das Fühlen), for dignitatives
• Desire (das Begehren), for the desideratives

• Meinong, A. (1885). Über philosophische Wissenschaft und ihre Propädeutik.
• Meinong, A. (1894). Psychologisch-ethische Untersuchungen zur Werttheorie.
• Meinong, A. (1902). Über Annahmen, 1st ed.
• Meinong, A., ed. (1904). [https://archive.org/details/untersuchungenzu00mein Untersuchungen zur Gegenstandstheorie und Psychologie] (Investigations in Theory of Objects and Psychology), Leipzig: Barth (contains Alexius Meinong, "Über Gegenstandstheorie", pp. 1–51).
• Meinong, A. (1910). Über Annahmen, 2nd ed.
• Meinong, A. (1915). Über Möglichkeit und Wahrscheinlichkeit.
• Meinong, A. (1917). Über emotionale Präsentation.

• Meinong, A. (1877). "Hume Studien I. Zur Geschichte und Kritik des modernen Nominalismus", in Sitzungsbereiche der phil.-hist. Classe der kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften, 78:185–260.
• Meinong, A. (1882). "Hume Studien II. Zur Relationstheorie", in Sitzungsbereiche der phil.-hist. Classe der kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften, 101:573–752.
• Meinong, A. (1891). "Zur psychologie der Komplexionen und Relationen", in Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, II:245–265.
• Meinong, A. (1899). "Über Gegenstände höherer Ordnung und deren Verhältniss zur inneren Wahrnehmung", in Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, 21, pp. 187–272.

• Höfler, A., & Meinong, A. (1890). Philosophische Propädeutik. Erster Theil: Logik. F. Tempsky / G. Freytag, Vienna.

• Haller, R., Kindinger, R., and Chisholm, R., editors (1968–78). Gesamtausgabe, 7 vols., Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz.
• Meinong, A. (1965). Philosophenbriefe, ed. Kindinger, R., Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz.

• On Assumptions (Über Annahmen), trans. James Heanue. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.
• On Emotional Presentation (Über emotionale Präsentation), trans. M.-L. Schubert Kalsi. Evanston, Ill: Northwestern University Press, 1972.
• "The Theory of Objects" ("Über Gegenstandstheorie"), trans. I. Levi, D. B. Terrell, and R. Chisholm. In Realism and the Background of Phenomenology, ed. Roderick Chisholm. Atascadero, CA: Ridgeview, 1981, pp. 76–117.

• Modal Meinongianism
• On the Content and Object of Presentations by Kazimierz Twardowski

{{reflist}}

• Albertazzi, L., Jacquette, D., and Poli, R., editors (2001). The School of Alexius Meinong. Aldershot: Ashgate. {{ISBN|978-1-84014-374-4}}
• Bergmann, G. Realism: A Critique of Brentano and Meinong. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967.
• Chisholm, R. Brentano and Meinong Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1982.
• Dölling, E. Wahrheit Suchen und Wahrheit Bekennen. Alexius Meinong: Skizze seines Lebens. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999. {{ISBN|978-90-420-0774-1}}
• Findlay, J. N. Meinong's Theory of Objects and Values, 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963.
• Grossman, R. Meinong. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. {{ISBN|978-0-7100-7831-5}}
• Haller, R., editor. Jenseits von Sein und Nichtsein. Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, 1972.
• Lindenfeld, D. F. The Transformation of Positivism: Alexius Meinong and European Thought, 1880–1920. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. {{ISBN|978-0-520-03994-0}}
• Rollinger, R. D. Meinong and Husserl on Abstraction and Universals. Number XX in Studien zur Österreichischen Philosophie. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi, 1993. {{ISBN|978-90-5183-573-1}}
• Rollinger, Robin D. Austrian Phenomenology: Brentano, Husserl, Meinong, and Others on Mind and Object. Frankfurt am Main: Ontos, 2008. {{ISBN|978-3-86838-005-7}}
• Routley, R. (1982). Exploring Meinong's Jungle and Beyond. Ridgeview Pub Co. {{ISBN|978-0-685-05636-3}}. (Also published by the Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, 1979.)
• Schubert Kalsi, Marie-Luise. Alexius Meinong: On Objects of Higher Order and Husserl's Phenomenology. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands. {{ISBN|978-90-247-2033-0}}
• Smith, Barry. Austrian Philosophy: The Legacy of Franz Brentano. Chicago: Open Court, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-8126-9307-2}}

• Chrudzimski, A. (2005). "Abstraktion und Relationen beim jungen Meinong" in [Schramm, 2005], pages 7–62.
• Dölling, E. (2005). "Eine semiotische Sicht auf Meinongs Annahmenlehre" in [Schramm, 2005], pages 129–158.
• Kenneth, B. (1970). "Meinong’s Hume Studies. Part I: Meinong’s Nominalism" in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 30:550–567.
• Kenneth, B. (1971). "Meinong’s Hume Studies. Part II: Meinong’s Analysis of Relations" in PPR, 31:564–584.
• Rollinger, R. D. (2005). "Meinong and Brentano". In [Schramm, 2005], pages 159–197.
• Routley, R. and Valerie Routley. "Rehabilitating Meinong's Theory of Objects". Review Internationale de Philosophie 104–105 (1973).
• Russell, Bertrand. "Meinong's Theory of Complexes and Assumptions" in Essays in Analysis, ed. Douglas Lackey. New York: George Braziller, 1973.
• Ryle, Gilbert. "Intentionality-Theory and the Nature of Thinking." Review Internationale de Philosophie 104–105 (1973).
• Schermann, H. (1972). "Husserls II. Logische Untersuchung und Meinongs Hume-Studien I" in [Haller, 1972], pages 103–116.
• Vendrell-Ferran, I. (2009): "Meinongs Philosophie der Gefühle und ihr Einfluss auf die Grazer Schule" in Meinong Studien III Graz

• Schramm, A., editor. Meinong Studies – Meinong Studien, Volume 1 (2005). Ontos Verlag.

• The philosopher A. C. Grayling discusses Meinong in a podcast about Bertrand Russell's theory of descriptions on [http://philosophybites.com/2009/12/ac-grayling-on-bertrand-russells-theory-of-descriptions.html Philosophy Bites].

• {{cite SEP |url-id=meinong |title=Alexius Meinong |last=Marek |first=Johann}}
• [https://www.ontology.co/meinonga.htm Alexius Meinong's Theory of Objects]
• [https://www.ontology.co/biblio/meinonga-editions.htm Alexius Meinong: Editions, Translations, Bibliographic Resources]
• [http://www.genealogy.ams.org/id.php?id=123739 Alexius Meinong's page on the Mathematics Genealogy Project]

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