Bafuliiru Chiefdom

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is situated in the eastern part of the DRC, specifically within the Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province. With an area of 1,514.270 km², it is the largest among all the chiefdoms in Uvira Territory and appears to constitute a separate territory. The region boasts a diverse range of terrains. It includes parts of the eastern section of the Albertine Rift, which is a branch of the East African Rift System. The area is predominantly mountainous, with the Mitumba Mountains forming a significant part of the landscape. It extends to the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika, one of the African Great Lakes. In addition, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom is surrounded by lush forests, including portions of the Itombwe Massif, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The vegetation in the area is primarily characterized by tropical rainforests and savannah grasslands.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlPsDwAAQBAJ |title=The Birds of Africa: Volume VI |date=25 June 2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=9781472986320 |location=London, England |pages=81 |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=Nacishali Nteranya |first=Jean |date=2020 |title=Cartographie de l'érosion hydrique des sols et priorisation des mesures de conservation dans le territoire d'Uvira (République démocratique du Congo) |journal=VertigO: La revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement |language=fr |volume=20 |issue=3 |doi=10.4000/vertigo.28888 |s2cid=234071876 |issn=1492-8442|doi-access=free }}

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom exhibits diverse hydrographic features, including plains, plateaus, and lakes.{{Cite web |date=2004 |title=Rapport final des consultations participatives de la base pour l'élaboration du Document de Stratégies de Réduction de la Pauvreté (DSRP): Territoire de UVIRA - Province du Sud Kivu. |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4917/4024.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=University of Texas Libraries |language=fr |publication-place=Austin, Texas}} The easternmost part of the community is primarily characterized by expansive plains that encompass regions such as Luvungi, Lubarika, Katogota, Kiliba, Runingu, and Kawizi. These areas form an integral part of the Ruzizi Plain, situated between Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. The elevation in this area ranges from 773 to 1000 meters above sea level.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ire2AAAAIAAJ&q=Bafuliru%20lubarika |title=Monographie de la province du Sud-Kivu |publisher=La République |year=1998 |location=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo |pages=80 |language=fr}}{{Cite book |last=Jouannet |first=Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zxd4niyJSmwC |title=Phonologie du kifuliru: langue bantoue du groupe J |publisher=Société d'études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France |year=1984 |location=Paris, France |pages=16 |isbn=9782852971172 |language=fr}}

The chiefdom is further characterized by two distinct plateaus: the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau. The Middle Plateau extends between Luvungi and Mulenge, with a gradual variation in elevation from 100 meters to 1800 meters. Within this plateau, notable villages include Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole, Bwesho, Katala and Mulenge. The Middle Plateau provides a favorable environment for cultivating crops such as cassava, coffee, bananas, beans, and maize in various locations. The High Plateau, which forms part of the Mitumba chain, boasts the highest peaks, surpassing 3,000 meters above sea level. The High Plateau serves as a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and Elila rivers, as well as numerous torrents that flow into the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika.{{Cite book |last=Pottier |first=Johan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRz_QzoVdJcC |title=Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=September 26, 2002 |isbn=9780521528733 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |language=en}}{{Cite book |title=Rapport annuel 1986, administration du territoire collectivité-chefferie des Bafuliiru |date=31 December 1986 |location=Democratic Republic of the Congo |language=fr}}

File:Butaho Village, Ruzizi Plan, DR Congo.jpg in the Ruzizi Plain ]]

The chiefdom has two primary climatic zones: a hot semi-arid climate in the Ruzizi Plain and a cooler, more temperate climate in the highlands. The Ruzizi Plain is characterized by a semi-arid climate, with minimal rainfall during the dry season from June to September, where monthly precipitation is less than 50 mm. Average temperatures in the plain hover around 22.5 °C, with daily maximums ranging from 30.5 °C to 35.5 °C in September, and dropping to 14.5 °C to 17.5 °C during the mid-dry season in July. Winds, mainly descending from Burundi and following the Ruzizi Valley and Lake Tanganyika, accentuate the hot and irregular tropical conditions in this area. The low altitude of the plain contributes to high temperatures and limited rainfall, resulting in degraded shrub savanna vegetation and reduced soil fertility.

In contrast, the highlands of the chiefdom experience cooler temperatures due to higher altitudes. Temperatures decrease progressively with elevation, ranging from 24 °C at 100 meters to 12 °C at 3,000 meters, though the observed gradient is slightly less steep than the theoretical average of 6 °C per 1,000 meters. The highlands benefit from abundant and regular rainfall, fostering diverse vegetation types, including wooded savannas, gallery forests, bamboo groves, and dense equatorial forests.

Between the Ruzizi Plain and the highlands lies a transitional zone, extending from Namutiri to Katala. This area features a humid climate that balances the dryness of the plains with the cooler temperatures of the highlands. The transitional climate supports agricultural activities, particularly the cultivation of crops such as cassava, coffee, and beans.

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is classified as a Decentralized Territorial Entity (Entité Territoriale Décentralisée, ETD), in accordance with the Constitution of 18 February 2006.{{Cite web |last=Rukakiza |first=Bosco Muchukiwa |last2=Emmanuel |first2=Simbi Saleh |date=2019 |title=Education a la paix dans la bible et chez les Bafuliiru |trans-title=Peace education in the Bible and among the Bafuliiru |url=https://www.isdrbukavu.ac.cd/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Education-%C3%A0-la-paix-dans-la-bible-et-chez-les-bafuliiru-3.pdf |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=Isdrbukavu.ac.cd |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |page=4 |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{Cite web |date=7 October 2008 |title=Loi organique n° 08/016 du 07 octobre 2008 portant composition, organisation et fonctionnement des Entités Territoriales Décentralisées et leurs rapports avec l'Etat et les Provinces |trans-title=Organic Law No. 08/016 of October 7, 2008 on the composition, organization and operation of Decentralized Territorial Entities and their relations with the State and the Provinces |url=https://www.leganet.cd/Legislation/Droit%20Public/Administration.ter/L.08.16.17.10.2008.htm |access-date=30 June 2023 |website=Leganet.cd |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}} The Mwami hold both customary and modern authority within this decentralized structure. In his administrative capacity, he represents the provincial executive and oversees local development affairs. The chiefdom is subdivided into groupements (groupings), each led by a groupement chief (chef de groupement) who serves as the Mwami's direct representative. Each groupement is further divided into localités (villages), which are governed by village chiefs who report to their respective groupement chiefs.{{Cite web |date=3 June 2011 |title=Au-delà des "groupes armés": Conflits locaux et connexions sous-regionales L'exemple de Fizi et Uvira (Sud-Kivu, RDC) |trans-title=Beyond "armed groups": Local conflicts and sub-regional connections The example of Fizi and Uvira (South Kivu, DRC) |url=https://assets.ctfassets.net/jzxyrkiixcim/6Eaz1Te5UjWdGVvoGm2jLQ/bae90570fcb8c56187821ce0e7afbe86/LPI_2011_Au-dela_des_groupes_armes__Uvira__Fizi.pdf |access-date=13 February 2025 |website=Life & Peace Institute |page=25 |language=fr}}{{Cite book |last=Verweijen |first=Judith |url=https://peacerep.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/2016_R_Verweijen_Militarisation.pdf |title=A Microcosm of Militarization: Conflict, governance and armed mobilization in Uvira, South Kivu |date=2016 |publisher=Rift Valley Institute |isbn=978-1-907431-40-1 |editor-last=McGuiness |editor-first=Kate |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya |page=14 |access-date=3 November 2024}}

The Muhungu groupement consists of the following villages:

{{Columns-list|* Kabondola

• Kagunga
• Kaholwa
• Kalemba
• Kasheke
• Kaluzi
• Kazimwe
• Kibumbu
• Kasanga
• Kihanda
• Mukololo
• Lugwaja
• Masango
• Muzinda
• Muhungu
• Namukanga
• Kiriba
• Butaho
• Kahwizi}}

The Kigoma groupement consists of the following villages:

{{Columns-list|* Bibangwa

• Bikenge
• Kukanga
• Bushajaga
• Kahungwe
• Butumba
• Kabere
• Karava
• Kalengera
• Kahololo
• Kalimba
• Karaguza
• Kahungwe
• Kasheke
• Kiryama
• Kanga
• Kashagala
• Kasenya
• Kishugwe
• Kigoma
• Lubembe
• Kihinga
• Mangwa
• Miduga
• Kitembe
• Mibere
• Kitija
• Muhanga
• Kabamba
• Mulenge
• Kaduma
• Mushojo
• Masango
• Kitoga
• Mashuba
• Mulama
• Kagaragara
• Ndegu,
• Rurambira
• Rugeje
• Rubuga
• Rusako
• Sogoti
• Taba
• Sange
• Kabunambo}}

The Runingu groupement consists of the following villages:

{{Columns-list|* Katembo

• Kashatu
• Ruhito
• Ruhuha
• Namuziba
• Kasambura
• Katwenge
• Bulindwe
• Narumoka
• Kalindwe}}

The Itara/Luvungi groupement consists of the following villages:

{{Columns-list|* Bwegera

• Lubarika
• Kakamba
• Murunga
• Ndolera
• Katogota
• Luberizi
• Bulaga
• Luburule
• Bideka}}

The Lemera groupement consists of the following villages:

{{Columns-list|* Kiringye

• Kidote
• Langala
• Bwesho
• Mahungu or Mahungubwe
• Narunanga
• Namutiri
• Lungutu
• Kahanda
• Kigurwe
• Ndunda}}

{{Further information|Fuliru people#History}}File:Mwami Nyamugira Mukogabwe II of Bafuliiru Chiefdom, 1925, Congo Belge.jpg), Belgian Congo, circa 1925]]The chiefdom traces its origins to the migration and settlement of the Bahamba clan of the Fuliiru people, led by Mwami Kahamba Kalingishi. According to Alfred Moeller de Laddersous, the Bahamba migrated from present-day Lwindi Chiefdom under Chief Kikanwe and settled in the uninhabited area known as "Bufuliro".{{Cite web |last=Moeller |first=Alfred Alphonse Jean |date=1936 |title=Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantus de la province orientale du Congo belge |url=https://www.congoforum.be/Upldocs/1_pdfsam_Moeller%201936%20Migrations%20dans%20la%20PO.compressed.pdf |access-date=17 January 2025 |publisher=Librairie Falk fils |page=136 |language=fr |publication-place=Brussels, Belgium}} Over time, the Bahamba adopted the name Bafuliru as a marker of their evolving identity. The chronology of their arrival remains a subject of scholarly debate, with Belgian colonial records dating it to the 16th century,{{Cite web |last=Loons |first=René |date=3 March 1933 |title=Etude sur l'origine des Bafulero |trans-title=Study on the origin of the Bafulero |url=https://archives.africamuseum.be/repositories/6/archival_objects/11165 |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Royal Museum for Central Africa |language=fr}} while Congolese historians Kingwengwe Mupe and Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza suggest the 17th century.{{Cite book |last=Mupe |first=Kingwengwe |title=Immigration et intégration des Barundi et des Banyarwanda dans les communautés Bafuliro et Bavira (1850–1980) |year=1982 |location=Bukavu, South Kivu, Zaire |pages=8–10 |language=fr |trans-title=Immigration and integration of Barundi and Banyarwanda into the Bafuliro and Bavira communities (1850–1980)}}{{Cite book |last=Muchukiwa |first=Bosco |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Territoires_ethniques_et_territoires_%C3%A9t/HbTqHw5w5zcC?hl=en |title=Territoires ethniques et territoires étatiques: pouvoirs locaux et conflits interethniques au Sud-Kivu (R.D. Congo) |publisher=Éditions L'Harmattan |year=2006 |isbn=9782747598576 |location=Paris, France |pages=11 |language=fr |trans-title=Ethnic territories and state territories: Local powers and inter-ethnic conflicts in South Kivu (DR Congo)}}

Other narratives describe a broader migration involving Fuliru and the Vira people from the northeast, potentially passing through Maniema before settling in Uvira Territory.{{Cite web |last=Sabuni |first=Abel Mukunde |date=2007 |title=Bilan humain des conflits armés et ses conséquences sur le développement du territoire d'Uvira de 1996 à 2005 |trans-title=Human toll of armed conflicts and its consequences on the development of the Uvira territory from 1996 to 2005 |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/11/22/13250/m_Bilan-humain-des-conflits-arms-et-ses-consquences-sur-le-dveloppement-du-territoire-d-Uv9.html |access-date=17 January 2025 |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR) |language=French |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}} Led by an ancestral figure named Nalwindi, the group split into two: the Bafuliru, under Kahamba Kalingishi, established themselves in the highlands of Lemera groupement, while the Vira, under Kirungu, settled on Munanira's peak and expanded into the lowlands. Bavira's oral traditions emphasize distinctions between the two groups, tracing the Bafuliru's origins to the north and the Bavira's to the south near Katanga.

Governance within the Bafuliru Chiefdom was historically decentralized, characterized by the presence of multiple bami (chiefs).{{Cite book |last=Depelchin |first=Jacques |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/From_Pre_capitalism_to_Imperialism/6cJFAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=Kahamba%20Kalingisi |title=From Pre-capitalism to Imperialism: A History of Social and Economic Formations in Eastern Zaire |date=1974 |publisher=Stanford University |location=Stanford, California, United States |pages=50–105 |language=en}} According to Congolese historian Jacques Depelchin, both "Buvira" (modern-day Bavira Chiefdom) and "Bufuliro" (Bafuliru Chiefdom) maintained this polycentric governance, devoid of a singular paramount chief. This independent political tradition persisted even as colonial authorities began delineating ethnic boundaries in 1907, which extended along Lake Tanganyika and the Ruzizi Plain, occasionally overlapping with Bavira territories. Chief Luhama—a key figure in Bafuliru history—consolidated the Bahamba dynasty's power by apportioning his domain among his three sons: Nyamugira, who governed from Moira to the Munyovwe River; Mutahonga, who controlled the area between the Munyovwe and Kise Rivers, including the eastern slopes of the Ruzizi Valley; and Lusagara, who oversaw the mountainous regions. This strategic division ensured stability while maintaining centralized authority within the family, with leadership passing from father to eldest son. The chiefdom also assimilated other clans, notably the Bazige, whose autonomous chiefdom based in the present-day Muhungu groupement under Chief Kalunga, son of Mukobesi, was subsumed following their defeat by Mahina Mukogabwe II, a Bafuliru ruler who reigned from 1914 to 1927.{{Cite web |last=Sabuni |first=Abel Mukunde |date=2007 |title=Bilan humain des conflits armés et ses conséquences sur le développement du territoire d'Uvira de 1996 à 2005 |trans-title=Human toll of armed conflicts and its consequences on the development of the Uvira territory from 1996 to 2005 |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/11/22/13250/m_Bilan-humain-des-conflits-arms-et-ses-consquences-sur-le-dveloppement-du-territoire-d-Uv9.html |access-date=17 January 2025 |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR) |language=French |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}} Over time, Bazige adopted Kifuliiru and merged into Bafuliru society through intermarriage and economic exchanges, ultimately recognizing Mukogabwe as their mwami. Meanwhile, the Balunga clan aligned with the Bavira, forming a unique faction that did not embrace the Bafuliru's conventional leadership structures.

File:Luvungi, Congo Belge, 1928.jpg in 1928]]

On 18 August 1928, the Bafuliru Chiefdom was officially constituted as part of the newly formed Uvira Territory, alongside the Bavira and Ruzizi Plain Chiefdoms, through an edict issued by the Chef de Division des Districts (C.D.D.) of the Kivu region.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uIhyAAAAMAAJ&q=Bafuliru%201928 |title=Culture et société: Volume 4 |publisher=Centre de Civilisation Burundais |year=1981 |location=Bujumbura, Burundi |pages=114 |language=fr}}{{Cite book |title=Rapport de la collectivité des Bafuliiru |date=4 October 1986 |publisher=Archives de la Division Provinciale de L’administration du Territoire |location=Lemera, Uvira Territory, South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo |language=fr}}{{Cite web |last=Verweijen |first=Judith |date=2016 |title=Un microcosme de militarisation: Conflit, gouvernance et mobilisation armée en territoire d'Uvira |trans-title=A Microcosm of Militarization: Conflict, Governance and Armed Mobilization in Uvira Territory |url=https://riftvalley.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Un-microcosme-de-militarisation-par-Judith-Verweijen-RVI-PSRP-Projet-Usalama-2016.pdf |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Riftvalley.net |publisher=Rift Valley Institute |page=13 |language=fr |isbn=978-1-907431-40-1}}{{Cite web |last=Ruhebuza |first=Honoré Mapenzi |date=September 2021 |title=Le déclassement social dans les communes urbaines de Mulongwe et Kalundu, ville d'Uvira en République Démocratique du Congo |trans-title=Social downgrading in the urban communes of Mulongwe and Kalundu, city of Uvira in the Democratic Republic of Congo |url=https://repository.ub.edu.bi/server/api/core/bitstreams/63e386d2-a2d0-4c27-bc3c-d1e01729afba/content |access-date=17 January 2025 |publisher=University of Burundi |pages=20–21 |language=fr |publication-place=Bujumbura, Burundi}}{{Cite web |last=Kihangu |first=Godefroid Muzalia |date=2020 |title=L'insécurité dans la plaine de la Ruzizi hier et aujourd'hui: Repenser les perspectives de paix |trans-title=Insecurity in the Ruzizi Plain yesterday and today: Rethinking the prospects for peace |url=https://www.ssrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Issue-2_ResCongo-Conference-Paper.pdf |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Social Science Research Council (SSRC) |publisher=Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de Bukavu (ISP-Bukavu) |page=6 |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{Cite web |last=Rukakiza |first=Bosco Muchukiwa |date=2016 |title=Identités territoriales et conflits dans la province du Sud-Kivu, R. D. Congo |trans-title=Territorial identities and conflicts in South Kivu province, DR Congo |url=https://repository.globethics.net/bitstream/handle/20.500.12424/166524/GE_Focus_34_Identites_territorials_conflits.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Globethics.net |publisher=Globethics.net |page=33 |language=fr |publication-place=Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland |isbn=978-2-88931-112-5}} Fuliru historian Kingwengwe Mupe notes that Chief Matakambo, the son of Mahina Mukogabwe and grandson of Nyamugira I—the first Bahamba leader—received his official appointment on 19 March 1933.{{Cite book |last=Mupe |first=Kingwengwe |title=Immigration et intégration des Barundi et des Banyarwanda dans les communautés Bafuliro et Bavira (1850–1980). |year=1982 |location=Bukavu, Zaire. |pages=8–10}} Despite its official establishment, the vast size of the chiefdom posed challenges in defining its precise boundaries. Colonial records from the Belgian Congo indicate that the geographical limits of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom were finalized on the same date as Matakambo's appointment in 1933:{{Cite book |title=Rapport de la collectivité des Bafuliiru |date=4 October 1986 |publisher=Archives de la Division Provinciale de L’administration du Territoire |location=Lemera, Uvira Territory, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo |language=fr}}

• To the east: The Ruzizi River up to its confluence with the Luvubu, then from the Luvubu to Kalinda. From Kalinda, the boundary follows the mountain range leading to Ravine Mize, and from there, it follows the Costermansville Road (Bukavu) to Kawizi, including the Kanomo River. The boundary extends to the mouth of the Kanomo River where it meets the great Musondjo.
• To the south: From the confluence of Musondjo and Kamono, a line is drawn towards Mount Ngongwa, then from the source of the small Musondjo to its mouth where it joins the big Musondjo. The boundary continues along the great Musondjo until it meets the Lwindi River.
• To the west: From Lwindi, the boundary extends to the foot of Mount Lutandala, encompassing the valley between the Matiazo and Bihimvu Mountains. It then follows the course of the Kalongofya stream parallel to Mount Kaya. From there, it proceeds along the eastern slope of Mount Kaya to the source of the Kinwalangazi River, and finally, it follows the Kinwalangazi River until its confluence with the Luvubu. The boundary extends from the source of the Luvubu River to the source of the Kabundji River, which eventually joins the Luvimbi River at its mouth.

These delineations helped establish the territorial extent of the Bafuliru Chiefdom within the region. Nyamugira, another descendant of Mahina Mukogabwe, was appointed chief on 4 March 1940, consolidating Bahamba leadership over the chiefdom. While many sources credit the Bahamba with founding the Bafuliru Chiefdom, others suggest they supplanted the Balemera clan to establish their dominance.{{Cite book |last=Depelchin |first=Jacques |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/From_Pre_capitalism_to_Imperialism/6cJFAAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Balemera&dq=Balemera&printsec=frontcover |title=From Pre-capitalism to Imperialism: A History of Social and Economic Formations in Eastern Zaire |date=1974 |publisher=Stanford University |location=Stanford, California, United States |pages=61 |language=en}} Kingwengwe Mupe contends that the Bahamba clan displaced or possibly overthrew the Balemera clan to assert control over the chiefdom. The Balemera clan, believed to be the region's original inhabitants, had strong ancestral ties to the area, with their stronghold in Lemera groupement—a location regarded as the heartland of their domain.

Over the last three decades, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom has encountered security challenges, with a history of conflicts often triggered by political, ethnic, and resource-driven tensions.{{Cite web |date=2004 |title=Rapport final des consultations participatives de la base pour l'élaboration du Document de Stratégies de Réduction de la Pauvreté (DSRP): Territoire de UVIRA - Province du Sud Kivu |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4917/4024.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=University of Texas Libraries |language=fr |publication-place=Austin, Texas}}{{Cite web |last=García |first=José |date=16 September 2004 |title=Situation geographique de localites de Kamanyola et Katogota dans la cheferie de la plaine de Ruzizi |url=https://umoya.org/2004/09/16/situation-geographique-de-localites-de-kamanyola-et-katogota-dans-la-cheferie-de-la-plaine-de-ruzizi/ |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=Umoya.org |language=fr}} Such conflicts have caused violent outbreaks and the forced movement of civilians in impacted regions.{{Cite web |date=14 May 2023 |title=Commémoration du 23ème anniversaire du massacre de Katogota au Sud-Kivu: des avancées significatives enregistrées dans le processus de lutte contre l'impunité! |trans-title=Commemoration of the 23rd anniversary of the Katogota massacre in South Kivu: significant progress recorded in the process of fighting impunity! |url=https://juardc.info/2023/05/actualite/droits-humains/commemoration-du-23eme-anniversaire-du-massacre-de-katogota-au-sud-kivu-des-avancees-significatives-enregistrees-dans-le-processus-de-lutte-contre-limpunite/ |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=Juardc.info |language=fr}}{{Cite web |last=Kakule |first=Job |date=14 May 2022 |title=[Histoire] 14 mai 2000 : Massacre de plus de 300 personnes à Katogota en territoire d'Uvira |trans-title=[History] May 14, 2000: Massacre of more than 300 people in Katogota in Uvira territory |url=https://www.grandslacsnews.com/posts/histoire-14-mai-2000-massacre-de-plus-de-300-personnes-a-katogota-en-territoire-d-uvira-5118 |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=Grandslacsnews.com |language=fr}}

{{See also|First Congo War|Second Congo War}}

The chiefdom has been affected by spillover effects from conflicts in neighboring countries during the First and Second Congo Wars. These conflicts turned the area into a major battleground for various armed groups, leading to widespread violence, displacement, and immense suffering for the local population. The region witnessed the presence of formidable forces such as the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB), Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), and numerous Mai-Mai groups, each pursuing their own agendas and alliances.{{Cite journal |last=Mukwege |first=Denis |date=9 June 2022 |title=Rape as a weapon of war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: from holistic care to transitional justice |journal=Revue LISA/LISA e-journal. Littératures, Histoire des Idées, Images, Sociétés du Monde Anglophone – Literature, History of Ideas, Images and Societies of the English-speaking World |language=en |volume=20 |issue=53 |doi=10.4000/lisa.13875 |issn=1762-6153 |s2cid=249692220 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite web |last=Nzongola-Ntalaja |first=Georges |date=2004 |title=From Zaire to the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Second And Revised Edition |url=https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:240600/FULLTEXT02.pdf |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=Nordiska Afrikainstitutet |language=en |publication-place=Uppsala, Sweden}}

File:L'Hôpital Général de Référence de Lemera, Sud-Kivu.jpg, where the Lemera massacre took place in October 1996]]

During the First Congo War, rival factions clashed for control. The AFDL, backed by Rwanda and Uganda, confronted Mobutu Sese Seko's government forces. According to Amnesty International, the AFDL was responsible for various human rights violations during its campaign to overthrow Mobutu.{{Cite web |date=19 December 1996 |title=Zaire: Hidden from scrutiny: human rights abuses in eastern Zaire |url=https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ae6a9b6c.pdf |access-date=15 April 2023 |publisher=Amnesty International |pages=1–9 |language= |publication-place=London, England, United Kingdom}} On 6 October 1996, a massacre occurred at Lemera Hospital, where the AFDL and a Banyamulenge-led force killed 37 people, among them Hutu refugees, Zairean soldiers, and Fuliiru civilians. According to the Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 UN Mapping Report, the victims were killed in their beds by "gunshots or bayonets".{{Cite web |title=Attacks against other civilian populations - South Kivu |url=https://www.mapping-report.org/en/aattacks-against-other-civilian-populations-south-kivu/ |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=Mapping-report.org |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=18 March 2016 |title=Interview: A fate shaped by injustice – one man's mission to help the women of DR Congo |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2016/03/524722-interview-fate-shaped-injustice-one-mans-mission-help-women-dr-congo |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=News.un.org |language=en}} In subsequent days and weeks, the violence continued to escalate. On 13–14 October 1996, the AFDL and Banyamulenge armed units killed refugees in the Runingu camp. Similarly, on 20 October 1996, AFDL/RPA/FAB units targeted Burundian and Rwandan Hutu refugees in the Luvungi groupement, which resulted in significant casualties. In Katala village, located in the middle plateau of Bafuliiru Chiefdom, they captured and killed refugees who were attempting to flee at close range. Local people were then forced to bury the bodies in mass graves.

On the same day, 20 October 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed an unidentified number of Hutu refugees, including approximately twenty in the camp's hospital in Kanganiro camp in Luvungi groupement. Parenthetically, the units also killed an unknown number of Hutu refugees and Zairean civilians who were fleeing towards Burundi in Rubenga village in Uvira Territory. In Kakumbukumbu village, located five kilometers from Lubarika camp, soldiers burned thirty refugees alive in a house. On 21 October 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units butchered around 370 refugees in Luberizi and Mutarule. By May 1997, the conflict resulted in the ousting of Mobutu and marked the beginning of a tumultuous period for the region. Laurent-Désiré Kabila declared himself the president of the DRC and renamed the country the "Democratic Republic of the Congo".

File:Visit of Laurent Désiré Kabila, President of the Democratic Republic of Congo, to the EC.jpg to the EC, discussing the armed conflict raging in the area, November 1998|210x210px]]

In the Second Congo War, which began in 1998, the Bafuliru Chiefdom once again became a battleground for rival factions and armed groups vying for power and control. The conflict witnessed various armed groups, including the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma (RCD-Goma) and multiple Mai-Mai groups, clashing in the region.{{Cite web |last=Kiley |first=Penny |date=10 September 2012 |title=Sortir de l'impasse: Vers une nouvelle vision de la paix à l'est de la RDC |trans-title=Breaking the impasse: Towards a new vision of peace in eastern DRC |url=https://www.international-alert.org/fr/publications/sortir-de-limpasse-vers-une-nouvelle-vision-de-la-paix-a-lest-de-la-rdc/ |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=International Alert |pages=20–24 |language=fr-FR}}{{Cite book |last=Ngolet |first=François |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db1eAQAAQBAJ |title=Crisis in the Congo: The Rise and Fall of Laurent Kabila |date=14 December 2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9780230116252 |location=London, United Kingdom |language=en}}

Numerous areas within the Bafuliru Chiefdom experienced targeted attacks on civilians. On 6 August 1998, members of RCD-Goma killed 13 people, including the chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule. Concurrently, and in the proximate vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe villages, RCD-Goma and RPA operatives killed 15 civilians.{{Cite web |title=Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – South Kivu |url=http://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-south-kivu/ |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Mapping-report.org |language=en-US}} In the village of Katogota on 14 May 2000, RCD-Goma carried out a massacre that claimed the lives of over 300 people.{{Cite web |last= |date=21 May 2000 |title=Report Claims Rebels Massacre 300 in Congo |url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/2000/05/21/report-claims-rebels-massacre-300-in-congo-2/ |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Orlando Sentinel |language=en-US |publication-place=Orlando, Florida, United States}}{{Cite web |date=21 May 2000 |title=Congo rebels 'massacre 300' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/756859.stm |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=BBC |publication-place=London, England, United Kingdom}}{{Cite web |last=Sabuni |first=Abel Mukunde |title=Bilan humain des conflits armés et ses conséquences sur le développement du territoire d'Uvira de 1996 à 2005 |trans-title=Human toll of armed conflicts and its consequences on the development of the territory of Uvira from 1996 to 2005 |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/11/22/13250/m_Bilan-humain-des-conflits-arms-et-ses-consquences-sur-le-dveloppement-du-territoire-d-Uv18.html |access-date=25 June 2023 |publisher=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural de Bukavu (ISDR-Bukavu) |language=fr |publication-place=Bukavu, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}{{Cite web |date=23 May 2000 |title=DRC rebels deny massacre |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2000-05-23-drc-rebels-deny-massacre/ |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA |publication-place=Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa}}

The conflict came to an end with the signing of the Global and Inclusive Agreement in 2002, followed by the establishment of a transitional government. However, the effects of the wars continue to linger, with communities grappling with the long-lasting consequences of violence, displacement, and trauma.{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=17 December 2002 |title=Congo peace deal signed |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/dec/17/congo |access-date=25 June 2023 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |publication-place=Kings Place, London, England, United Kingdom |issn=0261-3077}}{{Cite web |title=Global and Inclusive Agreement on Transition in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Pretoria Agreement) {{!}} UN Peacemaker |url=https://peacemaker.un.org/drc-agreementontransition2002 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Peacemaker.un.org}}{{Cite web |title=Inter-Congolese Negotiations: The Final Act (Sun City Agreement) {{!}} UN Peacemaker |url=https://peacemaker.un.org/drc-suncity-agreement2003 |access-date=25 June 2023 |website=Peacemaker.un.org}}

File:Cassava Production In Katogota.jpg]]

Subsistence agriculture is the chiefdom's primary economic activity, with the surrounding fertile lands supporting the cultivation of a variety of crops such as cassava, beans, peanuts, coffee, banana, rice, and maize. The region also grows sorghum, wheat, and soybeans, along with various fruit trees, including orange, mango, guava, and avocado.{{Cite web |last=Mutayubara |first=Yohana Patience Miruho |title=Dégradation des routes de desserte agricole et production agricole dans la Chefferie des Bafuliiru en Territoire d'Uvira |trans-title=Degradation of agricultural service roads and agricultural production in the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in Uvira Territory |url=https://www.memoireonline.com/06/24/14613/m_Degradation-des-routes-de-desserte-agricole-et-production-agricole-dans-la-chefferie-des-Bafuliiru0.html |access-date=20 October 2024 |website=Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural d'Uvira |language=fr |publication-place=Uvira, Uvira Territory, South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}

Cassava is among the most prominent agricultural commodities in the chiefdom areas of Ruzizi Plain and the Bafuliru Chiefdom. According to Bafuliiru folklore, cassava was introduced to the region during their migration from Lwindi Chiefdom, and it continues to serve as a vital food source. Banana cultivation is widespread throughout the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving both as a food crop and a raw material for producing Kasigisi, a fermented beverage made from bananas and sorghum.

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Rice production, specifically varieties such as IR5, L9, and IRON 282, is also prominent, although it is more often cultivated as a cash crop. Rice is primarily grown at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and the Cenre Developpement Communautaire (CDC) in Kiringye.{{Cite web |date=September 2012 |title=Performance of introduced irrigated rice varieties in Ruzizi plain, South Kivu province, DR Congo |url=https://repository.ruforum.org/sites/default/files/Walangululu,%20M.J.%20et%20al..pdf |access-date=3 September 2023 |publisher=Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture |language=English |publication-place=Kampala, Uganda}}{{Cite web |title=Travaux de rehabilitation du Cenre Developpement Communautaire (CDC) de Kiringye dans le Territoire d'Uvira, province de Sud-Kivu en République démocratique du Congo |trans-title=Rehabilitation works of the Community Development Center (CDC) of Kiringye in the Territory of Uvira, province of South Kivu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo |url=https://www.ungm.org/Public/Notice/108049 |access-date=4 September 2023 |website=Ungm.org}}{{Cite web |last=Leposo |first=Bruce |date=July 10, 2019 |title=Sud-Kivu-PICAGL : Avis au public d'étude d'impact environnemental et social pour la réhabilitation et la modernisation du centre de développement communautaire de Kiringye à Uvira. |url=https://libregrandlac.com/article/2850/sud-kivu-picagl-:-avis-au-public-d-etude-d-impact-environnemental-et-social-pour-la-rehabilitation-et-la-modernisation-du-centre-de-developpement-communautaire-de-kiringye-a-uvira. |access-date=2023-09-04 |website=libregrandlac.com |language=French}} Similarly, beans are grown predominantly in the central part of Lemera, covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge, with large portions marketed in Bukavu and Uvira, as well as exported to neighboring countries like Burundi and Rwanda. Maize is widely cultivated in the Ruzizi Plain and the Hauts Plateaux, where it serves as a primary food source. Peanuts, primarily grown in Luvungi are consumed locally and exported to Rwanda and Burundi, with some also sold in Bukavu.

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is also notable for its coffee production, with two species cultivated: Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora. The more common arabica species is grown in areas such as Ndolera, Buheba, Lemera, Katala, and Mugule, and is a significant export product, particularly to Burundi.

• Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• List of territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Lwindi Chiefdom

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Category:South Kivu

Category:Congo Crisis

Category:Congo River

Category:Kivu conflict