avocado

Persea americana is a tree that grows to {{convert|9|-|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} with a trunk diameter between {{convert|0.3|-|0.6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. The leaves are {{convert|8|-|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long and alternately arranged.{{cite book|author=Dilip Nandwani |year=2014 |title=Sustainable Horticultural Systems: Issues, Technology and Innovation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jurSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-06904-3 |pages=176–}}{{Cite web |title=Avocado General Information |url=http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/crops/i_avocad.htm |access-date=2023-03-21 |website=www.extento.hawaii.edu}}

Panicles of flowers with deciduous bracts arise from new growth or the axils of leaves. The tree flowers thousands of blossoms every year. Avocado blossoms sprout from racemes near the leaf axils; they are small and inconspicuous {{convert|5|-|10|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} wide. They have no petals but instead two whorls of three pale-green or greenish-yellow downy perianth lobes, each blossom has 9 stamens with 2 basal orange nectar glands.

File:Flower of Avocado 2.jpg

File:Pollen grains of avocado plant.jpg

The avocado fruit is a climacteric,{{cite book|author=Elhadi M. Yahia|title=Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Açai to Citrus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oO51AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125|year=2011|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-85709-276-2|pages=125–}} single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible endocarp covering the seed,{{cite book|author=A. W. Whiley |author2=B. Schaffer |author3=B. N. Wolstenholme |title=The Avocado: Botany, Production, and Uses |date=2002 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-0851999784 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CxmvpAYkL54C&pg=PA30}} rather than a drupe.{{cite book|author=Frederick B. Essig|title=Plant Life: A Brief History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvhzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|year= 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-026658-5|pages=162–}} The pear-shaped fruit is usually {{convert|7|-|20|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long, weighs between {{convert|100|and|1000|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=on}}, and has a large central seed, {{convert|5|-|6.4|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long. Early wild avocados prior to domestication had much smaller seeds around {{Convert|2.1-2.2|cm|in}} in diameter, likely corresponding to smaller fruit size.

The species produces various cultivars with larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner exocarp because of selective breeding by humans.{{cite book|author=Chittaranjan Kole|title=Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources: Tropical and Subtropical Fruits|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WY4zSqE8sdgC&pg=PA172|year=2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-20447-0|pages=172–}}

The species was scientifically named by the British botanist Philip Miller in 1768.{{Cite web |last=Parry |first=Katy |date=2023-01-16 |title=Persea americana |url=https://www.chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk/persea-americana/ |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=Chelsea Physic Garden |language=en-GB}} The genus Persea to which the avocado belongs is considered to have a North American origin, with Persea suggested to have diversified in Central America during the Pleistocene epoch.{{Cite journal |last1=Galindo-Tovar |first1=María Elena |last2=Ogata-Aguilar |first2=Nisao |last3=Arzate-Fernández |first3=Amaury M. |date=May 2008 |title=Some aspects of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) diversity and domestication in Mesoamerica |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10722-007-9250-5 |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |language=en |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=441–450 |doi=10.1007/s10722-007-9250-5 |bibcode=2008GRCEv..55..441G |issn=0925-9864|url-access=subscription }} The modern avocado is thought to have speciated from other Persea during the Pleistocene, estimated at around either 1.3 million or 430,000 years ago.{{cite journal |last1=Berdugo-Cely |first1=Jhon A |display-authors=etal |date=2023 |title=Pleistocene-dated genomic divergence of avocado trees supports cryptic diversity in the Colombian germplasm |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes |volume=19 |issue=42 |doi=10.1007/s11295-023-01616-8 |doi-access=free}} A number of authors, including Connie Barlow in her 2001 book The Ghosts of Evolution, have speculated that the avocado is an "evolutionary anachronism" with megafaunal dispersal syndrome (a concept originally proposed in the 1980s by Paul S. Martin and Daniel H. Janzen{{cite journal |last1=Janzen |first1=D. H. |last2=Martin |first2=P. S. |year=1982 |title=Neotropical Anachronisms: The Fruits the Gomphotheres Ate |url=https://commonnaturalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/janzen-and-martin-1982.pdf |journal=Science |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) |volume=215 |issue=4528 |pages=19–27 |bibcode=1982Sci...215...19J |doi=10.1126/science.215.4528.19 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=17790450 |s2cid=19296719}}), arguing that the avocado likely coevolved dispersal of its large seed by now-extinct megafauna.Wolstenholme, B.N.; Whiley, A.W. [http://209.143.153.251/WAC4/WAC4_p077.pdf Ecophysiology of the avocado (Persea americana Mill.) tree as a basis for pre-harvest management.] Rev. Chapingo Ser. Hortic. 1999, 5, 77–88. Barlow proposed that the dispersers included the gomphothere (elephant relative) Cuvieronius, as well as ground sloths, toxodontids, and glyptodonts.{{cite book |last=Barlow |first=Connie |year=2001 |title=The Ghosts of Evolution: Nonsensical Fruit, Missing Partners, and Other Ecological Anachronisms |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00551-2}} The concept of evolutionary anachronisms/megafaunal dispersal syndrome has been criticised by some authors, who note that many large fruit are readily dispersed by non-megafaunal animals,{{Cite journal |last1=Blanco |first1=Guillermo |last2=Tella |first2=José L. |last3=Díaz-Luque |first3=José A. |last4=Hiraldo |first4=Fernando |date=2019-08-29 |title=Multiple External Seed Dispersers Challenge the Megafaunal Syndrome Anachronism and the Surrogate Ecological Function of Livestock |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=7 |page=328 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2019.00328 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019FrEEv...7..328B |issn=2296-701X|hdl=10261/199258 |hdl-access=free }} with it being noted that living agoutis disperse avocado seeds,{{Cite journal |last1=Mittelman |first1=Pedro |last2=Dracxler |first2=Caroline Marques |last3=Santos-Coutinho |first3=Pollyanna R. O. |last4=Pires |first4=Alexandra S. |date=December 2021 |title=Sowing forests: a synthesis of seed dispersal and predation by agoutis and their influence on plant communities |journal=Biological Reviews |language=en |volume=96 |issue=6 |pages=2425–2445 |doi=10.1111/brv.12761 |pmid=34156131 |issn=1464-7931|doi-access=free }}Peterson, Maria, "[https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1550&context=tropical_ecology Seed toughness in Persea americana (Lauraceae) and Dioclea reflexa (Papilionaceae) and feeding behavior in agoutis (Dasyprocta punctata), 2007]" (2007). Tropical Ecology and Conservation [Monteverde Institute]. 551. with spectacled bears have also having been observed eating domestic avocados.{{Citation |last1=Velez-Liendo |first1=Ximena |title=Andean Bear ( Tremarctos ornatus ) |date=2020-11-26 |work=Bears of the World |pages=78–87 |editor-last=Penteriani |editor-first=Vincenzo |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/bears-of-the-world/andean-bear-tremarctos-ornatus/50CB3CCA93D6742E760E5B8A26F35F98 |access-date=2024-11-19 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108692571.008 |isbn=978-1-108-69257-1 |last2=Jackson |first2=David |last3=Ruiz-García |first3=Manuel |last4=Castellanos |first4=Armando |last5=Espinosa |first5=Santiago |last6=Laguna |first6=Andrés |editor2-last=Melletti |editor2-first=Mario|url-access=subscription }}

File:Avocado firstInternationalShipment.jpg, 1927]]

The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martín Fernández de Enciso ({{circa|1470}}{{snd}}1528) in 1519 in his book, Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo, while describing the native settlement of Yaharo (present-day Dibulla, Colombia).{{cite web |author= |year=2007 |title=Avocado History |url=http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225063117/http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm |archive-date=25 December 2007 |access-date=29 December 2007 |work=IndexFresh.com |publisher=Index Fresh Avocado |location=Bloomington, CA}}{{cite web |last=Stradley |first=Linda |year=2004 |title=All About Avocados: History of the Hass Avocado |url=http://whatscookingamerica.net/avacado.htm |access-date=13 May 2008 |work=What'sCookingAmerica.net |publisher=self-published |location=Newberg, OR}} The first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in his work Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias in 1526, while holding administrative Spanish colonial duties in Santo Domingo and visiting Castilla de Oro.{{cite book |last1=Ayala Silva |first1=Tomas |title=Sustainable Horticultural Systems |last2=Ledesma |first2=Noris |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-319-06903-6 |series=Sustainable Development and Biodiversity |volume=2 |pages=157–205 |chapter=Avocado History, Biodiversity and Production |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-06904-3_8}} The first written record in English of the use of the word 'avocado' was by Hans Sloane, who coined the term, in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants.

The word avocado comes from the Spanish {{lang|es|aguacate}}, which derives from the Nahuatl (Mexican) word {{lang|nci|āhuacatl}} {{IPA|nah|aːˈwakat͡ɬ|}},[http://whp.uoregon.edu/dictionaries/nahuatl/index.lasso Nahuatl Dictionary/Diccionario del náhuatl] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203034759/http://whp.uoregon.edu/dictionaries/nahuatl/index.lasso |date=3 December 2016 }}. Whp.uoregon.edu. Retrieved on 25 July 2013. which goes back to the proto-Aztecan {{lang|nah|*pa:wa}}.{{Cite book|author=Dakin, Karen |year=1982 |title=La evolución fonológica del Protonáhuatl |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas |location=México D.F. |isbn=978-968-5802-92-5 |oclc=10216962|page=210|language=es}} In Molina's Nahuatl dictionary "auacatl" is given also as the translation for compañón "testicle",{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/vocabulariodela00platgoog/page/n287/mode/2up?q=Auacatl|author=Molina Alonso de, Julius Platzmann |year=1880 |title=Vocabulario De La Lengua Méxicana. Edición facsimilaria |publisher= B.G. Teubner |location=Leipzig |oclc=11400907 |language=es}} and this has been taken up in popular culture where a frequent claim is that testicle was the word's original meaning. This is not the case, as the original meaning can be reconstructed as "avocado" – rather the word seems to have been used in Nahuatl as a euphemism for "testicle".{{cite journal|author=Pharao Hansen, Magnus|year=2021|volume=42|issue=3|pages=9–12|title=Avocado og testikelsovs:et internet meme og en aztekisk etymologi (Avocados and testicle sauce: an internet meme and an aztec etymology|journal=Mål og Mæle|url=https://magnuspharao.files.wordpress.com/2021/12/mom_42-3-m_pharao.pdf}}{{cite web|url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/guacamole-means-testicle-sauce/|title=Does the Word 'Guacamole' Mean 'Testicle Sauce'?|website=Snopes |author=Brooke, Binkowski|date=February 9, 2016}}{{cite web|url=http://nahuatlstudies.blogspot.com/2016/02/no-snopescom-word-guacamole-does-not.html|title=No Snopes.com, the word guacamole does not come from the Nahuatl word for "ground testicles or avocados"|website=Nahuatl Studies |type=Blog |author=Magnus Pharao Hansen |date=February 10, 2016}}

The modern English name comes from a rendering of the Spanish {{lang|es|aguacate}} as {{lang|es|avogato}}. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as avogato pear, later avocado pear (due to its shape), a term sometimes corrupted to alligator pear.{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/words-from-nahuatl-the-language-of-the-aztecs/tomato |title=8 Words from Nahuatl, the Language of the Aztecs |work=Merriam-Webster |access-date=April 7, 2022}}Oxford English Dictionary, second edition (1989), articles "avocado", "alligator, n.2"

In Central American, Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, and Spain{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://dle.rae.es/palta|dictionary=Diccionario de la lengua española|publisher=Real Academia Española|title=aguacate}} it is known by the Mexican Spanish name {{lang|es|aguacate}}, while South American Spanish-speaking countries Argentina, Chile, Perú and Uruguay use a Quechua-derived word, {{lang|es-419|palta}}.{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://dle.rae.es/palta|dictionary=Diccionario de la lengua española|publisher=Real Academia Española|title=palta}} In Portuguese, it is {{lang|pt|abacate}}. The Nahuatl {{lang|nah|āhuacatl}} can be compounded with other words, as in {{lang|nah|ahuacamolli}}, meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish word {{lang|es|guacamole}} derives.{{Cite OED|guacamole|id=82081}}

In the United Kingdom the term avocado pear, applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s, is sometimes used.{{cite news |url=http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/twiggy-squares-up-to-sainsbury-s-in-the-avocado-wars-1-1352962 |title=Twiggy squares up to Sainsbury's in the avocado wars |date=23 May 2009 |work=The Scotsman |access-date=14 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214181923/http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/twiggy-squares-up-to-sainsbury-s-in-the-avocado-wars-1-1352962 |archive-date=2017-02-14 }}

Originating as a diminutive in Australian English, a clipped form, {{lang|en-AU|avo}}, has since become a common colloquialism in South Africa and the United Kingdom.{{Cite web |date=2022-07-31 |title=From the Aztecs to avo, the scoop on 'avocado' and 'guacamole' |url=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/3187052/aztecs-avo-scoop-avocado-and-guacamole-its |access-date=2023-03-21 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}

It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India{{cite news | url =http://www.hindu.com/2010/04/16/stories/2010041656650300.htm | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20100421062158/http://www.hindu.com/2010/04/16/stories/2010041656650300.htm | archive-date =21 April 2010 | newspaper =The Hindu |title=Avocado holds promise for Wayanad farmers|date=16 April 2010}} and Hong Kong.{{Cite news |last=Conversation |first=The |date=2017-05-14 |title=What is China's role in the global avocado shortage? |language=en-GB |work=Hong Kong Free Press |url=https://hongkongfp.com/2017/05/14/chinas-role-global-avocado-shortage/ |access-date=2022-10-31}}

Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in the Tehuacan Valley{{cite journal |last1=Landon |first1=Amanda J. |date=2009 |title=Domestication and Significance of Persea americana, the Avocado, in Mesoamerica |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1046&context=nebanthro |journal=Nebraska Anthropologist |volume=47}} in the state of Puebla, Mexico.{{Cite journal |author1=Galindo-Tovar, María Elena |author2=Arzate-Fernández, Amaury M. |author3=Ogata-Aguilar, Nisao |author4=Landero-Torres, Ivonne |year=2007 |title=The avocado (Persea americana, Lauraceae) crop in Mesoamerica: 10,000 years of history |url=http://www.uv.mx/personal/megalindo/files/2010/07/GalindoTovar_325_334_V21.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Harvard Papers in Botany |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=325–334, [325] |doi=10.3100/1043-4534(2007)12[325:TAPALC]2.0.CO;2 |jstor=41761865 |s2cid=9998040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010145152/http://www.uv.mx/personal/megalindo/files/2010/07/GalindoTovar_325_334_V21.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2015}} There is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Guatemalan (quilaoacatl), Mexican (aoacatl) and West Indian (tlacacolaocatl) landraces.{{cite book |last=Schaffer |first=B |title=The avocado: botany, production and uses |publisher=CABI |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84593-701-0 |location=Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK}}{{page needed|date=June 2018}} The Guatemalan and Mexican and landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru, achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans. The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled{{efn|Intermingled in a trade or cultural sense, but not necessarily a genetic one.}} in pre-Columbian America and were described in the Florentine Codex. As a result of artificial selection, the fruit and correspondingly the seeds of cultivated avocados became considerably larger relative to their earlier wild forebears millennia before the Columbian exchange.{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=C. Earle |date=April 1966 |title=Archeological evidence for selection in avocado |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02904012 |journal=Economic Botany |language=en |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=169–175 |doi=10.1007/BF02904012 |bibcode=1966EcBot..20..169S |issn=0013-0001|url-access=subscription }}

The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions.{{cite journal |last1=Dillehay |first1=Tom D |last2=Goodbred |first2=Steve |last3=Pino |first3=Mario |last4=Vásquez Sánchez |first4=Víctor F |last5=Tham |first5=Teresa Rosales |last6=Adovasio |first6=James |last7=Collins |first7=Michael B |last8=Netherly |first8=Patricia J |last9=Hastorf |first9=Christine A |last10=Chiou |first10=Katherine L |last11=Piperno |first11=Dolores |last12=Rey |first12=Isabel |last13=Velchoff |first13=Nancy |year=2017 |title=Simple technologies and diverse food strategies of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene at Huaca Prieta, Coastal Peru |journal=Science Advances |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=e1602778 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E2778D |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1602778 |pmc=5443642 |pmid=28560337}} The oldest discovery of an avocado pit comes from Coxcatlan Cave, dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago. Other caves in the Tehuacan Valley from around the same time period also show early evidence for the presence and consumption of avocado. There is evidence for avocado use at Norte Chico civilization sites in Peru by at least 3,200 years ago and at Caballo Muerto in Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500 years ago.

File:Criollo avocados de Oaxaca.png criollo avocados, the ancestral form of today's domesticated varieties]]The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC. A water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-Inca city of Chan Chan.{{cite web |last=Barry |first=PC |date=7 April 2001 |title=Avocado: The Early Roots of Avocado History |url=http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215142535/http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm |archive-date=15 December 2007 |access-date=29 December 2007 |url-status=usurped |publisher=Canku Ota}}

The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire in 1908. In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.

The name avocado has been used in English since at least 1764, with minor spelling variants such as avogato attested even earlier.{{Cite book |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/avocado_n |title=Oxford English Dictionary |date=1885 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=s.v. avocado}}{{Cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=J.E. |last2=Hunn |first2=C.J. |last3=Holt |first3=V.S. |date=April 1911 |title=The Avocado in Hawaii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMRBwSgL9r8C&dq=%22avocado%22&pg=RA2-PA36 |journal=Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin |issue=24}}{{Cite journal |last=Popenoe |first=F.W. |date=February 1911 |title=The Avocado in Southern California |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QblGAQAAMAAJ |journal=Pomona Journal of Economic Botany |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–24}} The avocado was commonly referred to in California as ahuacate and in Florida as alligator pear until 1915, when the California Avocado Association popularized the term avocado.

File:Avocado Seedling.jpg

As a subtropical species, avocados need a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur; although the 'Hass' cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to −1 °C.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} Several cold-hardy varieties{{specify|date=December 2022}}{{which|date=December 2022}} are planted in the region of Gainesville, Florida, which survive temperatures as low as {{convert|-6.5|C|0}} with only minor leaf damage. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} However, Guatemalan varieties such as "MacArthur", "Rincon", or "Nabal" can withstand temperatures down to {{convert|-1.6|C|0}}.Hessong, Athena.

[https://homeguides.sfgate.com/much-coldness-can-avocado-trees-take-55142.html How Much Coldness Can Avocado Trees Take?]. SF Gate. Retrieved on Dec. 4, 2022

According to information published by the Water Footprint Network, it takes an average of approximately {{convert|70|L|USgal impgal|0|abbr=off}} of applied fresh ground or surface water, not including rainfall or natural moisture in the soil, to grow one avocado ({{cvt|283|L/kg|USgal/lb impgal/lb|disp=sqbr}}). However, the amount of water needed depends on where it is grown; for example, in the main avocado-growing region of Chile, about {{convert|320|L|USgal impgal|abbr=on}} of applied water are needed to grow one avocado ({{cvt|1,280|L/kg|USgal/lb impgal/lb|disp=sqbr}}).{{cite web |title=How much water does it take to grow an avocado? |url=https://old.danwatch.dk/en/undersogelseskapitel/how-much-water-does-it-take-to-grow-an-avocado/ |website=Danwatch.dk |access-date=7 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007172453/https://old.danwatch.dk/en/undersogelseskapitel/how-much-water-does-it-take-to-grow-an-avocado/ |archive-date=7 October 2019 |date=2019}}

Increasing demand and production of avocados may cause water shortages in some avocado production areas, such as the Mexican state of Michoacán.{{cite journal | last1=Sommaruga | first1=Ruben | last2=Eldridge | first2=Honor May | title=Avocado production: Water footprint and socioeconomic implications | journal=EuroChoices | date=2020-12-13 | volume=20 | issue=2 | pages=48–53 | issn=1478-0917 | doi=10.1111/1746-692x.12289 | s2cid=230594487 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1746-692X.12289| doi-access=free }}{{cite news |title=How green are avocados? (Yes, that's a trick question) |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/what-on-earth-newsletter-avocados-road-salt-light-pollution-1.4991627 |access-date=11 April 2021 |work=CBC |date=25 January 2019 |quote=Producing avocados is very water-intensive. The Water Footprint Network estimates it takes an average of 2,000 litres of water to produce one kilogram of avocados}} Avocados may also cause environmental and socioeconomic impacts in major production areas, illegal deforestation, and water disputes. Water requirements for growing avocados are three times higher than for apples, and 18 times higher than for tomatoes.

Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.{{cite web|url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm |title = Avocado Production in Australia |last = Whiley|first = A|publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date = 1 September 2000|access-date = 29 December 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080112135727/http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm| archive-date= 12 January 2008 | url-status= live}} Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next.

Like the banana, the avocado is a climacteric fruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at {{convert|3.3|to|5.6|C|F}} until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.{{cite web|url=http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm |title=Ethylene gas and produce |publisher=Mindfully.org |date=1 June 1976 |access-date=12 May 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100526120225/http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm| archive-date= 26 May 2010 | url-status= live}} The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry of Escondido, California, in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin", and moving on without making a purchase.{{Cite news

| author = Steve Chawkins

| title = Gil Henry dies at 88; revolutionized avocado industry; Henry pioneered the use of a 'ripening room' at his family's Escondido farm. The method, now an industry standard, allows markets to sell fruit that is ready to eat or close to it.

| work = Los Angeles Times

| access-date = 4 June 2013

| date = 3 June 2013

| url = http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-gil-henry-20130603,0,3688440.story

}} In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.

File:Seedless Avocado in Mexico.jpg

The species is only partially able to self-pollinate because of dichogamy in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated by grafting, having originated from random seedling plants or minor mutations derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollination are reduced. That is the case for programs at the University of California, Riverside, as well as the Volcani Centre and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.

The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.

• A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
• B cultivars: 'Fuerte', 'Sharwil', 'Zutano', 'Bacon', 'Ettinger', 'Sir Prize', 'Walter Hole'{{cite web|url = http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm|title = Agriculture Handbook|publisher = University of California|access-date = 29 December 2007|year = 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071217095028/http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm|archive-date = 17 December 2007}}{{cite web|url = http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213|title = Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape|publisher = University of Florida|first = JH|last = Crane|author2=Balerdi CF|author3=Maguire I|access-date = 29 December 2007|date = 1 August 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080113011328/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213| archive-date= 13 January 2008 | url-status= live}}

Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.{{cite web|url=http://www.soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|title=Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit|work=Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel|author1=Blumenfeld, Amos|author2=Gazit, Shmuel|access-date=21 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125180713/http://soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|archive-date=25 January 2014}} Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_33_1948/CAS_1948_PG_113-116.pdf|journal=California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook|author1=Stewart, W.S. |author2=Smoyer, K.M. |author3=Puffer, R.E. |title=Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados|access-date=21 September 2010|volume=33|pages=113–116}}

File:GrowingAvocadoFromSeed.JPG

File:Persea americana (Avocado) Sprout 08May2010.JPG

Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing.{{cite book|last=Boning|first=Charles|title=Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines|year=2006|publisher=Pineapple Press, Inc.|location=Sarasota, Florida|page=33}} The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting to rootstocks that are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or by layering (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar grows for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Advances in cloning techniques that can produce up to 500 new plants from a single millimetre of tree cutting have the potential to increase the availability of rootstocks.Hughes, Megan [https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2021-06-07/innovation-smashes-avocado-wait-times/100184924 Avocado tree wait times smashed thanks to world-first rootstock trial] ABC News, 7 June 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.

Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species. Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection, as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks. This is problematic, as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive, and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars. More recently, an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees.O'Brien, Christopher, Jayeni CA Hiti-Bandaralage, Alice Hayward, and Neena Mitter. "Avocado (Persea americana Mill.)." In Step Wise Protocols for Somatic Embryogenesis of Important Woody Plants, pp. 305–328. Springer, Cham, 2018.Nichols, Jennifer [https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2020-09-10/avocados-preservation-science-cryopreservation/12643822 Avocadoes of the future look secure thanks to Queensland student Chris O'Brien's cryogenics work] ABC News, 10 September 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.

File:20cm avocado leaf.JPG

The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a decorative houseplant. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can graft a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.{{Cite web|url=https://www.garden.eco/avocado-houseplant|title = Avocado Houseplant » Top Tips for Lush Indoor Foliage|date = 11 November 2017}}

{{main|List of avocado diseases}}

File:Persea americana.jpg

Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal, and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration.{{cite web |url=https://www.apsnet.org/publications/commonnames/Pages/Avocado.aspx |first1=H. D. |last1=Ohr |first2=M. D. |last2=Coffer |first3=R. T. |last3=McMillan |title=Diseases of Avocado (Persea americana Miller) |date=8 April 2003 |publisher=The American Phytopathological Society |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015622/https://www.apsnet.org/publications/commonnames/Pages/Avocado.aspx |archive-date=21 June 2018 }} The pyriform scale insect (Protopulvinaria pyriformis) is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida,{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/44552 |title=Protopulvinaria pyriformis (pyriform scale) |date=2021 |publisher=CABI |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.44552 |access-date=26 February 2020}} and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack by the scale than others.{{cite book|author1=Peña, Jorge E. |author2=Sharp, Jennifer L. |author3=Wysoki, M.|title=Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies, and Control |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_BSs0hrAPAC&pg=PA232 |year=2002 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-0-85199-976-0 |page=232}}

{{main|Avocado production in Mexico}}

Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer.{{cite web |url=http://www.novagrim.com/Pages/2000_2011_avocado_statistics_EN.aspx |title=2001–2013 World avocado production, 2000–2011 World Avocado Exports, 2002–2013 French avocado imports |publisher=Novagrim.com |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223071153/http://www.novagrim.com/Pages/2000_2011_avocado_statistics_EN.aspx |archive-date=23 February 2014 }} In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was {{convert|188,723|ha|acre|abbr=off}}, and the harvest was 2.03 million tonnes in 2017. The states that produce the most are México, Morelos, Nayarit, Puebla, and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence of drug cartels that extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2,000 Mexican pesos per hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit.{{cite web|url=http://aristeguinoticias.com/3010/mexico/templarios-ganan-2000-mdp-al-ano-extorsionando-a-aguacateros-en-michoacan/ |title=Templarios ganan 2,000 mdp al año extorsionando a aguacateros en Michoacán |trans-title=Templars earn 2,000 pesos a year extorting avocado in Michoacan |language=es |publisher=Aristegui Noticias |date=29 October 2013 |access-date=1 February 2014}} It is such a problem that the phrase blood guacamole has been adopted to describe the social effects in Mexico of the vast worldwide demand for its fruits.

Avocados were introduced to California from Nicaragua in the early 1850s, when avocado trees imported from the Central American country were observed and reported growing near San Gabriel.{{Cite web|url=https://avocado.ucr.edu/early-history-avocado-california|title= Early History of the Avocado in California}}{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20083015144|title= The Avocado|journal= CABI Databases}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.californiaavocadogrowers.com/sites/default/files/documents/13-World-Avocado-Production-Prospects-California-In-Transition-Fall-2020.pdf|title= World avocado production prospects in California}} The avocado has since become a successful cash crop. About {{convert|59000|acre|ha|order=flip|abbr=off}} – as of 2015, some 80% of United States avocado production – is located in Southern California.Sternbergh, Adam, "Avocados Are Toast", New York magazine, April 20 – May 3, 2015

Avocado is the official fruit of the state of California.{{Cite web|title=California State Foods Named By Gavin Newsom|publisher=Huffington Post, San Francisco|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/04/24/california-state-foods_n_3150928.html|date = 25 April 2013|access-date = 15 April 2015}} Fallbrook, California, claims, without official recognition, the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town of Uruapan in Mexico{{cite web |url=http://www.uruapaninteractivo.com/uruapan.htm |title=::Uruapan:: Uruapan, Michoacan, México |publisher=Uruapaninteractivo.com |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203004605/http://www.uruapaninteractivo.com/uruapan.htm |archive-date=3 February 2014 }}), and both it and Carpinteria, California, host annual avocado festivals.

The California Avocado Commission and the California Avocado Society are the two major grower organizations and Calavo Growers is a major distributor.

'Hass' avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru.{{cite web|url=http://www.freshplaza.com/article/129650/Peru-Record-avocado-production-saturated-the-markets-in-2014|title=Peru: Record avocado production saturated the markets in 2014|work=freshplaza.com|date=23 October 2014 }} Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to the European Union and the second largest supplier to Asia and the United States.{{Cite web|url=https://www.producebluebook.com/2019/01/10/peru-jumps-to-no-2-avocado-exporter-to-the-u-s/|title=Peru jumps to No.2 avocado exporter to the U.S.|date=10 January 2019|website=Produce Blue Book|language=en-US|access-date=3 February 2019}} The country's location near the equator and along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures all year.

'Hass' avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.

{{see also|Petorca water crisis|Laguna de Aculeo}}

Chile has produced avocados for over 100 years with production increasing dramatically in the early 1980s due to global demand. New York magazine reported in 2015 that "Large avocado growers are draining the country's groundwater and rivers faster than they can replenish themselves." 88% of total production and 99% of exported avocados from Chile are Hass avocados. Avocados are a staple fruit in Chile with 30% of production destined for the domestic market. No import tariffs are imposed on Chilean avocados by China, the United States, or the European Union due to free trade agreements.{{cite web |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Sergio |title=Avocado Annual 2018 |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Avocado%20Annual_Santiago_Chile_11-15-2018.pdf}}{{cite web |title=Avocados|url=https://fruitsfromchile.com/fruit/avocados/#:~:text=Chile%20has%20been%20growing%20commercial%20varieties%20of%20avocados,most%20production%20has%20shifted%20to%20the%20Hass%20variety. |website=Fruits From Chile}}

{{globalize|date=May 2022}}

• 'Choquette': File:Avocado cv Choquette.jpg A seedling from Miami, Florida. 'Choquette' bore large fruit of good eating quality in large quantities and had good disease resistance, and thus became a major cultivar. Today 'Choquette' is widely propagated in south Florida both for commercial growing and for home growing.{{Cite web|last1=Crane|first1=Jonathan H.|last2=Balerdi|first2=Carlos F.|last3=Maguire|first3=Ian|date=2018|title=Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape|url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mg213|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125190514/https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mg213|archive-date=2020-11-25|access-date=2021-01-10|website=edis.ifas.ufl.edu|language=English}}
• 'Gwen': A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' ({{convert|100|-|200|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=on|disp=or}}), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.{{Cite web|last=Sidnam|first=Bill|date=1992-04-26|title=Gwen Avocado Produces More in Less Space|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-04-26-re-1139-story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110224857/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-04-26-re-1139-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-10|access-date=2021-01-10|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}
• 'Hass': File:Hass avocado -white background.jpg The 'Hass' is the most common cultivar of avocado. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world.{{cite web|url=http://www.avocado.org/about/avocado-history/mother-tree|author=|title=The Hass Mother Tree: 1926–2002|work=Avocado.org|pages='About Avocados: History' section|publisher=California Avocado Commission|location=Irvine, CA|date=2008|access-date=27 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913165316/http://www.avocado.org/about/avocado-history/mother-tree|archive-date=13 September 2008}} All 'Hass' trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass, of La Habra Heights, California. Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died of root rot and was cut down in September 2002.[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-sep-07-me-avocado7-story.html "Avocado Tree's Demise Is the Pits for Growers; Fitting farewell sought for 'mother'"]. Los Angeles Times, 7 September 2003.
• 'Lula': A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Guatemalan and Mexican types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida.
• 'Maluma': A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
• 'Pinkerton': First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in Saticoy, California, in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}} and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
• 'Reed': Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Tree size is about {{convert|5|by|4|m|ft|frac=2|abbr=on}}.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

• 'Fuerte': Commercialized in the U.S. from budwood imported from Atlixco, Mexico in 1911,{{cite web |last1=Popenoe |first1=Wilson |title=California Avocado Society 1925-26 Yearbook: The Parent Fuerte Tree at Atlixco, Mexico |url=https://www.avocadosource.com/cas_yearbooks/cas_11_1925-26/cas_1925-26_pg_24-34.pdf |access-date=1 March 2023}} Fuerte was the dominant commercial variety in the U.S. for the first half of the 20th century.{{cite web |title=Fuerte Avocado |url=https://www.cooksinfo.com/fuerte-avocado |website=Cook's Info |access-date=28 February 2023}}
• 'Sharwil': Developed by James Cockburn Wilson (died 1990) with Frank Victor Sharpe in Tamborine Mountain, Queensland, Australia, in the 1950s, a portmanteau of Sharpe and Wilson.{{cite web |title=Talking avocados |url=https://avocado.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/TalkingAvocadosWinter1990Vol1No2scanned_001.pdf |website=Avocados Australia |publisher=Australian Avocado Growers' Federation |access-date=16 January 2022 |date=June 1990}} Wilson also developed the Willard variety (Wilson and Hazzard), imported the Reed variety into Australia, and developed the Shepard variety. Sharpe {{post-nominals|OBE}} was later awarded a CMG in 1972 for services to the avocado industry. The variety originated in Guatemala.{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article214554727 |title=Research plants stolen |newspaper=Hamersley News |volume=X |issue=17 |location=Western Australia |date=8 September 1977 |access-date=16 January 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}

Other avocado cultivars include 'Spinks'. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among horticulturists) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_10_1924-25/CAS_1924-25_PG_32-40.pdf |title=Cold Storage Behavior of Avocados |first=E. L. |last=Overholser |journal=California Avocado Association Annual Report |publisher=California Avocado Association |location=San Diego, California |date=1924–1925 |volume=10 |pages=32–40 |access-date=19 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730110709/http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_10_1924-25/CAS_1924-25_PG_32-40.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2013 }}

A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado", which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop.[https://www.independent.ie/life/food-drink/the-holy-grail-of-avocados-stoneless-hits-shops-for-a-limited-time-only-36387772.html The holy grail of avocados – stoneless – hits shops for a limited time only] The Sunday Independent, 10 December 2017. Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees.{{cite web|url=http://www.soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|title=Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit|work=Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel|author1=Blumenfeld, Amos|author2=Gazit, Shmuel|access-date=21 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125180713/http://soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|archive-date=25 January 2014}} Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_33_1948/CAS_1948_PG_113-116.pdf|journal=California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook|author1=Stewart, W.S. |author2=Smoyer, K.M. |author3=Puffer, R.E. |title=Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados|access-date=21 September 2010|volume=33|pages=113–116}}

{{main|List of countries by avocado production}}

In 2023, world production of avocados was 10.5 million tonnes, led by Mexico with 29% (3 million tonnes) of the total (table). Other major producers were Colombia, Dominican Republic, Peru, and Indonesia.

A 2024 market analysis indicated that avocado exports will increase over the next five years with as many as 30 countries producing avocados, possibly becoming the world's most traded fruit by 2030.{{cite web |last1=Meadows |first1=Andrew |title=Avocados will continue strong surge in 2025 and beyond |url=https://www.ajot.com/insights/full/ai-avocados-will-continue-strong-surge-in-2025-and-beyond |publisher=American Journal of Transportation |access-date=27 February 2025 |date=31 December 2024}}

Some people have allergic reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome,{{cite journal |vauthors=Brehler R, Theissen U, Mohr C, Luger T |date=April 1997 |title="Latex-fruit syndrome": frequency of cross-reacting IgE antibodies |journal=Allergy |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=404–410 |doi=10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb01019.x |pmid=9188921 |s2cid=27995880}} is related to latex allergy{{cite web |title=Latex allergy |url=http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Latex_allergy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227025420/http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Latex_allergy |archive-date=27 December 2011 |access-date=26 December 2011 |work=Better Health Channel}} and symptoms include generalised urticaria, abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.{{cite web |date=18 October 2006 |title=Avocado – allergy information (InformAll: Communicating about Food Allergies – University of Manchester) |url=http://research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk/informall/allergenic-food/?FoodId=4 |access-date=14 February 2017 |publisher=Inflammation-repair.manchester.ac.uk}}

Avocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit are documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits,{{cite web |author=Appleman, D. |year=1944 |title=Preliminary Report on Toxicity of Avocado Leaves |url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_29_1944/CAS_1944_PG_037.pdf |access-date=9 October 2012}} rats, guinea pigs, birds, fish, and horses{{cite web |date=30 June 2006 |title=Notes on poisoning: avocado |url=http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/pp/ppack.info?p_psn=238&p_type=all&p_sci=comm&p_x=px |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080114023756/http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/pp/ppack.info?p_psn=238&p_type=all&p_sci=comm&p_x=px |archive-date=14 January 2008 |access-date=29 December 2007 |publisher=Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility}} can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) lists it as toxic to horses.{{cite web |title=Avocado |url=http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/poison-control/plants/avocado.html |work=ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center}}

Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, persin, which in sufficient quantity can cause colic in horses and without veterinary treatment, death.{{cite journal |last1=Oelrichs |first1=Peter B |last2=Ng |first2=Jack C |last3=Seawright |first3=Alan A |last4=Ward |first4=Annemarie |last5=Schäffeler |first5=Lothar |last6=MacLeod |first6=John K |year=1995 |title=Isolation and identification of a compound from avocado (Persea americana) leaves which causes necrosis of the acinar epithelium of the lactating mammary gland and the myocardium |journal=Natural Toxins |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=344–349 |doi=10.1002/nt.2620030504 |pmid=8581318}} The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound.

The leaves of the Guatemalan variety of P. americana are toxic to goats, sheep, and horses.{{cite web |date=November 2010 |title=Livestock – Poisoning Plants of California, Publication 8398 |url=http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/-files/pdf/LivestockPoisoningPlantsNov2010.pdf |access-date=26 February 2018 |publisher=Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California}}

{{nutritional value

| name = Avocados, raw

| water = 73.23 g

| kJ = 670

| protein = 2 g

| fat = 14.66 g

| satfat = 2.13 g

| monofat = 9.80 g

| polyfat = 1.82 g

| carbs = 8.53 g

| fiber = 6.7 g

| sugars = 0.66 g

| calcium_mg = 12

| iron_mg = 0.55

| magnesium_mg = 29

| phosphorus_mg = 52

| potassium_mg = 485

| sodium_mg = 7

| zinc_mg = 0.64

| manganese_mg = 0.142

| opt1n = Fluoride

| opt1v = 7 µg

| opt2n = Beta-sitosterol

| opt2v = 76 mg

| vitC_mg = 10

| thiamin_mg = 0.067

| riboflavin_mg = 0.13

| niacin_mg = 1.738

| pantothenic_mg = 1.389

| vitB6_mg = 0.257

| folate_ug = 81

| vitA_ug = 7

| betacarotene_ug = 62

| lutein_ug = 271

| vitE_mg = 2.07

| vitK_ug = 21

| source_usda = 1

| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/1102652/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]

}}

Raw avocado flesh is 73% water, 15% fat, 9% carbohydrates, and 2% protein (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, avocado supplies {{convert|670|kJ|kcal|0|abbr=off}}, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins (such as 28% DV in pantothenic acid) and vitamin K (20% DV), with moderate contents (10–19% DV) of vitamin C, vitamin E, and potassium. Avocados also contain phytosterols and carotenoids, such as lutein and zeaxanthin.{{cite journal |vauthors=Dreher ML, Davenport AJ |year=2013 |title=Hass avocado composition and potential health effects |journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr |volume=53 |issue=7 |pages=738–750 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2011.556759 |pmc=3664913 |pmid=23638933}}

Avocados have diverse fats.{{cite web |year=2013 |title=Avocados, raw, all commercial varieties, per 100 grams |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fruits-and-fruit-juices/1843/2 |access-date=17 April 2013 |publisher=NutritionData.com}} For a typical one:

• About 75% of an avocado's energy comes from fat, most of which (67% of total fat) is monounsaturated fat as oleic acid (table).
• Other predominant fats include palmitic acid and linoleic acid.
• The saturated fat content amounts to 14% of the total fat.
• Typical total fat composition is roughly: 1% ω-3, 14% ω-6, 71% ω-9 (65% oleic and 6% palmitoleic), and 14% saturated fat (palmitic acid).

Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has a multitude of uses for salads or cooking and in cosmetics and soap products.

In 2022, a prospective cohort study following 110,487 people for 30 years found that eating two servings of avocado per week reduced the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases by 16–22%.{{cite journal |last1=Pacheco |first1=Lorena S. |last2=Li |first2=Yanping |last3=Rimm |first3=Eric B. |last4=Manson |first4=JoAnn E. |last5=Sun |first5=Qi |last6=Rexrode |first6=Kathryn |last7=Hu |first7=Frank B. |last8=Guasch-Ferré |first8=Marta |date=5 April 2022 |title=Avocado Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in US Adults |journal=Journal of the American Heart Association |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=e024014 |doi=10.1161/jaha.121.024014 |issn=2047-9980 |pmc=9075418 |pmid=35352568 |doi-access=free}} The study involved replacing half a daily serving of saturated fat sources, including margarine, butter, egg, yogurt, cheese, or processed meats, with an equivalent amount of avocado.

{{Cookbook}}{{See also|List of avocado dishes}}

The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostly monounsaturated fat, and as such serves as an important staple in the diet of consumers who have limited access to other fatty foods (high-fat meats and fish, dairy products). Having a high smoke point, avocado oil is expensive compared to common salad and cooking oils, and is mostly used for salads or dips.

A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone to enzymatic browning, quickly turning brown after exposure to air.{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Fruit & Nuts|year=2008|publisher=CABI|location=Oxfordshire, England|isbn=978-0-85199-638-7|page=440|editor=Jules Janick}} To prevent this, lime or lemon juice can be added to avocados after peeling.

The fruit is not sweet, but distinctly and subtly flavored, with smooth texture. It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is common in vegetarian cuisine as a substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.

Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common 'Hass', can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. The flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1970.tb00962.x |title=Heat-Induced Off-Flavor in Avocado Flesh |journal=Journal of Food Science |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=478–482 |year=1970 |last1=Bates |first1=Robert P }}

It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known as guacamole, as well as a spread on corn tortillas or toast, served with spices. Avocado is a primary ingredient in avocado soup. Avocado slices are frequently added to hamburgers and tortas and is a key ingredient in California rolls and other makizushi ("maki", or rolled sushi).

File:Sliced avocado.jpg|Sliced avocado

File:Guacomole.jpg|A guacamole mix (right) used as a dip for tortilla chips (left)

File:2014 avocado salad tomato salsa toasted baguette.jpg|Avocado toast

File:Avocado lamaw (Avocado in milk and sugar, chilled or with ice), Philippines 04.jpg|Avocado in milk and sugar, a traditional dish from the Philippines where avocados are regarded as a dessert fruit, rather than savory

File:IndonesianFood JusAlpokat.JPG|Indonesian-style avocado milkshake with chocolate syrup

File:2015-08-08 09.11.34 unusual avocado (the fertility testicle fruit) variety from Cebu Philippines 2.jpg|Unusual avocado variety from Cebu, Philippines

File:Mocha almond fudge avocado cake (4673005762).jpg|A mocha almond fudge avocado layer cake. Avocado is present within the layers of the cake.

In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. They are also commonly added to pozole. In Peru, they are consumed with tequeños as mayonnaise, served as a side dish with parrillas, used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree-like sauce with chicken, hamburgers, and hot dogs; and in slices for celery or lettuce salads. The Chilean version of Caesar salad contains large slices of mature avocado.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish-speaking countries such as Chile, Mexico, or Argentina, where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are rare. With the exception of the Philippines, a former Spanish colony where avocados are traditionally used in sweet preparations and savory uses are seen as exotic.{{cite news |last1=Malasig |first1=Jeline |title=Is this the best way to eat avocado westerners aren't aware of? |url=https://interaksyon.philstar.com/lifestyle/2018/05/22/127241/viral-tweet-avocado-different-culture/ |access-date=1 January 2023 |work=Interaksyon |date=22 May 2018}}

In the Philippines (where avocados were introduced from Mexico since before the 1700s), Brazil, Indonesia, Vietnam, and southern India (especially the coastal Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka region), avocados are frequently used for milkshakes and occasionally added to ice cream and other desserts.{{Cite web|url=https://www.avoseedo.com/around-the-world-culinary-tour-with-avocados/|title = Around the world culinary tour with avocados – AvoSeedo|date = 20 October 2015}} In Brazil, the Philippines{{cite web|last = Zeldes|first = Leah A.|title = Eat this! The 'Hass' avocado, black and green and creamy|work = Dining Chicago|publisher = Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc.|date = 2 June 2010|url = http://www.diningchicago.com/blog/2010/06/02/eat-this-the-hass-avocado-black-and-green-and-creamy/|access-date = 20 June 2010|archive-date = 21 September 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150921212023/http://www.diningchicago.com/blog/2010/06/02/eat-this-the-hass-avocado-black-and-green-and-creamy/}} Vietnam, and Indonesia, a dessert drink is made with sugar, milk or water, and pureed avocado. Chocolate syrup is sometimes added. In Morocco, a similar chilled avocado and milk drink is sweetened with confectioner's sugar and flavored with a touch of orange flower water.

In Ethiopia, avocados are made into juice by mixing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served with Vimto and a slice of lemon. It is also common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally called Spris) made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas, and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads. In Kenya and Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit alone or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad. In Ghana, they are often eaten alone on sliced bread as a sandwich. In Sri Lanka, their well-ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed or pureed with milk and kitul treacle (a liquid jaggery made from the sap of the inflorescence of jaggery palms), is a common dessert.{{cite book|author=Lim T. K.|title=Edible Medicinal And Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 3, Fruits|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32rWbxUtjeMC&pg=PA82|year= 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-94-007-2534-8|page=82}} In Haiti, they are often consumed with cassava or regular bread for breakfast.

In the United Kingdom, the avocado became available during the 1960s when introduced by Sainsbury's under the name 'avocado pear'. Much of the success of avocados in the UK is attributed to a long-running promotional campaign initiated by South African growers in 1995.{{cite news |last1=Saner |first1=Emine |title=Ripe and ready: how 'evil geniuses' got us hooked on avocados |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/nov/02/avocados-ripe-ready-evil-geniuses-hooked |access-date=3 October 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=2 November 2015}} In Australia and New Zealand, avocados are commonly served on sandwiches, sushi, toast, or with chicken.

File:Green avocado foliage (Persea americana).jpg.]]

In addition to the fruit, the leaves of Mexican avocados (Persea americana var. drymifolia) are used in some cuisines as a spice, with a flavor somewhat reminiscent of anise.{{Cite journal|last=Thomas E. Weil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4EVGAAAAMAAJ|title=Area Handbook for Chile (Area handbook series) |journal = Pamphlet|volume =550|issue =77 |issn=0892-8541|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office (Digitized: 16 August 2007)|year=1969|location=United States|pages=104|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200721120131/https://books.google.com.my/books/about/Area_Handbook_for_Chile.html?id=4EVGAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y|archive-date = 21 July 2020}} They are sold both dried and fresh, toasted before use, and either crumbled or used whole, commonly in bean dishes.{{Cite book|author=Diana Kennedy|title=Oaxaca Al Gusto: An Infinite Gastronomy|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|page=426|isbn=978-0-292-72266-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vY4j3OIDMeoC&pg=PA426}}

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

• California Avocado Commission
• California Avocado Society
• Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. v. Paul
• Guacamole
• List of avocado dishes
• Plant propagation
• Recalcitrant seed

{{div col end}}

{{notelist}}

{{Clear}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{Cite book |editor=Bruce Shaffer |editor2=B. Nigel Wolstenhome |editor3=Anthony W. Whiley |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r0hpRJca3zEC |title=The Avocado: Botany, Production and Uses |publisher=CABI |isbn=9781845937010}}

{{Sister project links |auto=no |c=yes |cookbook=yes |n=no |q=no |s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Avocado Pear |species=Persea americana |v=no |wikt=yes}}

• [http://www.ucavo.ucr.edu/AvocadoVarieties/VarietyFrame.html#Anchor-47857 Definitive illustrated list of avocado varieties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309191347/http://www.ucavo.ucr.edu/AvocadoVarieties/VarietyFrame.html#Anchor-47857 |date=9 March 2021 }}
• [https://www.californiaavocado.com/ California Avocado Commission]
• [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/avocado.html Avocados beyond Persea americana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107033301/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/avocado.html |date=7 November 2006 }}, California Rare Fruit Growers

{{Avocados}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q37153}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Crops originating from Mexico

Category:Crops originating from South America

Category:Crops originating from the Americas

Category:Fruit trees

Category:Persea

Category:Trees of Belize

Category:Trees of Costa Rica

Category:Trees of Guatemala

Category:Trees of Honduras

Category:Trees of Northern America

Category:Trees of Nicaragua

Category:Tropical agriculture

Category:Tropical fruit

Category:Cloud forest flora of Mexico